HONORS WORLD HISTORY PREPARATORY ASSIGNMENTS Sources of Our Democratic Tradition

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1 HONORS WORLD HISTORY PREPARATORY ASSIGNMENTS Sources of Our Democratic Tradition Grade Ten California History-Social Science Content Standards World History, Culture, and Geography: The Modern World Students in grade ten study major turning points that shaped the modern world, from the late eighteenth century through the present, including the cause and course of the two world wars. They trace the rise of democratic ideas and develop an understanding of the historical roots of current world issues, especially as they pertain to international relations. They extrapolate from the American experience that democratic ideals are often achieved at a high price, remain vulnerable, and are not practiced everywhere in the world. Students develop an understanding of current world issues and relate them to their historical, geographic, political, economic, and cultural contexts. Students consider multiple accounts of events in order to understand international relations from a variety of perspectives. California State Content Standard: 10.1 Students relate the moral and ethical principles in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, in Judaism, and in Christianity to the development of Western political thought Analyze the similarities and differences in Judeo-Christian and Greco-Roman views of law, reason and faith, and duties of the individual. ASSIGNMENTS: Complete the following: 1. Research the list of vocabulary terms below before the end of your first week of school. You should have a good working knowledge of each term and be prepared for a quiz on them. We ll begin the year by examining the four foundations of Western Political Thought (Greek-Jew-Roman-Christian), and the development of our democracy, thus your research should focus on how the terms below relate to these areas. 2. Read through The Rise Of Democratic Ideals to give you some background on California Social Science Content Standard Read through the Declaration of Independence several times to gain a good working knowledge of the document, as it will serve as the basis for our units covering California Social Science Content Standard 10.1 & Read the paper entitled The Development of Western Political Thought-Honors, and then answer the close reading questions below. The Greek Roots of Democracy The Roman Republic and Empire Principles of Judaism Rise of Christianity Aristotle Aristotle s Politics Athens City-state Democracy Drachma Jury Legislature Monarchy Pericles (w/funeral Oration) Plato Plato s Republic Socrates Sparta Tyrant Augustus Caesar Carthage Consul Dictator Julius Caesar Patricians Pax Romana Plebeians Republic Senate Tribune Veto Denarius Abraham Covenant Diaspora Ethics Jerusalem Monotheism Moses Polytheism Prophet Sabbath The Ten Commandments Genesis 1:27 Genesis 9:6 Apostle Clergy Constantine Jesus Messiah Paul Luke 20:22-25 Romans 13:1-2 James 3:9 I won t lie to you; this class will be challenging, but I promise that it will be unlike ANY History class you ve EVER taken. Mr. Thompson 1

2 THE RISE OF DEMOCRATIC IDEALS Throughout history, people have recognized the need for a system for exercising authority, specifically for the purpose of governing. Historically, the primary form of governance has been totalitarian in nature. Self-Determination, what we would call self-rule or Democracy, did not suddenly burst onto the scene of History, but rather evolved slowly through various contributions from both individuals and groups. The development of Western political thought borrowed from four pillars: From the Greeks we advanced a codified written system of laws. From the Romans we employed their Rule of Law. From the Jews and Christians we derived our belief in man s worth and dignity extending the Greek view of Natural Rights. Read over the following and try to wrap your head around the notion that Democracy (Western Political Thought) is an historical process that took thousands of years to develop, and is still developing. Draco: Code of Laws Beginning with the Greeks circa 620 BC: An Athenian ruler named Draco (the Lawgiver) wrote the first known written law of Ancient Greece. His harsh legal code punished both trivial and serious crimes in Athens with death--hence the continued use of the word DRACONIAN to describe repressive legal measures. Today the word draconian can be used to mean harsh or severe in many contexts. Draco's laws were so shockingly severe that they were said to have been written not in ink but in blood. Solon: Revised Code of Laws Solon succeeded Draco circa 594 BC. Solon revised each of Draco s statutes (except that of homicide) and made Athenian law altogether more humane. His code, though supplemented and modified, remained the foundation of Athenian statute law until the end of the 5th century, and parts of it were embodied in the new codification made at that time. Today, our idea of cruel and unusual punishment stems from Solon s reforms of Draco s Laws. Legacy of Greece Greece set lasting standards in politics and philosophy. The Greeks did not rely on superstition or traditional explanations of the world. Instead they used reason and intelligence to discover predictable patterns that they called Natural Laws. Because the Greeks did not wish to be subject to authoritarian rulers, they developed a system of direct democracy so citizens could