A CRISIS ACTJVITJES. xzzxa. XXZZ The Ri voi itiox Begums. Led by the philosophes, many 72 CHAPTER 3

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1 ACTJVITJES 1. Create a hall of fame for the philosophes that illustrates why they were important to the French Revolution. Construct a panel out of cardboard or, some stiff material to hold the display. You could make a photo collage that includes all the philosophes and use display type around the collage to discuss the contributions of each" thinker. Or you could display individual photos, with a brief description underneath. 2. Browse through some newspapers and magazines in your school library. With a partner, collect clippings about trends, events, and attitudes that would appeal to Rousseau. Collect other clippings that show how the scientific method has permanently altered our way of thinking. Paste your clippings on poster paper, under appropriate titles. XXZZ The Ri voi itiox Begums xzzxa republican government: a government in which all power rests with the citizens who vote to elect their leaders A CRISIS All the money spent by Louis XIV and his successors came mostly from taxing and exploiting the lower and middle classes, not from profits made in new business. During the reign of Louis XVI, France was almost bankrupt. The revolution was close at hand. Led by the philosophes, many French people openly expressed their displeasure with the government sometimes with riots. The royal court split into two groups, one that supported the king and changes to the economy, and another that supported Marie Antoinette and more power for the nobles. The middle class, the working class, and a few aristocrats demanded some kind of democracy, much like the limited democracy that had existed in England for almost a century. Many French officers and soldiers had taken part in the American Revolution (France had helped the American colonists fight against Britain). The Americans were democratic in their views and had made a point of protecting the freedoms of the individual, which were outlined in the American Declaration of Independence (see page 48 for excerpts). To the philosophes and their followers, France was embarrassingly backward. Compared to the absolute monarchy of France, the republican government of America or even the constitutional monarchy of England seemed much more advanced. France's problems were made worse by a series of famines and other disasters in the 1780s. Thousands of French people were close to starvation. Families, the most important institution in society, broke up because parents could not provide for their children. During this period, more than children were abandoned each year. Britain's Industrial Revolution which you will read about in more detail in Chapter 5 was also putting French people out of work. For the first time, textiles could be made with the assistance of machines and imported cheaply, so fewer hands were needed. Unemployment was one of the government's most serious problems. France's unemployed people were starving, and were very unhappy, with nothing to lose. They demanded change, and they wanted it 72 CHAPTER 3

2 Figure 3-18 This sketch depicts the life of the very poor before the revolution. This man is competing with several dogs for the carcass of an animal. List all the evidence in the sketch that communicates how hard life was. Do think this picture is an exaggeration? Why or why not? soon. During the revolution, the Paris mob, as it was called, was violent and unpredictable. It supported some extreme measures that resulted in the coming Reign of Terror. Louis responded by allowing critics of the government to be imprisoned or, occasionally, killed. When crowds rioted in Paris against the high price of bread, the king's troops responded by shooting several dozen people. The king's popularity fell even lower. When he had begun his reign, people thought he could save France. Now, he had no solutions to offer. Even his supporters were disappointed. Desperate for money and ideas, he called together the representatives of the people, the Estates General, to try to find solutions to France's problems. Figure 3-19 This cartoon means something if you know that French aristocrats paid few taxes and lived off wealth created by peasants and workers. To people of the day, it needed no caption. How would this cartoon be perceived by a French aristocrat in the eighteenth century? How do you think he or she would justify their lifestyle? THE ESTATES GENERAL We will not leave except by force of the bayonet! -COUNT MIRABEAU, AT THE ESTATES GENERAL FOR THE THIRD ESTATE France had a kind of parliament known as the "Estates General," which met only as a result of a royal command. The Estates General REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 73

