USA WORLD 1064 CHAPTER 34. Participants at the Walk For Hunger, held annually in Massachusetts, help to support local and emergency food programs.

Transcription

1 Participants at the Walk For Hunger, held annually in Massachusetts, help to support local and emergency food programs Twenty-seventh Amendment prohibits midterm congressional pay raises William Jefferson Clinton is elected president Republicans Million Man gain control of March held both houses of in Washington, Congress. D.C President Clinton is reelected. USA WORLD Russia and 1994 In South Africa s 1995 Israeli prime United States sign START-II treaty reducing warheads and ICBMs. first all-race election, Nelson Mandela is elected president. minister Yitzhak Rabin is assassinated CHAPTER 34

2 INTERACT WITH HISTORY You are a high school senior who is active in student government and community service. You have been chosen from among thousands of students nationwide to address an international youth symposium on global issues and reforms. As a U.S. delegate to the event, you address the crowd, confident that young people will be able to change the future. What are the most important issues that affect the world today? Examine the Issues What makes nations increasingly dependent on one another? How does technology affect society worldwide? What are the ways to foster cooperation among nations? RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM Visit the Chapter 34 links for more information about The United States in Today s World Madeleine Albright is the first woman to become secretary of state President Clinton is impeached Senate acquits President Clinton George W. Bush is elected 43rd president On September 11, terrorists attack New York s World Trade Center and the Pentagon with hijacked jets Scottish scientist clones Dolly the sheep Northern Ireland, the Irish Republic, and the United Kingdom sign peace agreements The dreaded Y2K bug proves harmless to computer systems globally Serbian president Slobodan Milosevic is brought before the UN war crimes tribunal. The United States in Today s World 1065

3 The 1990s and the New Millennium MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW Terms & Names The Democrats gained control of the White House by moving their party s platform toward the political center. As the Democratic and Republican parties move closer in agenda, the extreme liberal or conservative viewpoints are less popular. William Jefferson Clinton H. Ross Perot Hillary Rodham Clinton NAFTA Newt Gingrich Contract with America Kenneth Starr Al Gore George W. Bush One American's Story On January 20, 1993, poet Maya Angelou was honored as the first woman and the first African American to read her work at a presidential inauguration. Bill Clinton asked Angelou to compose and deliver a poem. Angelou expressed the optimism of the day, recalling the dream of Martin Luther King, Jr., as she recited her poem On the Pulse of Morning. A PERSONAL VOICE MAYA ANGELOU Lift up your faces, you have a piercing need For this bright morning dawning for you. History, despite its wrenching pain, Cannot be unlived, but if faced With courage, need not be lived again. Lift up your eyes Upon this day breaking for you. Give birth again To the dream. On the Pulse of Morning Moments later, William Jefferson Clinton was inaugurated as the 42nd president of the United States. Clinton entered the presidency at a time when America was at a turning point. A severe economic recession had made many Americans uneasy about the future. They looked to Clinton to lead a government that would be more responsive to the people. Maya Angelou Clinton Wins the Presidency Governor William Jefferson Clinton of Arkansas became the first member of the baby-boom generation to win the presidency. He captured the White House, at the age of 46, by vowing to strengthen the nation s weak economy and to lead the Democratic Party in a more moderate direction CHAPTER 34

4 MAIN IDEA Analyzing Causes A What factors accounted for Bush s decline in popularity? A. Answer The country was experiencing a recession and Bush did not have a strategy to end it or to create additional jobs. THE ELECTION OF 1992 After the U.S. victory in the Persian Gulf War in 1991, Republican president George Bush s popularity had climbed to an 89 percent approval rating. Shortly after the war ended, however, the nation found itself in the grips of a recession. In early 1992, Bush s approval rating nose-dived to 40 percent. In his run for reelection, President Bush could not convince the public that he had a clear strategy for ending the recession and creating jobs. A Throughout the presidential race, Bill Clinton campaigned as the candidate to lead the nation out of its economic crisis. So did a third-party candidate Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot. Perot targeted the soaring federal budget deficit as the nation s number one problem. A budget deficit occurs when the federal government borrows money to meet all its spending commitments. It s time, Perot declared in his usual blunt style, to take out the trash and clean up the barn. Election Day results, however, demonstrated that Clinton s center-of-the-road strategy had the widest appeal. Though Clinton won, he captured only 43 percent of the popular vote. Bush received 38 percent, while Perot managed an impressive 19 percent. A NEW DEMOCRAT Bill Clinton won the presidency in part by promising to move away from traditional Democratic policies. He also emphasized the need to move people off welfare and called for growth in private business as a means to economic progress. In office, Clinton worked to move the Democratic Party toward the political center by embracing both liberal and conservative programs. According to an ally, Clinton hoped to modernize liberalism so it could sell again. By doing so, he sought to create a new and more inclusive Democratic Party. PLAYER KEY WILLIAM JEFFERSON CLINTON, 1946 Born in Hope, Arkansas, at the beginning of the baby boom, Bill Clinton had wanted to be president most of his life. As a college student in the 1960s, he had opposed the Vietnam War and pulled strings to avoid being drafted. After studying in England as a Rhodes scholar and graduating from Yale law school, Clinton returned to Arkansas. He taught at the University of Arkansas School of Law and dived into politics, becoming governor in 1979 at the age of thirty-two. Moderate Reform and Economic Boom B. Answer Intense lobbying against it; the public viewed the plan as one that would increase the size of government. MAIN IDEA Analyzing Causes B What factors led to the defeat of Clinton s health care plan? President Clinton demonstated his willingness to pursue both liberal and conservative policies on health care, the budget deficit, crime, and welfare. HEALTH CARE REFORM Clinton had pledged to create a plan to guarantee affordable health care for all Americans, especially for the millions of Americans who lacked medical insurance. Once in office, Clinton appointed First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton, a skilled lawyer and child-welfare advocate, to head the team creating the plan. The president presented the health care reform bill to Congress in September Congress debated the plan for a year. Intense lobbying and Republican attacks on the plan for promoting big government sealed its doom. In the end, Congress never even voted on the bill. B Hillary Rodham Clinton explains the health care reform plan to a Senate subcommittee. The United States in Today s World 1067

5 Injured victims after the April 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. BALANCED BUDGET AND AN ECONOMIC BOOM President Clinton was more successful in his efforts to reduce the federal budget deficit. Clinton and the Republican-controlled Congress agreed in 1997 on legislation to balance the federal budget by the year The bill cut spending by billions of dollars, lowered taxes to win Republican support, and included programs aimed at helping children and improving health care. A year later, Clinton announced that for the first time in nearly 30 years the federal budget had a surplus. That is, the government took in more than it spent. Surpluses were used, in part, to pay down the nation s debt, which had soared to around $5.5 trillion. Perhaps the most effective tool in generating a surplus was the booming economy. About the time Clinton took office, the economy rebounded. Unemployment fell and the stock market soared to new heights. As a result, the government s tax revenues rose, and fewer people received public aid. These factors helped slash the federal debt. REFORMING WELFARE Clinton and the congressional Republicans cooperated to reform the welfare system. In 1996, a bill was proposed to place limits on how long people could receive benefits. It also put an end to a 61-year federal guarantee of welfare, and instead gave states block grants set amounts of federal money they could spend on welfare or for other social concerns. Although liberal Democrats feared the effects of eliminating the federal safety net for the poor, the president backed the bill. Over the next few years, states moved millions of people from welfare to jobs. Because of the strong economy, the transition was more successful than some had been predicting. Crime and Terrorism The improved economy along with enlargement of police forces combined to lower crime rates in the 1990s. However, fears were raised among Americans by acts of violence and terrorism around the country. A shocking crime occurred April 1999 when two students at Columbine High School, in Colorado, killed 12 students and a teacher and wounded 23 others, and then shot themselves. Americans were appalled at copycat crimes that began to occur. Some called for tougher gun control, while others argued that exposure to violent imagery should be curtailed. Violence had pervaded television news throughout the decade. In 1993, terrorists had exploded bombs in the World Trade Center in New York City. This was closely followed by a 1995 blast that destroyed a nine-story federal office building in Oklahoma City, killing 168 children, women, and men. Timothy McVeigh, an American veteran of the Gulf War, was found guilty in the Oklahoma bombing. He was executed in 2001, the first use of the federal death penalty in 38 years. Although American embassies and military targets abroad were subject to sporadic and deadly terrorist attacks during the decade, the U.S. was in no way prepared for a devastating attack that took place on its own soil on the morning of September 11, C Background See national debt on page R43 in the Economics Handbook. C. Answer Bombing of the World Trade Center in 1993 and of a federal building in Oklahoma City in 1995; attacks on U.S. embassies and military sites worldwide. MAIN IDEA Summarizing C What acts of terrorism targeted Americans in the decade preceding 2001? 1068 CHAPTER 34

6 Vocabulary globalization: to make worldwide in scope or application In a coordinated effort, two hijacked commercial jets struck the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, one crashing just minutes after the other. The jets exploded on impact and subsequently leveled the tallest buildings of New York s skyline, the symbolic center of American finance. About an hour later, a third plane tore into the Pentagon building, the U.S. military headquarters outside Washington, D.C. Air travel ceased almost immediately; across the nation planes in the air were ordered to land. During the evacuation of the White House and the New York financial district, a fourth hijacked plane crashed near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Everyone on board all four planes was killed. Close to 125 people lost their lives in the Pentagon attack, while over 3,000 in New York including hundreds of rescue workers were killed in the collapse of the World Trade Center and surrounding structures. (See The War on Terrorism, beginning on page US2.) New Foreign Policy Challenges Conflicts and confused alliances grew in the wake of the Cold War. The question of U.S. intervention overseas, and the globalization of the economy presented the United States with a host of new challenges. RELATIONS WITH FORMER COLD WAR FOES Maintaining strong relations with Russia and China became major goals for the Clinton administration. Throughout the 1990s, the U.S. and Russia cooperated on economic and armscontrol issues. Still, Russia criticized U.S. intervention in Yugoslavia, where a bloody civil war raged. Meanwhile, U.S. officials protested against Russian attacks on rebels in the Russian region of Chechnya. U.S. relations with China were strained as well. Clinton had stressed that he would lean on China to grant its citizens more democratic rights. As president, however, he put greater emphasis on increasing trade with China. Despite concerns that Chinese spies had stolen U.S. defense secrets, Clinton supported a bill passed in 2000 granting China permanent trade rights. TROOPS ABROAD With the Cold War over, the United States turned more of its attention to regional conflicts. President Clinton proved willing to use troops to end conflicts overseas. In 1991, military leaders in Haiti forced the elected president from office. Thousands of refugees fled the military leaders harsh rule. In 1994, President Clinton dispatched American troops to Haiti, and the military rulers were forced to step down. Other interventions occurred in the former Communist country of Yugoslavia. In 1991, Yugoslavia broke apart into five nations. In Bosnia, one of the newly independent states, Serbs began ethnic cleansing, killing or expelling from their homes people of certain ethnic groups. In 1995, the United States helped negotiate a peace agreement in Bosnia. Clinton sent U.S. troops to join NATO troops to help ensure the deal. About three years later, Serb forces attacked ethnic Albanians in the Serb province of Kosovo. The U.S. and its NATO allies launched air strikes against Serbian targets in 1999, forcing the Serbs to back down. Again, American troops followed up by participating in an international A view across the Brooklyn Bridge shows the devastating impact of two jets used by terrorists as missiles to destroy the World Trade Center. The United States in Today s World 1069