actively participate in political decisions. Other contributions of the Greeks were in mathematics, literature, theatre, astronomy, science, medicine, architecture and the Olympic Games. Famous people included Socrates, Aristotle, Plato, Hippocrates, Pythagoras, Pericles, Archimedes, and Eratosthenes. Legacies of Rome The Romans established Rule of Law and Equal Justice. They accomplished this by creating a system of written laws that were applied to all people under Roman rule. This created stability and unity in the Roman Empire. We can see the influence of Rome's laws on our system of democracy from the following borrowed principles: Equal treatment under the law The burden of proof rests with the accuser Innocent until proven guilty Unreasonable or unfair laws could be set aside Circa 451 B.C. the Romans created the Twelve Tables, the first publically accessible collection of Roman laws. Because citizens had access to the laws, they were protected from corrupt and abusive officials. About 1,000 years later, all Roman laws were codified into the Code of Justinian that later became a guide for legal matters throughout Western Europe. The Code established the idea of a government of laws, not of men. No one was above the Law, as exemplified by the fact that even powerful Roman Senators could be held accountable for their actions. Rome also gave the world the idea of a Republic. Legal and political terms that are common today, such as Senate and Dictator, originated in Rome. One of the most important ideas Rome adopted from the Greeks was the notion that an individual is a citizen of the state rather than the subject of a ruler. Justinian Code Circa A.D. 528, the Emperor Justinian began a review of the old Roman laws. There were thousands of Roman laws that ordered life in the empire, and Justinian chose ten men to review 1,600 books full of these Laws in an attempt to create a simpler legal code. These men were able to create the Justinian Code with just over 4,000 laws. Today, in the United States, there are hundreds of thousands (if not millions) of laws on the books. Portions of this text were borrowed or adapted from Mrs. Urtnowski Contributions of Judaism and Christianity: Several ideals crucial to the shaping of our democratic outlook emerged from the Jews and Christians. They included the following: Genesis 1:27 Genesis 9:6 James 3:9 Romans 13:1-2 Luke 20:22-25 Man had dignity because he is a child of God Man is Created in His (God s) image Equality of people before God Sacred worth of the individual God gives you the moral freedom to choose, but YOU are responsible for your choices. 2

3 The Declaration of Independence IN CONGRESS, July 4, The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America, 1. When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, 2. and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, 3. a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 4. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, 6. --That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, 7. and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. 8. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; 9. and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. 10. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; 12. and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. 13. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. 14. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. 15. He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. 16. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 17. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. 18. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 19. He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. 20. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. 21. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. 22. He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers. 23. He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 24. He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our people, and eat out their substance. 25. He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures. 26. He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power. 3

4 27. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation: 28. For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: 29. For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: 30. For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: 31. For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: 32. For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury: 33. For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences 34. For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighboring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: 35. For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: 36. For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 37. He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us. 38. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. 39. He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. 40. He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. 41. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. 42. In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: 43. Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. 44. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 45. Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. 46. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. 47. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. 48. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. 49. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. 50. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. 51. We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; 52. that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, 53. and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; 54. and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. 55. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. 4