3 bloc: a group Figure 3-20 Why has the artist paid so much attention to the surroundings in this drawing of Tennis Court Oath? Why do you think the delegates are so small by included representatives from the three estates (or social levels) of France. The members of the First Estate were the clergy. Aristocrats formed the Second Estate. The middle class made up the Third Estate. The Estates General met very seldom in fact, their last meeting had been held in 1614! Although the Third Estate had twice as many delegates as either of the other two estates, each estate voted as a bloc. This meant that the privileged classes, the aristocrats, and the clergy, had twice as much voting power as the middle class. Louis XVI called the Estates General together only when his government was in a serious crisis. His controller general of finances, A. R. Turgot, had tried to reform the economy but had been forced out of office by Marie Antoinette. Now the country was bankrupt. Louis ordered the Estates General to meet at Versailles in He and his new director of the treasury, Jacques Necker, hoped that this meeting would help raise money and put an end to widespread rioting. Louis realized that the representatives gathered would want some say in government. However, he was not prepared to surrender his absolute power to the people. Instead, he planned to give the Estates some small, token responsibilities, such as allowing them a say in fixing the tax system. But when the Estates General finally met in May, its members would not bow to the king's wishes. Despite some internal conflicts, there was still great hope that progress would be made toward democracy in France. THE SPIRIT OF REVOLUTION GROWS Ordinary people in France sensed that great things were happening and quickly caught the revolutionary spirit. Thousands crowded the town of Versailles, anxious to learn the latest news and anxious, too, for democracy. People knew that history was being made. They had great expectations of the delegates who were meeting to decide the fate of France. After six weeks of little progress, the Third Estate broke with the other Estates. Led by Count Mirabeau, a brilliant speaker and leader, its members declared that they would form a new government known as the National Assembly. Their real goal was a new constitution for France. Delegates 74 CHAPTER 3

4 retreated to the Royal Tennis Courts, angry after the king tried to lock up the site of their meeting. Here they took the the Tennis Court Oath, a pledge that they would continue meeting until France had a new form of government. Louis responded with some democratic reforms, but his offer was rejected. He was forced to back down and order the other two estates to join the National Assembly. Joyful crowds filled the streets of Versailles and Paris. It seemed certain that the French Revolution had been a success. THE FALL OF THE BASTILLE The calm did not last long. More riots, over the high price of bread, broke out in Paris and other cities. The mob began attacking the city's prisons in a bid to free political prisoners. The revolution was quickly going beyond the control of its original leaders and taking on a life of its own. Louis responded by sending foreign mercenary troops to Paris and Versailles. People assumed that the king would use the soldiers against the revolution and began to arm themselves. On July 14, 1789, a great mob attacked the royal prison and fortress known as "the Bastille." Troops sent to disperse the mob joined it instead, and the Bastille was soon captured. There were only seven prisoners in the Bastille, but they were all released. The mob cut off the governor's head and paraded it through the streets. The fall of the Bastille frightened Louis. He agreed to send his mercenary soldiers away. Citizens, determined to keep order in Paris, formed a new army called the "National Guard," which was commanded by the Marquis de Lafayette, a hero of the American Revolution. Figure 3-22 Many North Americans of French heritage also celebrate democracy on July 14 Bastille Day. Bastille Day commemorates the fall of the Bastille prison, and the official beginning of the French Revolution. Festivities include fireworks, concerts, parties, cultural events, and military displays. Figure 3-21 The Bastille represented the power of the king and was suspected of holding many political prisoners. It was attacked and destroyed, with the help of rebel French soldiers. Why do you think the people of Paris destroyed the Bastille when the revolution seemed to be going so well? mercenary: a paid soldier cockade: an ornament worn on top of a hat DID YOU KNOW? In honour of the French Revolution, the National Guard and the people wore red, white, and blue cockades and sashes. Later, when Louis visited Paris and met with its new mayor, he too wore a revolutionary cockade. He was greeted with cheers of Vive le Roi "Long Live the King"). REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 75

5 chateaux: the mansions and great estates of the rich Figure 3-23 Study this map for a few moments, then review Figures 3-2 and 3-4 on pages 57 and 58. Suggest some reasons why peasants living in Normandy, Brittany, and Flanders might not have been supporters of the revolution. THE CREAT FEAR PARIS AND THE Although the revolution had occurred KING mostly in Paris and Versailles, revolutionary feelings spread quickly. In the countryside, peasants were aware that enormous changes were taking place, but they were also fearful. They believed that the king's soldiers and the aristocrats would stop the revolution. These feelings resulted in a panic called the "Great Fear," which spread rapidly through parts of rural France. Peasants stormed the chateaux of the aristocrats, burned them to the ground, and killed hundreds of people. They invaded offices and burned feudal certificates and papers that recorded their obligations to the lords. The Great Fear spread through large areas of France (see Figure 3-23), but did not really affect isolated Normandy or Brittany, the peninsulas to the south of the English Channel. Nor did it affect the lowlands of Flanders. Many people from these regions did not support the revolution. Look back at Figures 3-2 and 3-3 (on pages 57 and 58) and suggest some reasons why this was the case. On August 4, 1789, the National Assembly met in Versailles. In one stroke, it abolished all feudal rights and privileges and ended serfdom. Next, it declared all people equal before the law. These changes were extraordinary. Much had been accomplished in a short time, but people began to feel that the king and the assembly might be out of touch with conditions in the cities. They felt that the government needed to come to Paris, and not be isolated in Versailles. Nor could the assembly solve the continuing food crisis, felt most acutely by women and children. In October, crowds of women meeting in Paris decided to march to Versailles to meet the king, a distance of approximately 50 kilometres. As they marched, the women were joined by hundreds of others and followed, at a distance, by Lafayette and the National Guard. In Versailles, the women covered in mud from their walk attacked the National Assembly and stormed the palace. Reluctantly, the queen and king appeared and agreed to go back to Paris. ATLANTIC OCEAN km,, tv DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN ANDTHE CITIZEN p I Area of the Great Fear revolts. 1 1 July 1789 A Counterrevolutionary centre, Antirevolutionary forces Prorevolutionary forces (ot Area of the Vendee uprising, tka 1793 French frontier, 1793 SPAIN MEDITERRANEAN SEA Later in August, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was passed by the National Assembly, which now met in Paris. This document, like the American Declaration of Independence, sets out basic human rights that governments may not overlook. It contains ideas 76 CHAPTER 3