7 American workers protest against the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). peace-keeping force. In both Bosnia and Kosovo, the administration promised early withdrawal. However, the U.S. troops stayed longer than had been intended, drawing criticism of Clinton s policies. D TRADE AND THE GLOBAL ECONOMY Seeing flourishing trade as essential to U.S. prosperity and to world economic and political stability, President Clinton championed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This legislation would bring Mexico into the free-trade zone that the United States and Canada already had formed. Supporters said NAFTA would strengthen all three economies and create more American jobs. Opponents insisted that NAFTA would transfer American jobs to Mexico, where wages were lower, and harm the environment because of Mexico s weaker antipollution laws. Congress rejected these arguments, and the treaty was ratified by all three countries legislatures in Once the treaty took effect, on January 1, 1994, trade with Mexico increased. Critics of free trade and the global economy remained vocal, however. In late 1999, the World Trade Organization (WTO), an organization that promotes trade and economic development, met in Seattle. Demonstrators protested that the WTO made decisions with little public input and that these decisions harmed poorer countries, the environment, and American manufacturing workers. Subsequent anti-globalization protests have been held worldwide. Violent clashes erupted between police and demonstrators at the April 2001 third Summit of the Americas, held in Quebec City, Canada. Nevertheless, the activists failed to halt plans to launch, by 2006, the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) an enlarged version of NAFTA covering the 34 countries in the Western Hemisphere, except Cuba. MAIN IDEA Analyzing Causes D Why did the United States send troops to Yugoslavia and Kosovo? D. Answer To prevent further ethnic violence and bloodshed. Partisan Politics and Impeachment While Clinton and Congress worked together on deficit reduction and NAFTA, relations in Washington became increasingly partisan. In the midst of political wrangling, a scandal rocked the White House, and Bill Clinton became the second president in U.S. history to be impeached. REPUBLICANS TAKE CONTROL OF CONGRESS In mid-1994, after the failure of President Clinton s health care plan and recurring questions regarding his leadership, Republican congressman Newt Gingrich began to turn voters dissatisfaction with Clinton into support for Republicans. He drafted a document called the Contract with America ten items Republicans promised to enact if they won control of Congress. They included congressional term limits, a balancedbudget amendment, tax cuts, tougher crime laws, and welfare reform. E In the November 1994 election, the Republicans handed the Democrats a humiliating defeat. Voters gave Republicans control of both houses of Congress for the first time since Chosen as the new Speaker of the House, Newt Gingrich was jubilant. A PERSONAL VOICE NEWT GINGRICH I will never forget mounting the rostrum... for the first time.... The whole scene gave me a wonderful sense of the romance of America and the magic by which Americans share power and accept changes in government. To Renew America Vocabulary partisan: devoted to or biased in support of a party, group, or cause MAIN IDEA Summarizing E What were some of the provisions of the Contract of America? E. Answer The contract included tax cuts, harsher crime laws, welfare reform, and a balanced budget amendment CHAPTER 34

8 MAIN IDEA Analyzing Causes F What factors contributed most to Clinton s reelection? F. Answer The strong economy and legislative victories over Congress. President Clinton and the Republican-controlled Congress clashed. Clinton opposed Republican budgets that slowed entitlements federal programs which provide for basic human needs such as Social Security and Medicaid. Clinton and Congress refused to compromise, and the Republicans refused to pass the larger budgets he wanted. As a result, the federal government shut down for almost a week in November 1995, and again for several weeks in the next two months. THE 1996 REELECTION The budget standoff helped Clinton, as did the strong economy and passage of the welfare reform law of 1996, which suggested an improved working relationship with Congress. As a result, voters reelected Clinton in November With 49 percent of the popular vote, he outpolled the Republican nominee, U.S. Senator Bob Dole, and the Reform Party candidate, H. Ross Perot. Still, the Republicans maintained control of the House and Senate. Both President Clinton and Republican leaders pledged to work more cooperatively. Soon however, the president faced his most severe problems yet. F THE PRESIDENT IS INVESTIGATED During the late 1970s, President Clinton was involved in a land deal with the Whitewater Development Company in Arkansas. He was later accused of improperly using some of the land money to fund his 1984 gubernatorial reelection campaign. In August 1994, a federal court appointed Kenneth Starr as the independent counsel to investigate the matter. (By September 2000, Starr s replacement as independent counsel, Robert Ray, cleared the Clintons of wrongdoing in this matter.) During his investigation, Starr had expanded his probe of Bill Clinton to matters unrelated to Whitewater. He learned the president had had an improper relationship with a young White House intern. Furthermore, Clinton allegedly had lied under oath about the affair. In August 1998, Clinton admitted in a national address that he had engaged in an improper relationship with the intern. Nevertheless, he denied lying about the incident under oath or attempting to obstruct the investigation. CLINTON IMPEACHED The majority of Americans approved of Clinton s job performance. Nevertheless, in December 1998, the House of Representatives voted to impeach him. The House approved two articles of impeachment, charging the president with perjury and obstruction of justice. With the House vote, Clinton became only the second president and the first in 130 years to face a trial in the Senate. The Senate opened its trial of President Clinton in January A month later, the Senate fell short of the 67 votes a two-thirds majority required to convict him. Clinton remained in office and apologized for his actions. During Clinton s remaining two years as president, bitter political partisanship impeded the passage of much-needed legislation. Meanwhile, the campaign to elect a new president began in earnest. Chicago newspaper headlines leave no doubt about President Clinton s impeachment. 1071

9 Skillbuilder Answers 1. Gore was strong in the Northeast, West Coast, northern Midwest; Bush captured the South, Midwest, and the Northwest. 2. The party received no electoral votes while the popular vote the party received could have changed the outcome of the election. The Race for the White House In the 2000 presidential race, the Democrats chose Vice President Al Gore to succeed Bill Clinton. The Republicans nominated George W. Bush, governor of Texas and the son of the former president. Ralph Nader, a long-time consumer advocate, ran for the Green Party, which championed environmental causes and promoted an overall liberal agenda. On the eve of the election, polls showed the race to be one of the tightest in recent memory. The election proved one of the closest in U.S. history. Determining a winner would take over a month. ELECTION NIGHT CONFUSION As election night unfolded, Al Gore appeared to take the lead. The television networks projected that Gore would win Florida, Pennsylvania, and Michigan states rich in electoral votes which would ultimately decide the winner of the race. Then, in a stunning turn of events, the TV networks recanted their original projection about Gore s victory in Florida and proclaimed the state too close to call. As midnight passed, it became clear that whoever won Florida would gain the 270 electoral votes needed to win the election. About 2 A.M., the networks predicted Bush the winner of Florida and thus the presidency. Gore called the Texas governor to congratulate him and prepared to deliver a concession speech. G As the final votes in Florida rolled in, Bush s lead shrank considerably and the state again became too close to call. As a result, Gore phoned Bush again and took back his concession. By the next day, Al Gore had won the popular vote by more than 500,000 votes out of 105 million cast. Meanwhile, all eyes turned to Florida, as George Bush s razor-thin victory there triggered an automatic recount to determine the true winner of the state and the presidency. G. Answer The networks named Gore the projected winner and then recanted their projection, as well as declared the race too close to call. MAIN IDEA Analyzing Effects G How did television reporting add to the chaos and confusion on election night? Election of 2000 Party Candidate Popular Vote % of Popular Vote Electoral Vote Republican George W. Bush 50,456,062 (47.9%) 271 Democratic Albert A. Gore, Jr. 50,996,582 (48.4%) 265 Green Party Ralph Nader 2,858,843 (2.7%) 0 No Vote In the District of Columbia, 2 electors cast 1 Gore vote and 1 no-vote. Barbara Lett-Simmons cast her ballot blank to protest the District s lack of representation in Congress. On December 12, 2000, the U.S. Supreme Court stopped the manual recounts in Florida, in effect awarding the presidency to Bush. GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER 1. Region In which regions did each candidate draw support? 2. Human-Environment Interaction What impact did the Green Party have on the election s outcome? 1072 CHAPTER 34

10 H. Answer The Gore campaign believed that voting machines had misread numerous ballots, while the Bush campaign believed that manual counting might lead to further inaccuracies and even political misconduct. MAIN IDEA Analyzing Motives H Why did the Gore campaign support manual recounts in Florida and the Bush campaign oppose them? DISPUTE RAGES IN FLORIDA In the weeks following the election, lawyers and spokespersons went to Florida to try to secure victory. The recount of the state s ballots gave Bush a win by just over 300 votes but the battle for the presidency did not end there. After the election, the public learned of voting irregularities in several counties in Florida a state where George s brother Jeb Bush was governor. Most prominently, voters in Palm Beach County claimed that a confusing ballot design had caused thousands to mistakenly vote for a different candidate or to punch two names, thus invalidating their ballots. Prompted by these problems, as well as by the belief that voting machines had misread numerous ballots, the Gore campaign requested manual recounts in four mostly Democratic counties. All we are seeking is this: that the candidate who the voters preferred become our president, declared Gore campaign chairman William Daley. Bush representatives opposed the manual recounts. James A. Baker III, former secretary of state and leader of the Bush team in Florida, argued that such recounts would raise the possibility of political mischief. H Time magazine's cover on November 20, 2000, almost two weeks after the election. I. Answer Weaknesses: lack of uniform and fair voting practices, partisan arguing and claims of favoritism among the Supreme Court justices; Strengths: the government continuing to function; election reforms that emerged from the chaos. MAIN IDEA Analyzing Issues I How did the election of 2000 highlight both the weaknesses and the strengths of America s election process? A PERSONAL VOICE JAMES A. BAKER III Human error, individual subjectivity and decisions to determine the voters intent would replace precision machinery. quoted in The New York TImes, November 12, 2000 By May 2001, Florida had voted to outlaw punch-card ballots. Other states also instituted their own election reforms, hoping not to repeat the chaos. THE BATTLE MOVES TO THE COURTS As the manual recounting began on November 12, the Republicans sued to stop the recounts; a month-long court fight followed. The battle ultimately reached the Supreme Court. On December 12, a divided court voted 5 to 4 to stop the recounts thus awarding the Florida electoral votes and the presidency to Bush. The justices argued that manual recounts lacked uniform standards and, therefore, violated equal protection for voters. The next night, in back-to-back televised speeches, Vice President Gore conceded and Governor Bush accepted victory. Five weeks after election day, one of the most divisive elections in history had ended. I THE AFTERMATH OF THE ELECTION In the wake of the divisive presidential election, President Bush encountered an equally divided Congress. The 2000 elections produced a Republican-Democratic split in the Senate and a slim ninevote Republican majority in the House of Representatives. Critics across the nation predicted years of legislative gridlock. ANOTHER PERSPECTIVE NADER AND THIRD PARTY IMPACT Like most third-party candidates, Ralph Nader of the Green Party claimed to speak for those citizens disillusioned with the nation s two main parties. Nader accused both Democrats and Republicans of catering to wealthy special interest groups rather than to average citizens. Despite winning less than 3 percent of the popular vote, Nader played what many observers felt was a significant role in the 2000 presidential election. He picked up almost 100,000 votes in Florida, votes that might have enabled Al Gore to capture Florida and the presidency. After the election, Nader dismissed the notion that he had hurt the Democrats, and he called for the continuation of third parties in American politics. The United States in Today s World 1073