5 The Development of Western Political Thought-Honors Adapted from A synopsis of the development of political philosophies that form what is often referred to as Democratic Liberalism. by Professor John A. Sterling, MA, JD Overview- Politics has been defined as the process whereby power is distributed or denied. As applied to government, it is about who gets what, when, and how. Politics is both a science and an art form. It is science in that it lends itself to methodical study, analysis of empirical evidence, and predictions of future behavior. It is art in that it evokes emotion, and possesses an intangible element of personal flair and charisma. The study of politics is interesting but made more difficult by the intensity of emotions that can de-rail rational thought. It is often said that politics, like religion, is a subject that should be avoided at family reunions and other social gatherings because the discussion evokes such intense (and varied) emotions. This is not a book. It is a highly-condensed presentation of ideas that represent the development of Western political thought for the last 2,500 years. Eastern Political thought and expression is even older and is a study of its own. It is Western political philosophy that is the basis for the American system of government and, therefore, of more relevance to students doing course-work in Political Science or American Government. [or Honors World History] Definitions Epistemology- epistēmē, meaning "knowledge, understanding", and λόγος - logos, meaning "study of"). The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. It questions what knowledge is and how it can be acquired, and the extent to which any given subject or entity can be known. Dialectic- The process of learning through questioning. It begins with conjecture (opinion) of the student which is challenged by a series of questions from the teacher until, seeing the inadequacy of his first opinion; the student is forced to learn the truth. The method (also called the Socratic Method) is designed to build upon a structure of logic and reason until all exigencies are explored and countered. Hermeneutics- The attempt to understand the relationship between idea systems and political reality by focusing on the purposes, or reasons, behind the ideas expressed. Rhetoric- Public speaking in a way that influences people s opinions. Classical and Medieval Political Theory Socrates (c. 469 BC 399 BC) Approximately five hundred years before Christ, Greek philosophy dominated political thought. Itinerant professors of political theory traveled from city to city and publicly argued various political ideas, for a fee, to an audience of wealthy young men interested in becoming successful in life. (Rather like a modern political figure, holding rallies and town hall meetings around the country, only for weeks or months at a time.) Socrates, for example, in his public events opposed the Sophists (teachers) on many fine points, but they all were concerned about the quality of life and in living ethically. Although they did not agree on how to measure it, the political teachers of the day believed that happiness was the ultimate purpose of life. The Sophists argued that happiness was best achieved by the acquisition of material possessions and wealth but Socrates argued that happiness was the ethical knowledge of how people are supposed to live. Moreover, governments, rather than being merely powerful organizational entities, should embody the ethical principles that will promote moral well-being. The political expression of government, according to Socrates, was the COMMON GOOD of all citizens rather than the triumph of the individual over society s rules. Plato (428/427 BC 348/347 BC) Plato was a contemporary and a student of Socrates and is considered to be the first real political philosopher of the Western world. He developed the Academy, a university of political science. Plato endeavored to teach political principles to rulers but was confronted continually with the failures of the human spirit brought about by the human condition. In his famous book, The Republic, Plato argues that society requires a successful division of labor: differently skilled people (artisans, craftsmen, statesmen, etc.) performing their skilled labor to the best of their ability, under the leadership of philosopher-kings. Plato believed, as did Socrates that justice was the primary virtue and that justice is achieved by properly balancing wisdom, courage, and temperance. It is important to note that these attributes were only possessed in sufficient quantity and balance by philosophers. That is why only philosophers were competent to be kings. Yet, the great paradox of The Republic, is that philosophers are not interested in ruling- they are interested only the acquisition of more knowledge. Plato believed that only through proper education would