6 Figure 3-24 There are many paintings and drawings of the march to Versailles, but this is one of the most famous. What might the woman in the gold dress be thinking? What about the woman who is tugging her arm? taken from English philosopher John Locke and the philosophes you learned about in this chapter Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau. The declaration guaranteed freedom of thought, speech, religion, security, and property, and it put limits on the power of the government. Once in Paris, the National Assembly worked quickly to establish a new constitution. Most of the old system was swept away, and all noble titles were declared obsolete. Everyone was given the title "citizen." The government seized control of the Church and its property. Certificates of money, called assignats, were issued, to be redeemed when Church lands were sold. The new government believed it was well on its way to solving the country's financial problems. In the meantime, Louis had noticed that many aristocrats were departing for other countries, such as England and Switzerland. These emigres were working outside France to restore the old system. In 1791, the queen and king and their children tried to escape from the country in disguise. Louis's motive was to obtain foreign aid in order to restore his monarchy. This was the worst thing he could do. It proved that the monarchy would not support the democratic changes that had occurred, and that they could not be trusted. The royal family was recognized at Varennes, arrested, and imprisoned. Louis was forced to accept France's new constitution. The newly formed Legislative Assembly convened for the first time on October 1, It tried to establish a workable government, but it was doomed to failure; too many groups were struggling for power. Radicals wanted a republic,- moderates wanted a constitutional monarchy,- and monarchists wanted to restore most of the king's powers. Could the revolution ever survive? DID YOU KNOW? In documents such as the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen and the American Declaration of Independence, the word "man" means everybody, regardless of sex. constitution: a document that sets out the major laws and principles of a government emigres: people who leave one country for another radical: someone who wants major change quickly REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 77

7 A French Reelaration and a Canadian Charter Here years are apart: excerpts the from French two Declaration documents of the written Rights 200 of Man and the Citizen, and The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, enshrined in the Canadian constitution in How are they similar? How are they different? The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen The representatives of the French people, constituted as a National Assembly, considering that ignorance, forgetfulness, or contempt for the rights of man are the sole causes of public misery and the corruption of governments, have resolved to set forth in a solemn declaration the natural, inalienable, and sacred rights of man... Article 1 Men are born and remain free and equal in rights... Article 4 Liberty consists of the freedom to do all that does not injure others... limits can only be determined by law. Article 7 No man can be accused, arrested, or detained except in cases determined by law... Article 9 Every man is presumed innocent until he is declared guilty... Article 10 No one should be disturbed because of his opinions, even in religion, provided their manifestation does not disturb public order as established by law. Today, we use the terms "right," "left," and "centre" to describe the views of politicians and other people. These terms are a heritage of the French Revolution. At that time, delegates to the French National Assembly took seats to the right or left of the speaker's podium, DID YOU KNOW? depending on their political ideas. Those on the right wanted to keep the king and have a strong monarchy. The centre wanted a constitutional monarchy. Those on the left wanted a republic; some even wanted the death of the king. Excerpts from the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Whereas Canada is founded upon principles that recognize the supremacy of God and the rule of law; 1. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees the rights and freedoms set out in it subject only to such reasonable limits prescribed by law as can be demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society 2. Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms: a) freedom of conscience and religion; b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication; c) freedom of peaceful assembly; and d) freedom of association. 3. Every citizen of Canada has the right to vote in an election of members of the House of Commons or a legislative assembly and to be qualified for membership therein. 6. Every citizen of Canada has the right to enter, remain in, and leave Canada. 7. Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and security of the person and the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with the principles of fundamental justice. 9. Everyone has the right not to be arbitrarily detained or imprisoned. 12. Everyone has the right not to be subjected to any cruel or unusual punishment. inalienable: something that cannot be taken away or transferred 78 CHAPTER 3