11 The Bush Administration Begins Anew President George W. Bush signs a $1.35 trillion tax cut bill on June 7, 2001, at the White House. After the protests and legal actions subsided, George W. Bush was inaugurated as the 43rd president of the United States on January 20, Many people questioned how effectively a president who had not won the popular majority would govern. Nevertheless, Bush inherited a favorable situation, a large budget surplus and a period of relative economic stability. At the sixmonth mark, public support for the president remained steady. During his first months as president, Bush began to advance his political agenda, presenting a budget that included $1.6 trillion worth of tax cuts reduced by the Senate to $1.35 trillion over 11 years. He also declared plans to reform the federal role in education and to privatize Social Security, and had an early success in resolving a standoff with China over a downed U.S. spy plane. However, many enviromentalists protested his reversal of a campaign pledge to limit carbon dioxide emissions, as well as his plans to increase sensitive drilling for oil at the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Adding to Bush s political woes, in May 2001 Republican senator Jim Jeffords of Vermont, disillusioned by the administration s extreme, conservative policies, left his party to become an Independent. Control of the Senate reverted back to the Democrats. Bush now faced an uphill battle in working to pass many of his legislative initiatives. The political landscape changed dramatically, however, after the September 11 terrorist attacks. The Bush administration, now with the overwhelming support of Congress and the American people, shifted its energy and attention to combating terrorism. Bush s main efforts were to create an Office of Homeland Security and to authorize anti-terrorist military operations overseas. He also proposed $125 billion in additional tax cuts and emergency spending. Thus, even before the close of 2001, it had become clear to Americans that the events of September 11 and the administration s response to them would determine the nation s future as few other events have. 1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. William Jefferson Clinton H. Ross Perot Hillary Rodham Clinton North Anerican Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Newt Gingrich Contract with America Kenneth Starr Al Gore George W. Bush MAIN IDEA 2. TAKING NOTES Create a time line of President Clinton s major actions during his two terms. Use a form such as the one below. major action major action major action major action Explain whether each action was a success or a failure for Clinton. CRITICAL THINKING 3. EVALUATING What event or trend during the Clinton administration do you think will have the most lasting impact on the United States? Why? 4. ANALYZING VISUAL SOURCES How might the design of the butterfly ballot have confused voters? 1074 CHAPTER 34

12 MAIN IDEA The New Global Economy WHY IT MATTERS NOW Terms & Names Because of technological advances and new trade laws, the U.S. economy underwent a boom during the late 20th century. New types of business have meant new work environments and new challenges for American workers. service sector downsize Bill Gates NASDAQ dotcom General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) One American's Story As Bill Clinton took office in 1993, some regions of the nation, particularly the Northeast, were still in an economic recession. Near Kennebunkport, Maine, the John Roberts clothing factory faced bankruptcy. With help from their union, the factory workers were able to turn their factory into an employee-owned company. Ethel Beaudoin, who worked for the company for more than 30 years, was relieved that the plant would not be closing. A PERSONAL VOICE ETHEL BEAUDOIN It s a nice feeling to be part of the process... of deciding what this company buys for machinery and to know the customers more intimately. They re our customers, and it s a nicer feeling when the customers know that the coat that we put out is made by owners. Workers at the John Roberts clothing factory quoted in Divided We Fall Beaudoin s experience offered one example of the economic possibilities in America. A new global economy brought about by new technologies, increased international competition, and the end of the Cold War changed the nation s economic prospects. The Shifting Economy Americans heard a great deal of good news about the economy. Millions of new jobs were created between 1993 and By the fall of 2000, the unemployment rate had fallen to the lowest it had been since The United States in Today s World 1075

13 ECONOMIC GREENSPAN AND THE FED Alan Greenspan has been chairman of the Federal Reserve System (the Fed) since 1987, when he was appointed by President Ronald Reagan. The Fed has been described as the economic pacemaker of the United States because it helps determine how much money there will be in the American economy. Before being elected president in 2000, George W. Bush made it a point to meet with Alan Greenspan before meeting with anyone else in Washington. (See interest rate in the Economics Handbook, page R42.) But there was alarming news as well. Wage inequality between upper- and lower-income Americans the income gap widened. Median household income began to drop. Although economists disagreed about the reasons for the economy s instability, most everyone agreed it was undergoing significant changes. MORE SERVICE, LESS SECURITY Chief among the farreaching changes in the workplace of the 1990s was the explosive growth of jobs in the service sector, the part of the economy that provides services to consumers. By 2000, nearly 80 percent of American workers were teachers, medical professionals, lawyers, engineers, store clerks, waitstaff, and other service workers. Low-paying jobs, such as sales and fast-food, grew fastest. These positions, often part-time or temporary, offered limited benefits. Many corporations, rather than invest in salaries and benefits for full-time staff, instead hired temporary workers, or temps, and began to downsize trim payrolls to streamline operations and increase profits. Manpower, Inc., a temporary services agency, became the largest U.S. employer, earning $2 billion in 1993 when fully 640,000 Americans cashed its paychecks. In 1998, over one-fourth of the nation s work force worked in temporary or part-time positions. A Of those cut in downsizing, younger workers suffered higher rates of unemployment. In 1999, an average 11 percent of workers aged 16 to 24 were unemployed more than double the national rate. Three out of four young Americans expected to earn less money as adults than their parents did. FARMS AND FACTORIES The nation s shift to a service economy came at the expense of America s traditional workplaces. Manufacturing, which surpassed farming midcentury as the largest job sector, experienced a sharp decline in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1992, for example, 140,000 steelworkers did the same work that 240,000 had accomplished ten years earlier. Larry Pugh talked about the downsizing of a farm equipment factory in his hometown of Waterloo, Iowa. A PERSONAL VOICE LARRY PUGH There used to be 17,500 people working here.... Now there are Those people spent their money. They bought the cars. They bought the houses. They were replaced by people that are at the minimum wage seven or eight dollars an hour, not 15 or 20 dollars an hour. These people can hardly eke out a living at today s wages. quoted in Divided We Fall The decline in industrial jobs contributed to a drop in union membership. In 1945, 35 percent of American workers belonged to unions; by 1998, only 14 percent were union members. In the 1990s, unions had trouble organizing. High-tech and professional workers felt no need for unions, while low-wage service employees feared losing their jobs in a strike. Some workers saw their incomes decline. The increased use of computer-driven robots to make manufactured goods eliminated many jobs, but it also spurred a vibrant high-tech economy. Those with advanced training and specialized technical skills or a sense of entrepreneurial risktaking saw their salaries rise and their economic security expand. B MAIN IDEA Summarizing A How did the change from an industrial economy to a service economy affect Americans economic security? A. Answer Unlike factory jobs, most jobs in the service sector paid low wages. Also, many service jobs provided only contract or part-time work. B. Answer It led to higher unemployment, particularly in farms, factories, and in cities. It also resulted in the hiring of more temporary workers. MAIN IDEA Analyzing Effects B How did downsizing affect people? 1076 CHAPTER 34

14 Persons Employed in Three Economic Sectors* Year Farming Manufacturing Service Producing ,050 7,252 6, ,001 18,475 20, (projected) 3,618 24, ,867 *numbers in millions Sources: Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970; Statistical Abstracts of the United States, 1953, 1954, 1999 SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Charts 1. What sector of the U.S. economy has seen the greatest decline in workers over the past century? 2. In terms of employee participation, by roughly what percent is the service sector expected to grow between 1950 and 2006? Skillbuilder Answers: 1. farming percent Background See e-commerce on page R40 in the Economics Handbook. HIGH-TECH INDUSTRIES In the late 1990s, entrepreneurs turned innovative ideas about computer technology into huge personal fortunes, hoping to follow in the footsteps of Bill Gates, the decade s most celebrated entrepreneur. In 1975, Gates saw the advent of personal computers as a promising opportunity. He founded the software company Microsoft with his friend Paul Allen. In 2000, it had made him the wealthiest individual in the world, with assets estimated at about $60 billion. A frenetic outcropping of new businesses accompanied the explosive growth of the Internet late in the decade. The NASDAQ (National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation System), a technology-dominated stock index on Wall Street, rose dramatically as enthusiasm grew for high-tech businesses. These businesses were known as dotcoms, a nickname derived from their identities, or addresses, on the World Wide Web, which often ended in.com. The dotcoms expanded rapidly and attracted young talent and at times excessive investment funding for such untested fledgling companies. While many people were drawn into the startup Internet-based companies, others profited from quitting previous jobs to become day traders and exchange stock online. As technology sales accelerated and stock prices rose, personal fortunes increased for some. The euphoria of a seemingly unstoppable economy caused memories of recession to fade. Even industry giants, such as Microsoft and America Online, could not predict the speed with which the general public would adopt these new technologies. Thousands of smaller businesses were quick to anticipate the changes that the Internet would bring. Suddenly companies could work directly with consumers or with other companies. Many predicted that the price of doing business would fall dramatically and that overall worldwide productivity would jump dramatically, a combination not seen since the Industrial Age of the 19th century. The boom of new business was termed The New Economy. Highly overvalued, the NASDAQ fell sharply in 2000, however, and many personal fortunes evaporated. Nevertheless, the fast-growing technology sector gave birth to new fields of enterprise Web security, wireless communication, robotic engineering, and multimedia programming. At 18 years old, Shawn Fanning started a free music downloading service on the Internet called Napster. He became a multimillionaire after forming an alliance with a German media company. The United States in Today s World 1077

15 World Trading Blocs, 2000 Arctic Circle R U S S I A G8 C A N A D A G8 UNITED KINGDOM G8 GERMANY G8 FRANCE G8 G8 MONGOLIA PACIFIC OCEAN UNITED STATES G8 MEXICO ECUADOR PERU ATLANTIC OCEAN Tropic of Cancer VENEZUELA ALGERIA GABON ITALY LIBYA NIGERIA IRAQ SAUDI ARABIA IRAN KUWAIT QATAR UNITED ARAB EMIRATES CHINA SOUTH KOREA TAIWAN G8 JAPAN THAILAND VIETNAM BRUNEI PHILIPPINES MALAYSIA PAPUA NEW GUINEA SINGAPORE I N D O N E S I A 40 N 0 INDIAN OCEAN Tropic of Capricorn AUSTRALIA CHILE NEW ZEALAND G8 OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation G8 Group of Eight Andean Group ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations CACM/MCCA Central American Common Market CAEU Council of Arab Economic Unity CARICOM Caribbean Community and Common Market CIS Commonwealth of Independent States EFTA European Free Trade Association EU European Union MERCOSUR Southern Cone Common Market NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement SADC Southern African Development Community UDEAC Central African Customs and Economic Union GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER 1. Location What is the only G-8 country located outside Europe and North America? 2. Location To which world trade organizations does the United States belong? 60 W 100 E 140 E Change and the Global Economy In 1900, airplanes hadn t yet flown and telephone service was barely 20 years old. U.S. trade with the rest of the world was worth about $2.2 billion (roughly 12 percent of the economy). Nearly a century later, New Yorkers could hop a supersonic jet and arrive in London within three hours, information traveled instantly by fax machines and computers, and U.S. trade with other countries approached $2 trillion (more than 25 percent of the economy). As American companies competed for international and domestic markets, American workers felt the sting of competing with workers in other countries. INTERNATIONAL TRADE The expansion of U.S. trade abroad was an important goal of President Clinton s foreign policy, as his support of NAFTA had shown. In 1994, in response to increasing international economic competition among trading blocs, the United States joined many other nations in adopting a new version of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The new treaty lowered trade barriers, such as tariffs, and established the World Trade Organization (WTO) to resolve trade disputes. As President Clinton announced at the 1994 meeting of the Group of Seven, (the world s seven leading economic powers, which later became the Group of Eight when Russia joined in 1996), [T]rade as much as troops will increasingly define the ties that bind nations in the twenty-first century. Skillbuilder Answers: 1. Japan. 2. G8; NAFTA; APEC. 60 S 1078 CHAPTER 34