philosophers gain a desire to rule without desiring the material gain that comes with ruling (axiom: power corrupts). It is significant that Plato attempted to implement his ideas throughout his life yet he nearly suffered the same fate as Socrates. He was arrested and imprisoned, almost lost his life for his beliefs, and was frustrated in his attempts to influence leaders of his day. Even some of his former students overthrew the tyrannical king and then became tyrants themselves. Perhaps his most famous presentation of his theories of the reality of belief and knowledge is the allegory of the cave dwellers. Plato was never able to make the ideal conform to the real events of life. He would insist the real world is illusory, like the world in his allegorical cave. Only philosophers, after years of training, are able to see and understand the truth. Plato argued that even if an ideal society could be developed, it would certainly self-destruct because of the inevitable human condition. Symptomatic of the decline will be people in pursuit of their passions and the emphasis on equality rather than the necessary hierarchy of classes and virtues. He calls this degraded class of people democratic, and the government they create a democracy. Aristotle (384 BC 322 BC) Aristotle was Plato s most brilliant student at the Academy. Unlike his teacher, who believed that pure happiness was linked to pure logic, Aristotle believed that political science was an imperfect expression of imperfect beings and he was always looking for ways to improve politics without demanding perfection. Likewise, government s primary purpose is to promote virtue in its citizens through that form that will require practice and habit. Aristotle wrote, A State exists for the sake of 5

6 a good life, and not for the sake of life only: if only life were the object, slaves and brute animals might form a state, but they cannot, for they have no share in happiness or in a life of free choice. (Benjamin Jowett, trans., Aristotle s Politics New York: Random House, 1953). Politics is the highest form of human expression, according to Aristotle, and the state is the highest form of politics. Because the state is the culmination of debate and speech, and it is the end result of man s highest expression of sociability, it is that which distinguishes man from the animals. (In this thought Thomas Jefferson agreed.) Aristotle proposed that there are six types, or forms of government that accomplish the distribution of political power. Three are good forms and three are considered bad forms, although in varying degrees. The most desirable form is the monarchy (rule by one), followed by aristocracy (rule by a few), followed by polity (rule by many). The least desirable forms of government are tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy; these represent the arch-types or the perverted manifestations of the desirable forms. The distinctions between good and bad forms have largely to do with economics and class-struggle (a theme echoed by Karl Marx fifteen centuries later) and the notion that tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy will always act in their own class interest rather than in the best interest of the whole society. Aristotle s is considered by many to mark the beginning of Western Traditional Political Philosophy partly because it is the first to include the notion of plurality in politics. He also did not ignore the realities of life and of the human condition by insisting, as did Plato, that the ideal was the only reality. Cicero (106 BC 43 BC) Cicero was born 100 years before Christ in Rome at the point in history when the Roman Republic was being transformed into the Roman Empire. He was educated in Rome and Athens, where he learned Greek Politics and Philosophy. Cicero s writings greatly influenced the American Founders who likewise believed in a ruling elite rather than a popular democracy. Cicero s plan includes the idea of a Senate composed of life-tenured exmagistrates who ostensibly had the training and experience to govern. Although his work is very similar to Plato, Cicero s writings emphasize the written law. Where Plato s ideal political system was ruled by a philosopher-king, unconstrained by written law, Cicero could not envision a government run without laws. Further, Cicero understood the pursuit of justice to be based upon, or constrained by, the rule of law. It is obedience to the law that prevents monarchs from becoming tyrants, aristocracies from becoming oligarchies, and polities from becoming democracies. Civil law is the mechanism that guides the statesman in the pursuit of truth and justice. The law itself is seen as an expression of morality and natural justice flowing to all citizens. All governors are bound by the same laws they must administer. Augustine (A.D ) Born in A.D. 354, Augustine s mother was a Christian and his father a pagan. Augustine was sent to school in Carthage and then, later, in Rome where he was first introduced to Christianity. At age 32, Augustine accepted Christ as savior but still believed salvation could only come through the Roman Catholic Church. He embarked on a life of Christian service, spending his last years as the Bishop of Hippo, in Northern Africa. It was there, around A. D. 410 that Augustine wrote The City of God. His great contribution to political thought was that man s sin nature predisposes him to do evil and that only through devotion