8 Figure 3-25 Diagram of the French National Assembly ACTIVITIES 1. Imagine you are a delegate to the Estates General. Write a statement explaining why you, as a representative of one of the Estates, will or will not cooperate with the king? 2. Women played important roles in the years leading up to the revolution. Using three headings Leadership, Action, and Lasting Impact itemize the accomplishments of individuals or groups of women. 3. Compare the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen with the English Bill of Rights (see page 47). Are they similar? In what ways? 4. With a partner, create a role play that explains the reasons behind the March on Versailles or the Great Fear. First, write some dialogue for people who have opposing views of these events. You could start by creating some dialogue between the two women noted in the caption of Figure Flow do you know that the woman in the gold dress is reluctant? 5. Canvass your teachers or parents and find out which modern politicians and political parties would be called left-wing, centre, or right-wing. List some of these. 6. Like left-wing parties in revolutionary France, those in Canada want social change. What changes do they want? What are the main goals of right-wing parties? REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 79

9 A Ri volitiov Devours its Owv Children Revolution seemed to turn on its leaders. A split occurred between In its moderates final stages, and radicals, the French and leaders who wanted less than a full revolutionary republic fell under suspicion. They were arrested and executed as the revolution entered a new and violent phase. THE POLITICAL CLUBS Democracy was new to France and many traditions had yet to be established. There were no political parties, for example. Instead, people joined a political club to be with people who shared their views. Clubs published pamphlets and held regular meetings. Eventually, they would lead of the revolution. Two of the most important clubs were the Girondists, many of whose members came from an area of France called the "Gironde," and the Jacobins, who met at the Paris monastery of Saint Jacques. Both clubs started out moderate and middle-class. In fact, the Girondists were originally a branch of the Jacobin Club. Though the Girondists originally wanted sweeping changes in government, they were viewed as too conservative by some revolutionaries. The Jacobins became radical and were responsible for the coming Reign of Terror. The two factions became involved in a power struggle, which the Girondists lost. Most of them were sent to the guillotine. THE SANS CULOTTES The sans-culottes were mostly poor people from Paris and the larger cities. They resented the bourgeoisie and were against reforms that would benefit the business class. Instead, they wanted the national government to lower prices and supply bread to the poor. The sans-culottes were very violent. They formed mobs that roamed Paris, attacking anything or anybody suspected of being against the revolution. The sans-culottes supported the radicals who wanted to execute the king and aristocrats. They were led by the fiery pamphlet writer, Jean-Paul Marat. They considered the leaders of the original revolution to be far too moderate, and arrested and guillotined many well-intentioned people, including Madame Roland, a leader of the Girondists. (For more on Madame Roland, see page 65.) MARAT, DANTON, AND ROBESPIERRE Jean-Paul Marat, Jacques Danton, and Maximilien Robespierre were the radical leaders of the revolution. They were opposed to any deals with the monarchy, and were prepared to bring the king to trial and execution. They set out to destroy anyone who seemed to have sympathy for the old system. Marat, the most radical of the three, was murdered in his bath by Charlotte Corday, a Girondist, in 80 CHAPTER 3