16 Background Job flight had occurred in the 1970s, when cheap but quality auto imports from Japan and Germany forced many U.S. workers out of high-paying jobs. C. Answer International trade agreements opened new markets, but companies exported work to countries with lower wages, costing Americans jobs. MAIN IDEA Analyzing Effects C What were some of the effects of NAFTA and GATT? INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION International trade agreements caused some American workers to worry about massive job flight to countries that produced the same goods as the United States but at a lower cost. In the 1990s, U.S. businesses frequently moved their operations to less economically advanced countries, such as Mexico, where wages were lower. After the passage of NAFTA, more than 100,000 low-wage jobs were lost in U.S. manufacturing industries such as apparel, auto parts, and electronics. Also, competition with foreign companies caused many U.S. companies to maintain low wages. Less economically advanced countries also offered some businesses an opportunity to evade the strict environmental regulations legislated in such developed nations as the United States. Just south of the U.S. border with Mexico, for example, foreign-owned maquiladoras, or assembly plants, were accused of operating irresponsibly, dumping poisonous chemical wastes on Mexican soil. To remain competitive, many U.S. businesses felt the need to make their operations more global in order to produce goods as economically as possible. Indeed, the shipping label for a product of one American electronics company reads: Made in one or more of the following countries: Korea, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Mauritius, Thailand, Indonesia, Mexico, Philippines. The exact country of origin is unknown. C With the U.S. economy undergoing such extensive change at the turn of the 21st century, feelings of insecurity were inevitable. Many Americans in all sectors of the economy feared being left behind by the rapid change. Other Americans, however, saw great opportunities for progress especially from the endless stream of new technology. In Montreal, Canada, on March 29, 2001, protesters demonstrate at a summit on globalization and the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). 1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. service sector downsize Bill Gates NASDAQ dotcom General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) MAIN IDEA 2. TAKING NOTES In a cluster diagram like the one below, record the major changes that occurred in the U.S. economy during the 1990s. Economic Changes CRITICAL THINKING 3. ANALYZING EFFECTS Explain who was negatively affected by the changes in the economy and what negative effects they suffered. Think About: who had the highest unemployment rates what types of jobs were eliminated what other negative effects there were 4. ANALYZING ISSUES How do you explain some Americans fears over the international trade agreements? 5. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Considering the economic changes described in this section, how do you think workers can best prepare themselves for the future? Which change has affected you the most? Explain. The United States in Today s World 1079

17 AMERICAN LITE RAT U R E Women Writers Reflect American Diversity The broadening of opportunities for American women that began in the 1970s is as evident in literature as it is in other fields. Toni Morrison, Mary Oliver, Nikki Giovanni, Amy Tan, Anne Tyler, Alice Walker, Marge Piercy, Sandra Cisneros these are just a few of the talented women novelists and poets who reflect the multicultural nature of the American identity. These women s writing shares a common characteristic that of conveying the American experience through the exploration of personal memories, nature, childhood, and family. NIKKI GIOVANNI In the late 1960s, Nikki Giovanni won instant attention as an African American poet writing about the Black Power movement. Since then her poetry has often focused on childhood, family ties, and other personal concerns. In the following poem, Giovanni deals with individual empowerment even under less than ideal circumstances. Choices if i can t do what i want to do then my job is to not do what i don t want to do it s not the same thing but it s the best i can do if i can t have what i want then my job is to want what i ve got and be satisfied that at least there is something more to want since i can t go where i need to go then i must go where the signs point though always understanding parallel movement isn t lateral when i can t express what i really feel i practice feeling what i can express and none of it is equal i know but that s why mankind alone among the mammals learns to cry Nikki Giovanni, Choices, from Cotton Candy on a Rainy Day (1978)

18 AMY TAN A native of Oakland, California, Amy Tan draws on personal experiences in The Joy Luck Club, a series of interconnected stories about four Chinese- American daughters and their immigrant mothers. The four mothers establish a club for socializing and playing the game of mahjong. My mother started the San Francisco version of the Joy Luck Club in 1949, two years before I was born. This was the year my mother and father left China with one stiff leather trunk filled only with fancy silk dresses. There was no time to pack anything else, my mother had explained to my father after they boarded the boat. Still his hands swam frantically between the slippery silks, looking for his cotton shirts and wool pants. When they arrived in San Francisco, my father made her hide those shiny clothes. She wore the same brown-checked Chinese dress until the Refugee Welcome Society gave her two hand-me-down dresses, all too large in sizes for American women. The society was composed of a group of white-haired American missionary ladies from the First Chinese Baptist Church. And because of their gifts, my parents could not refuse their invitation to join the church. Nor could they ignore the old ladies practical advice to improve their English through Bible study class on Wednesday nights and, later, through choir practice on Saturday mornings. This was how my parents met the Hsus, the Jongs, and the St. Clairs. My mother could sense that the women of these families also had unspeakable tragedies they had left behind in China and hopes they couldn t begin to express in their fragile English. Or at least, my mother recognized the numbness in these women s faces. And she saw how quickly their eyes moved when she told them her idea for the Joy Luck Club. Amy Tan, The Joy Luck Club (1989) SANDRA CISNEROS Sandra Cisneros is one of many Chicana writers to win fame in recent years. In The House on Mango Street, she traces the experiences of a poor Hispanic girl named Esperanza (Spanish for hope) and her warm-hearted family. Nenny is her sister. Text not available for use on CD-ROM. Please refer to the text in the textbook. THINKING CRITICALLY 1. Comparing From these selections, what can you infer about women s experiences in American life today? Cite passages to support your response. SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R8. 2. IINTERNET ACTIVITY CLASSZONE.COM Sandra Cisneros The House on Mango Street (1989) Visit the links for American Literature to find and choose selections for an anthology of writing by three contemporary American women. Write a capsule biography summarizing each writer s background and achievements. The United States in Today s World 1081

19 MAIN IDEA Technology and Modern Life WHY IT MATTERS NOW Terms & Names Advances in technology have increased the pace but also the comfort of many Americans daily lives. Providing access to the new technology and regulating its use are two current challenges facing 21st-century America. information superhighway Internet telecommute Telecommunications Act 0f 1996 genetic engineering One American's Story The crowds stand four-deep cheering for 12-year-old Rudy Garcia-Tolson as he captures a new national record for his age group at the San Diego half-marathon. Despite the loss of his legs, Rudy competes in sports and is headed for the 2004 paralympics. For years, Rudy was confined to a wheelchair. After undergoing a double amputation he was fitted with carbon fiber prostheses artificial replacements for missing body parts. These lightweight, strong, and durable new legs now make many things possible for Rudy. A PERSONAL VOICE RUDY GARCIA-TOLSON I told them to cut my legs off. I saw pictures of people running with prosthetic legs. I didn t want to stay in a wheelchair.... My legs won t stop me. Nothing stops me.... I like to show kids that there s no limitations kids or challenged people or adults, there s no limitations to what a person can do.... My motto is, if you have a brave heart, that's a powerful weapon. quoted in Press-Enterprise, January 1, 2000 Advances in medical technology have permitted Rudy to live a more fully active life. Throughout the 20th century and into the 21st, technological developments helped Americans become more active in many ways. Rudy Garcia-Tolson, 2001 The Communications Revolution The computer industry transformed the 1980s. Instead of giant mainframes and minicomputers, desktop workstations now ruled business. Home computers became widely available, and many thousands of people joined online subscription services that provided electronic mail and magazine-style information CHAPTER 34

20 Analyzing VACATION, 2000 By the end of the 20th century, millions of Americans owned any number of personal communication devices. People were able to speak to or correspond with each other instantaneously almost anytime, almost anywhere. The cartoon suggests that Americans are dependent on their communication devices, and that the once relaxing and peaceful family vacation has given way to the hustle and bustle of constant access. SKILLBUILDER Analyzing Political Cartoons 1. What modern-day communication devices are being used in this cartoon? 2. In what ways do the characters in this cartoon seem trapped by modern-day communications technology? SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R24. Vocabulary interface: the point of communication between a computer and any other entity, such as a printer or human operator ENTERING THE INFORMATION AGE The information superhighway a network of communication devices linking people and institutions across the nation and the world promised to advance the revolution that had begun with the personal computer. In 1994, Vice President Al Gore began to oversee the government s participation in developing this superhighway. Even though private industries would build the superhighway, the government would keep access democratic, ensure affordable service for everyone, protect privacy and property rights, and develop incentives for investors. The 1990s enjoyed explosive growth of the Internet, an international network linking computers and allowing almost instant transmittal of text, images, and sound. Originally developed in the late 1960s by the U.S. Department of Defense for defense research, the Internet drew early popularity at universities. By the mid-1990s Internet became a household word. Use of the network was further popularized by the World Wide Web, which provided a simple visual interface for words and pictures to be seen by an unlimited audience. As businesses, schools, and organizations began to use the Web as a primary form of communication, new forms of social interaction emerged. Users developed electronic presence in virtual worlds, fantasy environments created with electronics. NEW TOOLS, NEW MEDIA Through an electronic connection, such as a TV cable or phone line, users accessed an array of media, from streaming video to research archives, from on-line shopping catalogs to customized news broadcasts. Users could interact with each other across the world. By 2000, as many as 97 million Americans used the Internet regularly to send (electronic notes and messages), to share music, or to browse or search through pages on the Web. During the 1990s, classrooms across the nation increasingly used computer networking. Long-distance video and audio transmissions also linked American students. Some content was delivered not on networks but stored on a CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory), which evolved from music CDs that contained code for sound waves. CD-ROMs also carry digital code for pictures, text, and animation to be played on a computer. The United States in Today s World 1083

21 The late-20th-century advances in computers and communications have had an impact on American society and business comparable to the industrial developments of the late 1800s. Americans now have more entertainment options, as cable service has multiplied the number of television channels available and greater bandwidth offers the possibility for high-definition television. Because of cellular phones, fax machines, the Internet, and overnight shipping, people can more readily telecommute, or work out of their homes instead of going to an office every day. A LEGISLATING TECHNOLOGY In the 1980s, the government was slow to recognize the implications of the new communications technology. In 1994, however, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) began to auction the valuable rights to airwaves and collected over $9 billion. Then, with the rapid growth in the communications industry, the federal government took several steps to ensure that consumers received the best service. Congress passed the Telecommunications Act of 1996, removing barriers that had previously prevented one type of communications company from starting up or buying another related one. While it increased competition in the industry, the law also paved the way for major media mergers. When Capital Cities/ABC Inc. joined the Walt Disney Company, industry watchdogs noted that this reflected the trend toward concentrating media influence in the hands of a few powerful conglomerates. The passage of the Telecommunications Act won applause from the communications industry but only mixed reviews from the public. Consumer activists worried that the law would fail to ensure equal access to new technologies for rural residents and poor people. Civil rights advocates contended that the Communications Decency Act (part of the Telecommunications Act) restricted free speech because it barred the transmission of indecent materials to minors via the Internet. In addition, Congress also called for a V-chip in television sets a computer chip that would enable parents to block TV programs that they deemed inappropriate for their children. Parts of these laws were later struck down in court. B Scientific Advances Enrich Lives At NASA Langley Research Center in Virginia, an aerospace engineer wearing stereo glasses sees a 3-D view of a space station simulation, as shown in the background. The exciting growth in the telecommunications industry in the 1990s was matched by insights that revolutionized robotics, space exploration, and medicine. The world witnessed marvels that for many of the baby boom generation, people born in the late 1940s and the 1950s, echoed science fiction. SIMULATION, ROBOTICS, AND MACHINE INTELLIGENCE Visual imaging and artificial intelligence (a computer s ability to perform activities that require intelligence) were combined to provide applications in industry, medicine, and education. For example, virtual reality began with the flight simulators used to train military and commercial pilots. Today, with a headset that holds tiny video screens and earphones, and with a data glove that translates hand movements to a computer screen, a user can navigate a virtual landscape. Doctors have used virtual reality to take MAIN IDEA Summarizing A Explain the revolutionary nature of communicating via the Internet. A. Answer Communicating via the Internet provides nearly instantaneous transmission of text, image, and sound from a worldwide data network. MAIN IDEA Analyzing Effects B How might the Telecommunications Act affect consumers? B. Answer Consumers will probably enjoy increased choice and a greater variety of services CHAPTER 34