to God can man hope to have victory over his base nature. Moreover, since only some people are called to a life of repentance and salvation, the political process must find common ground upon which the saved and unsaved may mutually coexist. Augustine found this common ground in the context of civil peace. He reasoned that both Christians and non-christians desire peace because, without it, neither could achieve their desired ends. In other words, social order serves the self-interests of both groups and thus is the aim of civil government. Government authority comes directly from God and, in Augustine s view, it matters not whether that government is good or bad since obedience is required of all. To be sure, his wish is that all government would be in the hands of Christians, but he acknowledges that such is not the case. Thomas Aquinas (A. D ) Thomas committed his life to God at an early age. In the eight hundred years since Augustine, the political landscape had changed and the works of Aristotle had been re-discovered. The medieval church was slowly being replaced by the nation-state as the cultural and social hub of the people. Like Aristotle, Thomas believed that the state authority was rooted in natural law and that the written law should be the embodiment of justice. The happiness of the people could be achieved through the actualization of their communal existence. Unlike Augustine, however, Thomas believed that politics was not incompatible with Christianity and that citizen s political energies could be consistent with their spiritual achievements. Thomas makes a connection between Eternal Law, Natural Law, and Civil Law which, he declares, are but levels of Divine Revelation. Modern Political Theory Machiavelli (A.D ) Author of the Prince, the quintessential book about power politics, Machiavelli advocates for a strong monarchy as that form of government most likely to achieve peace in society. He cautioned against any monarch sharing his power since the extent to which that power is shared is the extent to which that monarch s power will be weakened. Machiavelli warns against the use of excessive power, however, since that would cause hatred which, in turn, causes a lack of control. Monarchs must have control or society becomes unstable. Although not religious himself, Machiavelli argues that religion is indispensable to good social order because it lends credibility to the law and thus, serves to endear the common people to the monarch. He was definitely not a Christian and believed that the best form of religion was one that glorified men of valor or action - particularly military or political leaders. In this sense, then, Machiavelli believed that the church and the state should be one, at least to the degree that the religious body encouraged civic virtue. People must be compelled to obedience because they perceive legitimacy of the monarch s authority rather than the force of the monarch s power. 6

7 Thomas Hobbes (A.D ) Hobbes attempted to transform the logic of power into a comprehensive science of power. He is noted most, not for accumulating more evidence of political processes, but for his ability to make deductions about human political behavior based upon mathematical models and scientific principles. Because man is a rational creature, he collectively assents to the creation of a political machine for the accomplishment of his desires. This assent is in the form of a legal contract that moves the parties from a state of nature (conflict) to a state of relative social balance (peace.) John Locke (A.D ) John Locke, a contemporary of Thomas Hobbes, has been called the father of classic liberalism in politics. (do not confuse the political philosophy of liberalism with the term liberal as used today to describe advocates of big government) As a philosophy, Liberalism advocates a democratic system of government where citizens have a more active and direct involvement with the political process. Because the political process involves a high order of reason, and expression of reason requires freedom of speech, Locke was an early advocate of tolerance for the beliefs of others. Locke is perhaps most famous for his exposition of natural rights theory which flows out of a state of nature that, unlike Hobbes, Locke perceives as being a state of equilibrium. Locke maintains that the creation of a strong government does not guarantee the absence of conflict and, moreover, a strong state is perfectly capable of becoming tyrannical. Any authority possessed by the state must be by and with the fully informed consent of the people through both a social contract and through a political contract. Locke considers the latter contract to be less a contract than a fiduciary agreement and thus, the government is but a trustee of the people. It is Locke s position that revolution against the social order is an expression, not of the people s warring tendencies, but of the violence of the government in breach of the contract. (The reader will be quick to note how this theme is repeated in the Declaration of Independence.) Another significant contribution of Locke is the notion that every man has a near-absolute right to property. Property includes that which is necessary to sustain life itself, as well as the product of one s own labor in the accumulation of other goods. Because the acquisition of property is a natural right, it is the duty of government to protect that right. If the government