10 (crosscurrents) Fashion and Politics The says manner a great in which deal about people who dress they are and who they think they are. Today, people often dress a certain way to display their identity, or as a way of showing that they identify with a certain group. During the French Revolution, the sans-culottes (literally, "without britches") were the poorest class. They identified themselves by refusing to wear the knee breeches worn by the rich. Instead they wore long trousers. They also wore special caps, the same as those worn in ancient Rome by freed slaves. Fashion designers also caught the spirit of change. Before the revolution, rich people, including children, dressed in elaborate, stiff clothing. They wore enormous wigs made of human hair. During the eighteenth century, many women began styling their own hair and wore simpler dresses based on designs from ancient Greece and Rome. They chose this period of history because it represented the noble ideals of good government and freedom. Figure 3-27 This woman and little girl belong to the bourgeoisie. They would be trying to imitate the style of the court at Versailles. Their costumes would have been entirely hand-made of the most costly fabrics. Notice how the girl is dressed as a tiny adult. Like most men and women of the period, they wear wigs made of human hair, which was probably bought from a young peasant woman. Today, hair for wigs is bought from women who live in developing nations. Figure 3-26 The sans-culottes distinguished themselves from the bourgeoisie by wearing distinctive clothing in this case, long pants instead of short breeches. WHAT DO YOU THINK? 1. How would the clothing shown in Figure 3-28 change the lifestyle of women used to wearing the clothing shown in Figure 3-27? 2. Do you think it is still possible for one person to start a fashion trend? Can you give an example? 3. Name three groups in society and summarize the main features of their clothing that help to identify them. Figure 3-28 This family wears clothing in the "modern" style of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Notice the simple clothing and natural hair. This portrait was painted by Vigee-Lebrun. i REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 81

11 Figure 3-29 This gold enamel pocket watch features the portraits of Robespierre and Marat. As a young lawyer, Robespierre was opposed to the death penalty, but as a leader of the revolution he agreed to the executions of hundreds of people. Robespierre also tried to protect the queen and many Girondists, but failed. Yet he demanded the execution of Danton and other revolutionaries. What might have been his motives? Danton and Robespierre, with the help of important Jacobins, would eventually take control of the National Assembly and the revolution. THE REVOLUTIONARY WARS By now, many European regimes were nervous about what was happening in France. It became obvious that the country was about to be invaded by forces that included many European emigres who wanted to restore the king's power. France declared war on Austria in the spring of Even though the French lost the first battles, the people's faith in the revolution never waned. In fact, the opposite happened. Marat, Danton, Robespierre, and others made patriotic speeches, telling the people that foreign troops would destroy the country and all their hard-earned rights. Finally, at Valmy, the French armies won a victory. Figure 3-30 This painting of Marat is by Jacques Louis David, a former court painter for Louis XVI. In this picture, Marat is made to look almost like a saint. He is seated in a bathtub because he contracted a skin disease while hiding in the sewers of Paris and the bath relieved his discomfort. He holds a note from his assassin, Charlotte Corday. The knife wound is also clearly visible. What conclusions can you draw about David's politics from viewing this painting? 82 CHAPTER 3 imi

12 THE ENDOFTHE MONARCHY The war and other events had made many people even more suspicious of the royal family. A newly elected body the National Convention decided that the king should be tried for his crimes against the country and executed. He had already been removed from the royal palace, which had been sacked and burned by the Paris mob. The king, now called "Citizen Louis Capet," was tried for his crimes and found guilty. He was guillotined January 21, Marie Antoinette was guillotined in October. DID YOU KNOW? The guillotine was originally Invented by a humane doctor to stop the suffering of condemned prisoners. It became an ideal killing machine for the revolution. In Paris, over 1500 people were guillotined in two months in 1794 an astonishing number. This comes eyewitness to us from account Henry Essex Edgemont de Firmont, the man who led Louis XVI to his execution. Louis was executed by the guillotine. Figure 3-31 The movie Dead Man Walking recounts the true-life story of an American nun (played by Susan Sarandon) who opposes the death penalty. Canada abolished the death penalty in Examine the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (page 78) and the English Bill of Rights (page 47). Can you find the phrase that would support the abolition of the death penalty? The path leading to the guillotine was extremely rough and difficult to pass; the king was obliged to lean on my arm, and from the slowness with which he proceeded, I feared for a moment that his courage might fail; but what was my astonishment, when arrived at the last step, I felt him suddenly let go my arm, and I saw him cross with a firm foot the breadth of the whole scaffold;... I heard him pronounce distinctly these memorable words: "1 die innocent of all the crimes laid to my charge: 1 pardon those who have occasioned my death; and I pray to God that the blood you are going to shed may never be visited on France." He was proceeding when a man on horseback, in the national uniform, and with a ferocious cry, ordered the drums to beat. Many voices were at the same time encouraging the executioners... [who] in seizing with violence the most virtuous of kings, they dragged him under the axe of the guillotine, which at one stoke severed his head from his body... the youngest of the guards, who seemed about eighteen, immediately seized the head, and showed it to the people as he walked around the scaffold... some cries of "Vive la Republique" were heard. By degrees the voices multiplied, and... this cry, a thousand times repeated, became the universal shout of the multitude, and every hat was in the air. scaffold: the raised platform for the guillotine or gallows REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 83