22 Background The International Space Station was established by joining and expanding upon the Russian station, Mir, and the American Spacelab. a computerized tour of a patient s throat and lungs to check for medical problems. Surgeons have performed long-distance surgery through telepresence systems gloves, computers, and robotic elements specially wired so that a doctor can operate on a patient hundreds of miles away. Architects and engineers have used virtual reality to create visual, rather than physical, models of their buildings, cars, and other designs. Modeling also affected the nightly newscast. Using supercomputers and improved satellite data, meteorologists could offer three-day weather forecasts that reached the accuracy of one-day forecasts of As technology became more sophisticated, computers increased in capability. IBM s Deep Blue defeated chess champion Garry Kasparov in Computational linguists steadily improved natural language understanding in computers, thus fine-tuning the accuracy of voice recognition systems. Robots grew more humanlike as engineers equipped them with high-capacity chips simulating brain function. By the year 2000, robots had the ability to walk on two legs, interact with people, learn taught behaviors, and express artificial feelings with facial gestures. SPACE EXPLORATION In the 1990s, astronomy expanded our view of the universe. In 1997, NASA s Pathfinder and its rover Sojourner transmitted live pictures of the surface of Mars to millions of Internet users. Shuttle missions, meanwhile, concentrated on scientific research and assembly, transport, and repair of orbiting objects, paving the way to possible human missions to Mars and other space travel in the coming century. NASA concentrated on working with other nations to build the International Space Station (ISS). The ISS promised to offer scientists a zero-gravity laboratory for research in medicine, space mechanics and architecture, and long-term living in space. Ellen Ochoa, part of the first shuttle crew to dock to the ISS, hoped to inspire young students: A PERSONAL VOICE ELLEN OCHOA I'm not trying to make everyone an astronaut, but I want students to think about a career and the preparation they ll need.... I tell students that the opportunities I had were a result of having a good educational background. Education is what allows you to stand out. quoted in Stanford University School of Engineering Annual Report, Another shuttle crew in 1993 aboard the Endeavour repaired the Hubble Space Telescope, which returns dazzling intergalactic views. In late 1995, astronomers using observatories discovered a planet orbiting the fourth closest star to Earth, the first planet to be detected outside our own solar system. Since then dozens more have been detected. Astronomers back on Earth have also spent considerable effort tracking asteroids and comets whose paths might collide with our planet. Astrobiologists hailed the discovery on Antarctica of a small meteorite that traveled to Earth from Mars about 15 million years ago. BIOTECHNOLOGY The most profound insight into the book of life came from the field of biotechnology. The Human Genome Project, an international effort to map the genes of the human body, and Celera, a private company in molecular biology, simultaneously announced in 2000 that they had sequenced nearly all of the human genome only a decade after the research began. Cooperation via the Internet and access to computerized databases by multiple research groups vastly accelerated the scientists ability to identify and order over three billion chemical Dr. Ellen Ochoa The United States in Today s World 1085

23 High school students Li-Ho (left) and Yu-Fong Hong (right), among the youngest scientists to have worked on the Human Genome Project, are shown at a San Ramon, California, laboratory. letters of the genetic code of DNA. Molecular biologists hoped that this genetic map would offer the key to treating many inherited diseases and diagnosing congenital disabilities, and that drug makers could one day design pharmaceuticals for each patient s particular profile. DNA had been in the spotlight before the breakthrough announcement. In well-publicized legal proceedings, prosecutors relied on DNA evidence to help prove the guilt of defendants who may have left behind a single hair at a crime scene. Others, wrongly imprisoned, were released when genetic analysis proved their innocence. But different opinions arose over some of the new biotechnology. Some speculated that technological progress outpaced social evolution and society s ability to grapple with the consequences. In 1997, Scottish researchers cloned Dolly the sheep from one cell of an adult sheep. Shortly thereafter, two Rhesus monkeys were cloned in Oregon, and many wondered whether human cloning was next. Firms sought to patent genes used for medical and research applications, using the principle of invention and property. Advances such as these, as well as gene therapy, artificial human chromosomes, and testing embryos for genetic defects all sparked heated debates among scientists, ethicists, religious leaders, and politicians. The use of genetic engineering the artificial changing of the molecular biology of organisms cells to alter an organism also aroused public concern. However, the Federal Department of Agriculture (FDA) holds that genetically engineered foods are safe and that they require no extra labeling. Scientists in the late 1990s modified corn and rice to provide resistance to pests and increase nutritional value. In 1996, the European Union limited the importation of such products in response to consumer pressure, allowing only those clearly labeled as having been genetically modified. MEDICAL PROGRESS People suffering from some diseases benefited from advances in medicine in the 1990s. Cancer survival rates improved drastically as clinicians explored the use of gene therapy, genetically engineered antibodies, and immune system modulation. Improvements in tracking the spread of HIV the virus that causes AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) through the body made researchers better prepared to find a cure. AIDS patients were treated with combination therapies, and public health officials advocated abstinence and safer sex practices to control the spread of HIV. Improved technology for making medical diagnoses offered new hope as well. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), for example, was used to produce crosssectional images of any part of the body. Advances that will make the MRI procedure ten times faster will also make MRI more widely available and cheaper to use. Medical researchers look ahead to using fleets of tiny nanosensors onethousandth the width of a human hair to find tumors and to deploying nanobots to repair tissues and even genes. C Background In 1998, less than 13,500 Americans died from AIDS, roughly one-third the 1992 number. C. Answer It improved diagnosis. MAIN IDEA Summarizing C Describe how technology affected health care CHAPTER 34

24 Science ALTERNATIVE CARS In an effort to reduce the nation s dependence on fossil fuels, researchers have been working to develop a cleaner car, or one that runs on something other than gasoline. Such alternative models include an electric car, which uses a rechargable battery and gas power, and a vehicle that runs on compressed natural gas. Carl Bielenberg of Calais, Vermont, holds a container of seeds of the jatropha plant. He runs his compact car on vegetable oil that is made from the seed. A solar-powered car built by high school students from Saginaw, Michigan, makes its way through busy traffic. ENVIRONMENTAL MEASURES With the spreading use of technology came greater concern about the impact of human activities on the natural environment. Scientists have continued examining ways to reduce American dependence on pollution-producing fossil fuels. Fossil fuels such as oil provided 85 percent of the energy in the United States in the 1990s but also contributed to poor air quality, acid rain, and global warming. Many individuals have tried to help by reducing consumption of raw materials. By the early 1990s, residents set out glass bottles and jars, plastic bottles, newspapers, phone books, cardboard, and aluminum cans for recycling at curbsides, and consumers purchased new products synthesized from recycled materials. 1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. information superhighway Internet telecommute Telecommunications Act of 1996 genetic engineering MAIN IDEA 2. TAKING NOTES On a chart like the one shown, list four of the technological changes described in this section and explain how each change has affected your life. Technological Change Effect on Me CRITICAL THINKING 3. MAKING INFERENCES Explain how government, business, and individuals are important to the existence of the information superhighway. Think About: the costs of developing the superhighway the equipment and personnel needed to maintain it who uses the superhighway and why they use it 4. ANALYZING ISSUES Why is genetic engineering a source of controversy? 5. EVALUATING Which area of technological change described in this section do you think was the most important one for the country? Explain. The United States in Today s World 1087

25 The Changing Face of America MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW Terms & Names At the end of the 20th century, the U.S. population grew more diverse both in ethnic background and in age. Americans of all backgrounds share common goals: the desire for equal rights and economic opportunity. urban flight gentrification Proposition 187 One American's Story Every ten years the United States conducts a census, or head count of its population. The results of the census determine, among other things, how billions of federal dollars are spent for housing, health care, and education over the coming decade. The Census Bureau estimates that the 1990 census undercounted Latinos by more than five percent. This undercount resulted in a loss of millions of dollars of aid to municipalities with large Latino populations, as well as denying Latinos political representation in all levels of government. During the latest census conducted in 2000, Antonia Hernandez, President and General Counsel of the Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (MALDEF), spearheaded the national Hágase Contar! Make Yourself Count! campaign. MALDEF workers canvassed neighborhoods urging residents to complete the census. They stressed that all information was confidential and discussed the high stakes of being counted. A PERSONAL VOICE ANTONIA HERNANDEZ The census not only measures our growth and marks our place in the community, but it is the first and indispensable step toward fair political representation, equal distribution of resources, and enforcement of our civil rights. Public statement for Hágase Contar! campaign, 2000 Data from the 2000 census revealed that the Hispanic population had grown by close to 58 percent since 1990, reaching 35.3 million. The 2000 census also confirmed a vast increase in what were once ethnic minorities. Antonia Hernandez, MALDEF s president Urban Flight One of the most significant socio-cultural changes in American history has been the movement of Americans from the cities to the suburbs. The years after World War II through the 1980s saw a widespread pattern of urban flight, the process in which Americans left the cities and moved to the suburbs. At mid-century, the population of cities exceeded that of suburbs. By 1970, the ratio became even CHAPTER 34

26 MAIN IDEA Analyzing Causes A List the factors that influenced middleclass residents to leave cities for suburbs. A. Answer Overcrowding; crime; better schools in the suburbs. In the year 2000, after decades of decline, some major cities across the country had increased their populations while others slowed or halted declines. The transformation of the United States into a nation of suburbs had intensified the problems of the cities. CAUSES OF URBAN CHANGE Several factors contributed to the movement of Americans out of the cities. Because of the continued movement of job-seeking Americans into urban areas in the 1950s and 1960s, many urban American neighborhoods became overcrowded. Overcrowding in turn contributed to such urban problems as increasing crime rates and decaying housing. During the 1970s and early 1980s, city dwellers who could afford to do so moved to the suburbs for more space, privacy, and security. Often, families left the cities because suburbs offered newer, less crowded schools. As many middleclass Americans left cities for the suburbs, the economic base of many urban neighborhoods declined, and suburbs grew wealthy. Following the well-educated labor force, more industries relocated to suburban areas in the 1990s. The economic base that provided tax money and supported city services in large cities such as New York, Detroit, and Philadelphia continued to shrink as people and jobs moved outward. In addition, many downtown districts fell into disrepair as suburban shoppers abandoned city stores for suburban shopping malls. According to the 1990 census, the 31 most impoverished communities in the United States were in cities. A By the mid-1990s, however, as the property values in the nation s inner cities declined, many people returned to live there. In a process known as gentrification, they purchased and rehabilitated deteriorating urban property, oftentimes displacing lower income people. Old industrial sites and neighborhoods in locations convenient to downtown became popular, especially among young, single adults who preferred the excitement of city life and the uniqueness of urban neighborhoods to the often more uniform environment of the suburbs. History Through REBUILDING THE RIVERFRONTS As part of the effort to revitalize cities, a number of architects, landscape architects, and urban planners have focused on enhancing what for many urban centers had become a neglected eyesore their waterfronts. In Pittsburgh, landscape architects turned a dreary strip of concrete and parking lot into Allegheny Riverfront Park, an inviting stretch of natural walkways and recreation areas. SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Visual Sources 1. Why might landscape architects consider improving riverfronts to be a key part of revitalizing cities? 2. In what other ways could architects and urban designers make city living more attractive? SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R23. Allegheny Riverfront Park in 1999 The Allegheny River waterfront in 1984 The United States in Today s World 1089