abdicates its legitimate duty and violates the rights it was created to protect, whether by passing laws that contradict these principles, or by other material breach, the right remains in the people to disregard the law (civil disobedience) or replace the government (rebellion). (Again, the reader will recognize these ideas in the Declaration of Independence.) Contemporary Political Ideas Do not be misled into thinking that these ideologies fit neatly into any 21 st century American Political situation of circumstance. These doctrines are much more complex than can be presented in this brief overview and further, must be studied in light of the historical context in which they occurred. For example, CONSERVATISM, as a political ideology, may have nothing whatsoever to do with something the Republican Party might want to accomplish in America. Likewise, LIBERALISM, as a political ideology, may not be related at all to the Democratic National Committee s presidential platform. The reader is encouraged to study further the conflicts and defenses that gave rise to the development of these ideas before attempting to conform too precisely these ideas to American political phenomenon. PHILOSOPHY: A basic theory about, or an attempt to explain, the fundamental beliefs of a person or group. Philosophies seek empirically verifiable evidence to make reliable predictions of human behavior based upon that evidence. Philosophies tend towards complexity. Philosophies do not demand that their explanations are the only possible answer. IDEOLOGY: a belief system developed to encourage action. As such, ideologies are less complex and unconcerned about intellectual inconsistency or logical coherence. Ideologies tend towards exclusivity-declaring themselves to be the only solution in the pursuit of truth - the only viable vehicle for social change. Ideologies tend to be more black and white with little or no room for alternative solutions. Conservatism Conservatism began as a philosophical rebuttal to a very bloody and chaotic French Revolution. Edmund Burke, a British Parliamentarian authored a book in 1790 entitled, Reflections on the Revolution in France in which he totally rejected the political objectives of the French reformers. This is particularly interesting when one considers that the French patterned their revolution after the same principles articulated in the American Declaration of Independence and that Burke was a staunch defender of those principles before Parliament. Where Burke s Conservatism differs from Locke s Liberalism is known as pragmatism. Burke argues that tradition creates a presumption (rational thought and reasoned response) that, because it represents a social model that has endured over time, has greater credibility than some new political philosophy. When a form of government has worked over a long period of time, and has been generally accepted by those governed thereby, it is folly (Burke s words) to attempt to change it for some purely theoretical notion, no matter how reasonable that notion might be. That the French system had worked reasonably well for so long, even though it lacked many of the ideals expressed in the Declaration of Independence, was sufficient reason to move slowly towards any kind of social reform. Burke argued that radical reform (sudden change) would be so disruptive to the social fabric that it could collapse the entire French social order into chaos. History proved Burke right. Napoleon Bonaparte was believed initially to be the great warrior who would lead France out of rebellion and back to political stability but instead, he became an absolute dictator, ultimately declaring himself to be emperor. Burke, as have Conservatives after him, understood, that sometimes it is better to make changes slowly and with the great weight of public opinion behind them, than to move suddenly and radically. Tearing down an established social institution and replacing it with another, even where the other has worked elsewhere, is no guarantee of success. Violently attacking deep-seated tradition may even produce such upheaval as to ultimately destroy every good thing associated with the former order. 7

8 Classic Liberalism Most characteristic of this philosophy is that it extends the right of political participation to a broader segment of the citizens. Classic Liberalism assumes that all people are (more or less) equal politically and that the participation by the masses will promote political stability. It supposes, further, that the rising middle class, empowered by their newly acquired economic standing, will reform and elevate society. Individual selfrealization could be achieved through one s labor and the acquisition of property. Government, according to this theory, should be limited in scope so that individuals will enjoy the maximum freedom to acquire more goods and promote economic and social prosperity. Classic Liberalism advocates that the breadth and scope of government should be very limited so that each citizen retains the maximum ability to employ his labor and, thus, to be all that he can be. Classic Liberalism is liberal relative to the older philosophy of Feudalism that characterized Europe in the Middle Ages wherein only the rich elite made up the ruling class. Modern Liberalism [Modern liberalism tends to deviate from classic liberalism in that it espouses the use of the power of government to achieve a variety of desirable goals, ranging from