27 Skillbuilder Answers: and About 125%. SUBURBAN LIVING While many suburbanites continued to commute to city jobs during the 1990s, increasing numbers of workers began to telecommute, or use new communications technology, such as computers, modems, and fax machines, to work from their homes. Another notable trend was the movement of minority populations to the suburbs. Nationwide, by the early 1990s, about 43 percent of the Latino population and more than half of the Asian-American population lived in suburbs. Suburban growth led to intense competition between suburbs and cities, and among the suburbs themselves, for business and industry. Since low-rise suburban homes yielded low tax revenues, tax-hungry suburbs offered tax incentives for companies to locate within their borders. These incentives resulted in lower tax revenues for local governments meaning that less funds were available for schools, libraries, and police departments. Consequently, taxes were often increased to fund these community services as well as to build the additional roads and other infrastructure necessary to support the new businesses. The shift of populations from cities to suburbs was not the only significant change in American life in the 1990s. The American public was also growing older, and its aging raised complex issues for American policymakers. The Graying of America, Year Number of Americans Percent of U.S. 65 and older* population , , ,385** 13.2** ,733** 16.5** ,319** 20** *numbers in thousands **projected totals Source: U.S. Census Bureau; Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2000 SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Charts 1. Between what years is America s elderly population expected to grow the most? 2. By roughly what percentage is America s elderly population expected to increase between 1990 and 2030? The Aging of America The 2000 census documents that Americans were older than ever before, with a median age of 35.3 two years older than a decade prior. Increased longevity and the aging of the baby boom generation were the primary reasons for the rising median age. Behind the rising median age lie several broad trends. The country s birthrate has slowed slightly, and the number of seniors has increased as Americans live longer because of advances in medical care and living healthier lifestyles. The number of people over 85 has increased at a faster rate than any other segment of the population, to 4.3 million in the year The graying of America has placed new demands on the country s programs that provide care for the elderly. These programs accounted for only 6 percent of the national budget in It was projected that the programs would consume about 39 percent of the budget by The major programs that provide care for elderly and disabled people are Medicare and Social Security. Medicare, which pays medical expenses for senior citizens, began in 1965, when most Americans had lower life expectancies. By 2000, the costs of this program exceeded $200 billion. Vocabulary infrastructure: the basic facilities, services, and installations needed for the functioning of a community or society Senior athletes compete at the first U.S. National Senior Olympics held in St. Louis, Missouri, in CHAPTER 34

28 MAIN IDEA Predicting Effects B What are the factors that will force an eventual restructuring of Social Security? B. Answer Increased life expectancy; the huge babyboom generation; declining birthrate. Social Security, which pays benefits to retired Americans, was designed to rely on continued funding from a vast number of younger workers who would contribute taxes to support a small number of retired workers. That system worked well when younger workers far outnumbered retirees and when most workers didn t live long after retirement. In 1996, it took Social Security contributions from three workers to support every retiree. By 2030, however, with an increase in the number of elderly persons and an expected decline in the birthrate, there will be only two workers contributions available to support each senior citizen. Few issues loomed as large in the 2000 presidential election as what to do about Social Security. If President Bush and Congress do not restructure the system, Social Security will eventually pay out more money than it will take in. Some people suggest that the system be reformed by raising deductions for workers, taxing the benefits paid to wealthier Americans, and raising the age at which retirees can collect benefits. B The Shifting Population In addition to becoming increasingly suburban and elderly, the population of the United States has also been transformed by immigration. Between 1970 and 2000, the country s population swelled from 204 million to more than 284 million. Immigration accounted for much of that growth. As the nation s newest residents yearned for U.S. citizenship, however, other Americans debated the effects of immigration on American life. A CHANGING IMMIGRANT POPULATION The most recent immigrants to the United States differ from immigrants of earlier years. The large numbers of immigrants who entered the country before and just after 1900 came from Europe. Skillbuilder Answers: 1. Iowa and Mississippi. 2. The map shows immigrants are moving to the Midwest and Northwest, but does not show the absolute numbers. Change in U.S. Immigration, 2000 Increase in Number of Immigrants 200% or greater 100 to 199% 66 to 99% 65% or less Immigrant population increased nationally by 65%. CALIF. WASH. OREGON NEVADA ALASKA IDAHO UTAH ARIZONA MONTANA WYOMING COLORADO NEW MEXICO N. DAK. MINN. S. DAK. NEBRASKA KANSAS OKLAHOMA TEXAS IOWA MO. ARK. LA. WIS. ILL. MICH. IND. KY. TENN. OHIO MISS. ALA. GA. W. VA. PENN. S.C. FLA. VA. N.C. N.Y. VT. MAINE N.H. MASS. R.I. CONN. N.J. DEL. MD. HAWAII Source: U.S. Census Bureau GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER 1. Movement Which states show the greatest rise in numbers of immigrants? 2. Movement In the past, immigrants settled in the U.S. along borders and coastlines. Has this changed in 2000? Explain. The United States in Today s World 1091

29 Lowe Shee Miu, of Oakland, California, stands in front of a monument commemorating Chinese immigrants at Angel Island the Ellis Island of the West. In contrast, about 45 percent of immigrants since the 1960s have come from the Western Hemisphere, primarily Mexico, and 30 percent from Asia. In Mexico, for example, during three months in , the Mexican peso was devalued by 73 percent. The devaluation made the Mexican economy decline. As a result, almost a million Mexicans lost their jobs. Many of the unemployed headed north in search of jobs in the United States. This search for a better opportunity continues today as thousands of immigrants and refugees more than 2,000 legal and 4,000 10,000 illegal arrive each day. About 4,000 of those who enter illegally are deported to Mexico shortly after crossing the U.S.-Mexico border. To help those seeking more opportunity in America, in July 2001, President Bush s administration proposed a temporary guest worker program for the 3 million Mexicans residing illegally in the United States. Based on the 2000 census, it was reported that patterns of immigration are changing the country s ethnic and racial makeup. By 2001, for example, California had become a majority minority state, with Asian Americans, Latinos, African Americans, and Native Americans making up more than half its population. The 2000 census indicated that if current trends continue, by the year 2050 Latinos will become the nation s largest minority community overall. DEBATES OVER IMMIGRATION POLICY The presence of such a large number of immigrants has also added to the continuing debate over U.S. immigration policies. Many Americans believe that their country can t absorb more immigrants. By the early 1990s, an estimated 3.2 million illegal immigrants from Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Haiti had made their way to the United States. Many illegal immigrants also arrived from Canada, Poland, China, and Ireland. They took jobs many Americans turned down, as farm workers and domestic servants often receiving the minimum wage or less and no benefits. By 2001, between 5 and 6 million illegal immigrants resided in the United States. Hostility toward illegal immigration peaked in California and Florida, two states with high percentages of immigrants. In 1994, Florida Governor Lawton Chiles filed suit against the U.S. government for its continuing failure to enforce or rationally administer its own immigration laws. That same year, California passed Proposition 187, which cut all education and nonemergency health benefits to illegal immigrants. By March 1998, Proposition 187 was ruled unconstitutional. Although never implemented, the law inspired political participation among Hispanic voters, who saw themselves as targets. As more immigrants make their way to the U.S. and the nation s ethnic composition changes, debates about immigration will continue. Those who favor tighter restrictions argue that immigrants take desired jobs. Others, however, point to America s historical diversity and the new ideas and energy immigrants bring. C Background The U.S. Census has asked a race question on every census since the first survey in Since 1890, the categories and definitions have changed with nearly every census. C. Answer Americans fear job competition with immigrants who would work for low wages and the high social welfare expenses of immigrants. MAIN IDEA Comparing C How are current arguments against immigration similar to those used in the past? 1092 CHAPTER 34

30 NATIVE AMERICANS CONTINUE LEGAL BATTLES As the nation debated its immigrant policies, the ancestors of America s original inhabitants continued to struggle. The end of the 20th century found most members of this minority enduring extremely difficult lives. In 2001, about 32 percent of Native Americans lived below the poverty line, more than three times the poverty rate for white Americans. Furthermore, Native Americans endured a suicide rate that was 72 percent higher than that of the general population and an alcoholism rate seven times greater. In the face of such hardships, Native Americans strived to improve their lives. Throughout the 1990s, dozens of tribes attained greater economic independence by establishing thriving gaming resorts. Although controversial for promoting gambling, reservation gaming a nearly $10 billion a year industry by 2000 provided Native Americans with much-needed money for jobs, education, social services, and infrastructure. Over the past decades, Native Americans have used the courts to attain greater recognition of their tribal ancestry and land rights. In 1999, for example, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Chippewa Indians of Minnesota retained fishing and hunting rights on some 13 million acres of land that were guaranteed to them in an 1837 treaty. Across the nation, a number of other tribes have had similar land rights affirmed. America in a New Millennium As the 21st century begins, Americans face both new problems and old ones. Environmental concerns have become a global issue and have moved to center stage. Furthermore, poverty remains a problem for many Americans in the late 20th century, as does the increasing threat that terrorist acts pose to Americans at home and abroad. It is clear that the new century America faces will bring changes, but those changes need not deepen divisions among Americans. With effort and cooperation, the change could foster growth and tolerance. The 20th century brought new ways of both destroying and enriching lives. What will the 21st bring? Much will depend on you the dreamers, the decision makers, and the voters of the future. 1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. urban flight gentrification Proposition 187 MAIN IDEA 2. TAKING NOTES Demography is the study of statistics about human populations. Use a table like the one below to summarize the demographic changes occurring in the United States. Demographic Changes Urban distribution Age Ethnic and racial makeup CRITICAL THINKING 3. HYPOTHESIZING As urban problems become more common in the suburbs, how might the residents of suburbs respond? Base your answer on existing behavior patterns. Think About: the spread of suburbs farther and farther from the city the new ability to telecommute the tax problems that suburbs face 4. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING How was the immigration that occurred in the years similar to and different from earlier waves of immigration? 5. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS How do disagreements over immigration policy reflect the benefits and challenges of a diverse population? The United States in Today s World 1093

31 T R AC I NG T H E M E S Immigration and Migration Immigrants to the United States have been part of a worldwide movement pushing people away from traditional means of support and pulling them toward better opportunities. Most immigrants have left their homelands because of economic problems, though some have fled oppressive governments or political turmoil. War has often been the deciding factor for people to immigrate to the United States or to migrate within the country. Others have migrated to escape poverty, religious persecution, and racial violence. But the chief lure in coming to the United States or migrating within its borders continues to be the opportunity to earn a living. 1840s MIGRATING TO THE WEST Throughout the 19th century, Americans continued their movement westward to the Pacific Ocean. Victory in the War with Mexico in 1848 greatly increased the amount of land under American control, and thousands of Americans moved out West to take advantage of it. Two important consequences emerged from this movement. First, following the discovery of gold in California, hundreds of thousands of people from around the world rushed in to strike it rich. Within a year, there were enough residents in California to qualify it for statehood. Second, Americans disagreed over whether the new lands should be open to slavery. That disagreement fueled the fires that led to the Civil War CHAPTER ADAPTING TO AMERICAN WAYS With hope and apprehension, millions of foreign immigrants poured into America s pulsing cities during the early 20th century. Bringing with them values, habits, and attire from the Old World, they faced a multitude of new experiences, expectations, and products in the New World. Many native-born Americans feared that the new immigrants posed a threat to American culture. Instead of the immigrants being allowed to negotiate their existence by combining the old with the new, they were pressured to forget their old cultures, languages, and customs for more American ways.

32 1940s MIGRATING FOR JOBS Throughout the 20th century, African Americans migrated across the United States. In the Great Migration of the early 20th century, they left their homes in the rural South. Of the millions of African Americans who left, most moved to cities, usually in the North. The Second Migration, sparked by World War II, allowed African Americans to take industrial jobs many formerly held by whites to support the war effort. This migration had lasting consequences for the civil rights movement. Many African Americans who remained in the South moved to cities, where they developed organizations that helped them fight segregation IN SEARCH OF A NEW LIFE In 1964, 603 Vietnamese lived in the United States. A decade later, as the Vietnam War ended, hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese refugees fled their homeland for other nations, including the United States. Vietnamese immigration to America continued, and by 1998 there were nearly 1 million Vietnamese-born persons living in the United States. The men and women who made this long and arduous journey from Vietnam are part of the changing face of U.S. immigration. Beginning in the 1970s, Asians and Latin Americans replaced Europeans as the two largest immigrant groups in the United States. Between 1970 and 1990, about 1.5 million Europeans journeyed to America s shores. During that same period, roughly 5.6 million Latin Americans and 3.5 million Asians arrived. This trend continued into the 1990s, as the largest immigrant groups in the United States in 1995 hailed from Mexico, the Philippines, Vietnam, and China. These most recent arrivals to America have come for largely the same reasons greater freedom and economic opportunity and the chance to begin a new life. THINKING CRITICALLY CONNECT TO HISTORY 1. Forming Generalizations Based on what you have read about immigration, what generalizations can you make about the causes that led to a rise in the number of immigrants to the United States? How have wars affected the flow of immigration? How does this affect economic change? SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R21. CONNECT TO TODAY 2. Research Interview family members and people in your community to find out how immigration and migration have shaped your current surroundings. Try to record specific stories and events that compare a recent immigration with one in the more distant past. IRESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM The United States in Today s World 1095

33 CHAPTER ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES For each term or name below, write a sentence explaining its significance. 1. William Jefferson 6. General Agreement on Clinton Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 2. NAFTA 7. Telecommunications Act 3. Contract with of 1996 America 8. genetic engineering 4. George W. Bush 9. urban flight 5. service sector 10. Proposition 187 MAIN IDEAS Use your notes and the information in the chapter to answer the following questions. The 1990s and The New Millennium (pages ) 1. What happened following the investigation of President Clinton? 2. What factors led George W. Bush to victory in 2000? The New Global Economy (pages ) 3. Summarize which parts of the economy grew during the 1990s and which declined. 4. Why was the World Trade Organization founded? Technology and Modern Life (pages ) 5. What resources did the Internet make available? 6. What were the positive and negative influences that technology had on American lives in the 1990s? The Changing Face of America (pages ) 7. How has urban flight changed both cities and suburbs? 8. What challenges do experts think the United States will face in the future? CRITICAL THINKING 1. USING YOUR NOTES Create a time line of important events from the 2000 election, using a form like the one below. event event event event Which event do you think was the turning point? Explain. 2. PREDICTING EFFECTS Compile a list of technological innovations of the late 20th century described in the chapter. Then predict what kinds of technological advancements might change American life during the 21st century. 3. INTERPRETING MAPS Look carefully at the map on page What might account for the high percentage change in numbers of immigrants in Iowa and Mississippi, compared with more traditional destinations such as California and New York? VISUAL SUMMARY THE UNITED STATES IN TODAY S WORLD POLITICS Clinton is impeached. U.S. becomes involved in conflicts in the Balkans and the Middle East. Election 2000 is settled by the Supreme Court; George W. Bush wins. TECHNOLOGY Technological revolution transforms daily life. Advanced communications allow wider contact. Inventions improve health and lifestyle. ECONOMICS U.S. records its longest economic expansion. Service industries grow; manufacturing declines; telecommuting increases. Trade relations become globalized. DEMOGRAPHICS Minorities move to suburbs; urban living attracts single adults. Changing immigration policy affects culture. Native Americans dispute land rights. 1096

34 Standardized Test Practice Use the graphs below and your knowledge of U.S. history to answer questions 1 and 2. Racial and Ethnic Mix of the U.S., LATINOS 22,354,059 NON-LATINOS Blacks 29,216,293 Asians and Pacific Islanders 6,968,359 American Indians and Alaskan Natives 1,793,773 Others 249,093 Whites 188,128,296 Source: U.S. Census 1990 census 248,709, census 281,421,906 LATINOS 35,305,818 NON-LATINOS Blacks 33,947,837 Asians 10,123,169 American Indians and Alaskan Natives 2,068,883 Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders 353,509 Others 467,770 Two or more races 4,602,146 Whites 194,552,774 1.Which U.S. population increased the most between 1990 and 2000? A Latinos B Native Americans C whites D blacks 2. What conclusion can be drawn from the 2000 census data, compared with the data from 1990? F There were more immigrants in the Midwest. G The population of non-latino whites declined. H The 2000 census reflects a broader range of categories. J Immigration has slowed in the 1990s. 3. Which country was not a member of the G8 in 2000? A China B Japan C Italy D United States ADDITIONAL TEST PRACTICE, pages S1 S33. ITEST PRACTICE CLASSZONE.COM ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT 1. INTERACT Recall your discussion of the question on page 1065: WITH HISTORY What are the most important issues that affect the world today? As a think tank director who researches and analyzes future issues, you are asked to write a concise summary of the five most important issues facing Americans in the 21st century. Present and distribute your summary to the class. 2. IINTERNET ACTIVITY CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links for Chapter Assessment to research the results of the 2000 census. What are some important facts and trends? Consider the following: What significant changes took place in the United States during the 1990s? What states increased the most in population? the least? What changes took place in your state? Present your findings in an organized poster. The United States in Today s World 1097

35 1098

36 Foreign Policy 1100 The Debate over Immigration 1102 Crime and Public Safety 1104 Issues in Education 1106 The Communications Revolution 1108 Curing the Health Care System 1110 Breaking the Cycle of Poverty 1112 Tough Choices About Social Security 1114 Women in the Work Force 1116 The Conservation Controversy

37 Foreign Policy How can the United States extend democratic ideals to other nations? In the spring of 2000, U.S. Representative David Phelps of Illinois found himself struggling over the debate in Congress about trade relations with China. Farmers in his district supported the establishment of strong trading ties with China because it would open a large market to American goods. Labor leaders and human rights activists voiced their opposition, arguing that ending restrictions on trade with China would cost hundreds of jobs in the United States and reward a repressive government. Human rights... are at the top of my list, Phelps said, but I don t want to look back on my first term and feel I hurt the country s prosperity. The China debate and how to balance prosperity with the promotion of democracy exemplifies the type of foreign policy issues that America faces as it enters the 21st century. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE The United States emerged from World War II ready to exert its influence in world affairs. For the next several decades, U.S. foreign policy had a clear goal: to win the Cold War. This aim prompted the key foreign policy decisions of the post World War II era. Evidence that the Cold War had ended came in February 1992 when Russian president Boris Yeltsin and Critics say that it is unrealistic to believe that democracy can be adopted everywhere. President George Bush issued a statement promising future partnership between the two nations. The statement was the climax of several years of turmoil in the Communist bloc, including the breakup of the Soviet Union in Since then, the United States has explored new goals and policies for its involvement in foreign affairs. Americans debating the U.S. role in world affairs at the start of the new millennium have focused on three issues: promoting democracy in the world, protecting human rights, and opening world markets to American goods. PROMOTING DEMOCRACY Strobe Talbott, deputy secretary of state during the Clinton administration, urged an active American role in promoting democracy around the world. [The more] nations that choose democratic forms of government, the safer and more prosperous Americans will be, he said, since democracies are demonstrably more likely to maintain their international commitments, less likely to engage in terrorism or wreak environmental damage, and less likely to make war on each other. Critics say that it is unrealistic to believe that democracy can be adopted everywhere. Former presidential candidate Pat Buchanan scoffed at the idea that American democracy can be replicated [around the world]... if only we put enough men, money, and muscle into the great crusade. Talbott disagreed. He pointed to the surge of democracy in many parts of the world in the 1990s. In places as diverse as Taiwan, Argentina, and Serbia, voters took part in elections to freely choose their own leaders. Although the shift to democracy can be painful, suspenseful, and downright messy, democracy is attractive. People, Talbott said, like to vote. PROTECTING HUMAN RIGHTS Since the 1970s, when President Jimmy Carter established a Bureau of Human Rights in the State Department, U.S. foreign policy has often emphasized basic human rights for people in other countries. History of U.S. Foreign Policy Since World War I United States abandons neutrality and enters World War I (page 586). United States enters World War II (pages ). United Nations created (page 809); Truman and Stalin clash (page 810). United States adopts policy of containment against communism (page 811). Berlin Wall erected to divide Communist and non-communist Berlin. (pages ). U.S. and U.S.S.R. square off in Cuban missile crisis (pages ).

38 But Aryeh Neier, former head of Human Rights Watch, argues that the United States exhibits a dangerous double standard on human rights. While American leaders push smaller nations to fix human rights problems, they often ignore abuses committed by politically or economically important nations. Neier argues that this policy will fail in the long run. Jeffrey Garten, once a senior trade official in the Commerce Department, agrees that promoting human rights is important. However, to critics who argue that America should not trade with countries with poor records on human rights, Garten responds that increased trade improves the lives of people in both nations. By increasing wages abroad, Garten contends, U.S. companies raise the standard of living. OPENING WORLD MARKETS The issue of protecting human rights is related to the U.S. goal of gaining its share of emerging international markets including those in China, Mexico, and Turkey. Some of these countries have poor human-rights records, yet U.S. officials have not imposed sanctions against them. In 2000, after much debate in Congress, the United States normalized trade relations with China, despite cases of human rights violations. President Clinton, who lobbied hard to grant China normal trading status, argued that engaging, not isolating, China s repressive government is the best way to improve human rights conditions there. This landmark agreement, he said, will extend economic pros- perity at home and promote economic freedom in China, increasing the prospect for openness in China and a more peaceful future for all of us. Others suggest that the best way to balance the need for gaining markets and protecting human rights is for several governments to pressure an offending nation to remedy human rights abuses. Many believe that the United States can play a leadership role in bringing about such cooperation. GLOBAL COOPERATION Following a similar path of engaging and not isolating, leaders of the seven major industrialized nations and Russia the Group of Eight (G8) met in Genoa, Italy, in 2001 to discuss mutual political, economic, and health issues. Although the summit was First major U.S. combat units arrive in Vietnam (page 942). Nixon visits China and the Soviet Union (pages ). Leaders of the Group of Eight (G8) summit in Genoa, Italy, in 2001 represent (left to right) Japan (Junichiro Koizumi), United Kingdom (Tony Blair), United States (George W. Bush), France (Jacques Chirac), Italy (Silvio Berlusconi), Russia (Vladimir Putin), Canada (Jean Chrétien), and Germany (Gerhard Schroeder). The Soviet Union collapses, bringing an end to the Cold War (pages ). President Bush and Russian president Putin negotiate each country s nuclear arsenal for a post Cold-War world. rocked by violent anti-globalization demonstrations, President George W. Bush achieved a major foreign policy aim when Russian president Vladimir Putin agreed to meet with him and discuss new arms talks on offensive and defensive weapons. Echoing his father s foreign policy stand almost ten years before, Bush announced, We re basically saying the Cold War is forever over, and the vestiges [evidence] of the Cold War that locked us both into a hostile situation are over. PREDICTING EFFECTS What effect will the normalization of trade with China have on the human rights record of the Chinese government? RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links for the Epilogue to find out more about Foreign Policy. Epilogue 1101