social justice to economic equality.] (The Crisis Of Academic Liberalism. Mark Malaszczyk) It soon became apparent that the economic principles articulated by Lockean Liberalism did not achieve the elevation of society that its proponents hoped for. The emerging middle class, rather than seeking to improve the condition of all members of society, was intent only on furthering its own economic security. (Remember this when you read later about Karl Marx.) [Consequently, many liberals advocate a greater degree of government interference in the free market, often in the form of anti-discrimination laws, civil service examinations, universal education, and progressive taxation. This philosophy frequently extends to a belief that the government should provide for a degree of general welfare, including money for the poor, housing for the homeless, and medical care for the sick. Such publiclyfunded initiatives and interferences in the market are rejected by modern advocates of classical liberalism, which emphasizes free private enterprise, individual property rights, and freedom of contract; classical liberals hold that economic inequality, as arising naturally from competition in the free market, does not justify the violation of private property rights. However, modern advocates of classical liberalism do advocate a heavier taxation on the corporation, as opposed to the current trend of the burden of income tax resting on the shoulders of the individual worker, as did the early classical liberals. Law and Liberty Foundation] Socialism Generally speaking, Socialism grew in response to the obvious failures of Modern Liberalism to achieve the kind of moral and economic standards envisioned. The rapid development of industry resulted in the subsequent failure of the working class to accomplish anything more than to sell their labor to the capitalists. Liberalism assumes that acquisition of property was a natural right and that the chief end of government was to protect that right. Implicit was the assumption that the masses were, if not approximately equal in their abilities, at least approximately equal in their opportunity to acquire property and, thereby, to control their political and social destinies. In the harsh light of reality, it became apparent that Modern Liberalism and its adoption of freemarket capitalism did not free (most) men to achieve their full potential. Rather than becoming self-actualized through their labor, (most) men were becoming virtual slaves to the capitalists. Socialism is the Philosophy that advocates for state ownership and control of the means of economic production. By controlling production and distribution of resources, the state may obtain the best prices and the worker s labor is maximized. Since the national economy is thereby strengthened, every worker (and his family) achieves the maximum self-realization. In practice, Socialism has been a dismal failure. Private matters become state matters and the state control of every major service is necessary so that all citizens become dependents of the state. Private gain is seen as being in direct conflict with the interests of the state. Marxism Karl Marx was a complex and radical thinker. His political and economic views cannot be explained in a few short sentences. Marx started with basic Socialism and added some important elements. Everything that happens, or does not happen, in the development of social order, according to Marx, is because of class conflict. Anytime a division of labor arises, were different abilities are rewarded at different rates (i.e. lawyers get paid more than plumbers, etc.) then a basic inequality is set in place that will result in inevitable class conflict. At least it should be inevitable unless artificial forces are put into place to keep that conflict from ultimately resolving itself. Religion is one of those artificial constructs that fools people into believing that everything is alright (they will receive an eternal reward if they silently endure their earthly lot in life). Marxism is an ideology that advocates action- militant, violent action if necessary- to force social change. Communism is the ultimate social nirvana- the end-all be-all of a perfect society. Marxism is the ideological vehicle by which the philosophy of Socialism would be forced to accomplish ultimate Communism, the perfect social condition. Conclusion It is impossible to do justice to any of these philosophers or their works in a few paragraphs. There are complex, dynamic arguments made by each that, to be fully appreciated, must be read in the context of history. Additionally, there are many more philosophers than those referenced above, each of whom brings a different twist or angle to the fascinating study of political philosophy. The student is encouraged to explore more fully each of the ideas expressed above. 8

9 Close Reading Questions for The Development of Western Political Thought-Honors Read the selection carefully before you answer the questions. On a separate sheet of paper, answer each question with as much detail as necessary for a complete answer. Do not simply work for the easiest answer. Your responsibility is to write COMPLETE answers. Incomplete answers will receive no credit. Complete sentences are NOT required. For example, if the answer is only one word, just write that one word. Further, incorrect answers mixed with or added to correct answers will receive zero points. That means that if your response is missing part of the answer, you will receive no credit. Each question is worth 5 points for a total of 200. Keep in mind that academic expectations are very high at El Camino. Remember, why is always implied in the question. Answer the why if there is one. 1. Politics has been defined as the process whereby what is distributed or denied? 2. Politics is both science and art. What human characteristic is drawn out from the art side of politics? (this can derail rational thought) 3. Define Epistemology: 4. Define Hermeneutics: 5. Define Dialectic: 6. Define Rhetoric: 7. Socrates, as well as the Sophists, was concerned with what two things regarding life and how we should live? 8. According to Socrates, governments, rather than being merely powerful organizational entities, should embody the ethical principles that will promote what? 9. Who is considered to be the first real political philosopher of the Western world? 10. Who developed the Academy? 11. Plato wrote what famous book? 12. According to Plato, who was to rule over the people? 13. The three necessary attributes for leadership, wisdom, courage, and temperance, existed only in whom? Therefore, only were competent to be kings. 14. What was the great paradox of Plato s idea for a ruler? (this could only be achieved through proper education) 15. Plato argues that, even if an ideal society could be developed, it would certainly self-destruct because of the inevitable human condition. Symptomatic of the decline will be people in pursuit of their passions and the emphasis on equality rather than the necessary hierarchy of classes and virtues. He calls this degraded class of people, and the government they create a (Think of the U.S.) (of a sort). 16. Who was Plato s most brilliant student at the Academy? 17. What did Aristotle believe was an imperfect expression of imperfect beings? (two words) 18. Aristotle was always looking for ways to improve without demanding perfection. 19. What, according to Aristotle, distinguishes man from the animals? 20. Although his work is very similar to Plato, Cicero s writings emphasized what? (think Constitution) 21. According to Cicero, what behavior or action prevents monarchs from becoming tyrants, aristocracies from becoming oligarchies, and polities from becoming democracies? (be specific) 22. Cicero believed that all governors are bound by the same they must administer. 23. What was Augustine s great contribution to political thought? 24. Why did Augustine believe that governments could be made up of both Christians and Non-Christians? 25. Like Aristotle, Thomas believed that the state authority was rooted in law and that the written law should be the embodiment of justice. 26. Machiavelli wrote what famous book, the quintessential book about power politics? 27. Machiavelli advocates for a as that is the form of government most likely to achieve peace in society. Remember, Machiavelli is all about power. 28. According to Machiavelli, what happens to society if the monarch loses control? 29. As a philosophy, Liberalism advocates a democratic system of government where citizens have a more active and direct involvement with the political process. Because the political process involves a high order of reason, and expression of reason requires of, Locke was an early advocate of tolerance for the beliefs of others. 30. What are the two points Locke is making with the following statements: [Any authority possessed by the state must be by and with the fully informed consent of the people through both a social contract and through a political contract. It is Locke s position that revolution against the social order is an expression, not of the people s warring tendencies, but of the violence of the government in breach of the contract.]? 31. is defined as, A basic theory about, or an attempt to explain, the fundamental beliefs of a person or group. 32. What tends to be more black and white with little or no room for alternative solutions, and is a belief system developed to encourage action? 33. What is Burke defining (politically speaking) when he says, that sometimes it is better to make changes slowly and with the great weight of public opinion behind them, than to move suddenly and radically. Tearing down an established social institution and replacing it with another, even where the other has worked elsewhere, is no guarantee of success. Violently attacking deep-seated tradition may even produce such upheaval as to ultimately destroy every good thing associated with the former order? 34. Most characteristic of this philosophy is that it extends the right of political participation to a broader segment of the citizens. It assumes that all people are (more or less) equal politically and that the participation by the masses will promote political stability. What is this philosophy? 35. Socialism grew because the rapid development of industry resulted in the subsequent failure of the working class to accomplish anything more than to do what to whom? 36. Liberalism didn t allow all men to own property, but made them slaves to whom? 37. Socialism is the Philosophy that advocates for what? 38. According to Marx, everything that happens, or does not happen, in the development of social order is because of what? 39. Marxism is an ideology that advocates action- militant, violent action if necessary- to force what? 40. What is your middle name? 9

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