39 The Debate over Immigration Should new laws restrict or expand immigration? Briam Saiti left war-torn Bosnia and arrived in New York City, where he worked to save money to send for his brother and parents. But his family may never be able to join him. For hundreds of years, immigrants working for their dreams have shaped the United States. Latino ranchers developed many of the tools and skills of the American cowboy. Chinese laborers laid the tracks of the transcontinental railroad. African Americans, though not voluntary immigrants, labored to develop the agriculture of the South and the industry of the North. Farmers and workers of every origin and ethnicity built the nation we know today. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE But immigration has been argued throughout American history. In the 1700s, Benjamin Franklin worried about the number of Germans immigrating to Pennsyl-vania. Anti-immigration sentiment spurred the nativist movement that developed in the 1830s and the America First campaign of the 1920s. Americans today are divided on the issue. Some agree with New York City mayor Rudolph Giuliani that immigrants challenge us with new ideas and new perspectives. Others side with Dan Stein of the Federation for American Immigration Reform, who has said The U.S. has this terrible problem.... The smartest people in the world want to come here. JENNIFER HUNT, ECONOMIST that large-scale immigration is not serving the needs and interests of the country. RISING NUMBERS From 1900 into the 1940s, economic troubles and rapid population growth spurred more than 16 million Europeans to move to the United States. The same pressures have recently hit Asia and Latin America, with the same effect on the United States. Between 1970 and 1998, the immigrant population of the United States nearly tripled, soaring to over 26 million. ILLEGAL ENTRY Complicating the debate has been the issue of illegal immigrants. By 1996, some 5 million people had entered the country illegally. Most undocumented immigrants have jobs but usually receive low pay and no benefits. Although these people do not pay taxes, they also often receive government-funded services. Pete Wilson, the former governor of California, echoed his constituents when he said, There s a right way to come to America and a wrong way. In 1994, California s voters approved Proposition 187, denying illegal immigrants access to public education and state-funded health care. A federal court later ruled that law unconstitutional. In 1996, Congress passed a law that toughened measures to bar illegal entry into the United States. ECONOMIC DEBATE Those who favor limits claim that immigrants take jobs from Americans. However, data suggest that immigration has not hurt the economy and may have helped fuel its growth. At the same time that millions of immigrant workers including undocumented workers were joining the work force, unemployment fell from 7.1 percent in 1980 to 4.3 percent in March 2001, the lowest rate in 30 years. Another economic argument focuses on wages. Economists agree that immigrants tend to work for lower wages than native-born workers. History of Immigration in the United States Benjamin Franklin denounces German immigrants. Nativists form Know- Nothing Party to protest increase in immigration (page 319). Chinese Exclusion Act severely restricts immigration from China (page 460). President Cleveland vetoes bill requiring immigrants to pass literacy test. Emergency Quota Act begins era of limits on immigration (page 621).

40 Members of the Latin American community in Los Angeles raise their hands to bless fruit baskets as a sign of immigrants daily work in California s fields. The sign reads This fruit is the product of immigrants labor. A team of Harvard University economists estimated that one-third of the gap between low-paid and high-paid workers results from higher numbers of immigrants. But they also reported that other factors foreign trade, declining union membership, and new technology play a greater role in lowering wages. At the other end of the spectrum, immigrants fill skilled, highpaying jobs as well. Current law allows 195,000 highly skilled immigrants to enter the country each year. Businesses have lobbied hard for Congress to increase this number. Yale University economist Jennifer Hunt sees the irony in this issue: The U.S. has this terrible problem.... The smartest people in the world want to come here. CITIZENSHIP RESPONSIBILITY Some people are concerned that many immigrants never become citizens and so fail to completely participate in American life. Statistics show that the percentage of immigrants gaining citizenship declined from 64 percent in 1970 to 35 percent in 1997, the lowest rate in the past century. Experts attribute the sharp drop to a variety of factors, including rising numbers of illegal immigrants, a backlog of applications, and a presumed lack of interest among many immigrants. The oath of U.S. citizenship carries with it such responsibilities as voting, serving on juries, and, in some cases, military service. CULTURAL CONCERNS The diversity of population in the United States has raised concerns that America has no common culture. Some say that at 10 percent of the population, foreigners are too numerous in America. Historian David Kennedy points out that in 1910 the percentage was much higher 14.7 percent Immigration Act loosens restrictions in place since 1921 (page 897). California passes Proposition 187, excluding benefits to illegal immigrants (page 1092). Congress passes laws that limit benefits to illegal immigrants. Census Bureau estimates nation s foreign-born at 28.4 million, or 1 in 10 residents (page 1092). Those who favor limits claim that new immigrants do not mix with other groups, forming ethnic neighborhoods that divide society. Others believe that immigrants enrich American life with diverse music, arts, and ideas. MORAL ISSUES The issue of asylum providing a safe place for people fleeing an oppressive government has been the toughest of all. While immigration is allowed for political asylum, those who flee famine or poverty are turned away. Are such choices fair? In the words of social scientist Nathan Glazer, Poorly paid officials must make decisions that would stump a professor of ethics. Some rules allow relatives of immigrants to enter the country. Representative Lamar Smith of Texas believes that these rules admit immigrants who have no marketable skills and end up on welfare. As Glazer notes, concern about the number of immigrants conflicts with sympathy for those trying to bring in wives, children, parents, brothers, and sisters. Alan Simpson, a former U.S. senator, believes that there are simply too many immigrants. Slow immigration for five years, he proposed, to gain breathing space. But Americans remain divided. In Gallup polls conducted at the turn of this century, 43 percent of those answering favored the Simpson idea, while 54 percent agreed that immigration should either be kept at its present level or increased. PREDICTING EFFECTS How might the measures restricting illegal immigrants affect future laws that regulate legal immigration? RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links for the Epilogue to find out more about The Debate over Immigration. Epilogue 1103

41 Crime and Public Safety Will tougher gun control laws reduce the incidence of crime? On an early March day in 2001, Alicia Zimmer, a student at Santana High School outside San Diego, found herself in the middle of gunfire in the hallways. A 15-year-old boy had brought a gun to school and had begun firing at his fellow students. I was probably about 10 feet away from some of the victims, Zimmer said, adding that she saw a boy laying on the floor with his face down, and a girl with blood all over her arm. Before the shooter was apprehended, two people were killed and 13 were injured. School shootings have become more common in the United States and are just one reason why, despite an overall decrease in crime during the 1990s, Americans continue to express concerns over public safety. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE In 1968, opinion polls reported that for the first time, Americans called crime the nation s single worst problem. Since then, crime has remained high on the list of national problems. Crime rates generally increased during the 1970s, due in part to rising unemployment and inflation, increased drug use, civil unrest, and protests against the Vietnam War. But in the 1980s, the spread of crack cocaine abuse fueled a major jump in crime. From 1986 to the early 1990s, the rates of violent School students at John Bartram High School in Philadelphia go through metal detectors as they enter the school one day after a school shooting. crimes and car thefts increased by more than 20 percent. Beginning in 1992, however, these rates began to drop and continued declining throughout the decade. The FBI announced that in 1999 overall crime had declined 16 percent since 1995 and 20 percent since What s more, the 1999 violent crime rate had dipped to a 20-year low, while the murder rate had dropped to 6 per 100,000, the lowest figure since RECENT SUCCESS Experts have identified a few causes for falling crime rates: There are fewer males aged 15 to 29, the group most likely to commit crimes. The trade in crack cocaine slowed. The unemployment rate gradually decreased throughout the 1990s. Generally, when more people have jobs, crime rates fall. Perhaps the biggest factor has been new policing efforts. Police departments have taken officers out of patrol cars and put them back on the streets. Police have also taken a more active role in their neighborhoods. Crime prevention methods now focus on an intense effort to History of Crime and Public Safety in the United States s s 1993 Second Amendment, protecting right to bear arms, is ratified (page 149). New York City organizes first full-time, salaried police force (page 471). Organized crime thrives during Prohibition (page 643). Miranda v. Arizona: Increased drug abuse police must inform contributes to rising suspects of their legal crime. rights (pages 896, 900). Brady Act aims to reduce the spread of handguns.

42 intervene with troubled youth before they commit a crime. CONTINUING EFFORTS Despite what appears to be a safer nation, however, many Americans continue to worry about crime. For one thing, gun violence is on the rise. According to the FBI, guns were used in 70 percent of all homicides in 1999, up from 60 percent the year before. In addition, some social scientists contend that with a slumping economy a new crime wave is just over the horizon. Even though the overall murder rate has declined since 1990, crime continues to command public attention. Experts are split over two issues related to reducing crime further: gun control and tougher sentencing. GUN CONTROL In 1993, President Bill Clinton signed the Brady Act, which called for states to place a five-day waiting period on the sale of handguns. During that period, police check the potential buyer s background. If they find a criminal record, a gun permit is denied. However, four years later, in June 1997, the Brady Act was substantially weakened when the Supreme Court ruled that the federal government could not force state or local officials to run background checks on potential buyers of handguns. At the center of the gun-control issue lies a long-standing constitutional debate. The Second Amendment to the Constitution states this: A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. The National Rifle Association Republicans include tougher crime laws in their Contract with America (page 1070). Supreme Court rules that certain provisions of the Brady Act are unconstitutional. As the 21st century begins, Americans find themselves grappling with new forms of violent crime. (NRA), which is opposed to tougher gun-control laws, argues that guncontrol laws violate this right to bear arms. Others contend that the amendment was not intended to guarantee a right to personal weapons. Rather, its purpose is to protect the state s right to maintain military units. TOUGHER SENTENCES In addition to looking at hand gun laws, Americans have sought to battle crime by putting more people in prison. The federal government and many states recently passed three strikes laws. Under these laws, any person found guilty of two previous crimes receives a stiff sentence of twenty to thirty years after conviction for a third. While many applaud this gettough policy, others claim that it suffers from a serious problem: racial bias. Blacks represent just 12 percent of the U.S. population and about 13 percent of those who reported using illegal drugs on a students kill 13 and then themselves at Columbine High School in Colorado (page 1068). On September 11, terrorist attacks in New York and at the Pentagon kill thousands. monthly basis. Yet three-quarters of all prison sentences for possession of drugs involve African Americans. Many civil rights groups say that such differential treatment must end. NEW CHALLENGES As the 21st century begins, Americans face a number of new challenges. Deadly school shootings have brought attention to the issue of youth violence, and violent crime in America s cities remains a national concern. But the greatest challenge to public safety may be the renewed threat of terrorism. During the mid-1990s, a series of bombings signaled a disturbing new era of terrorism in America. The bombing of the World Trade Center in 1993, the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, and the bombing at Atlanta s Centennial Park in 1996 all contributed to a growing sense of public vulnerability. Following the events of September 11, 2001, in October President Bush signed into law new anti-terrorism measures. These laws greatly increased the authority of local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies to obtain and to share information about anyone living in the United States, but drew severe criticism for intruding on personal privacy. It now appears that Americans will be struggling to balance the need for domestic security against its costs in terms of privacy, convenience, and dollars well into the 21st century. PREDICTING EFFECTS What methods do you think the nation will employ to more effectively prevent terrorist attacks? RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links for the Epilogue to find out more about Crime and Public Safety. Epilogue 1105

43 Issues in Education How can a country guarantee equal education for all? In the winter of 2001, Paul Vallas, former head of the Chicago public school system, received some discouraging news. A three-year study found little significant change in the city s ailing public high schools despite six years of intense reform efforts. The issue is that the problem is tougher than we thought it was, the study reported, and we have to find more intense ways of improving what we ve been doing. In response to the study, Vallas echoed those sentiments. We still have a long way to go, he said. The plight of Chicago s public schools highlights the nation s ongoing struggle to improve education. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE From the earliest days of the nation, American leaders have stressed the importance of education. In the 19th century, reformers helped establish a system of governmentsupported public schools. By 1900, almost three-quarters of all eight- to fourteen-year-olds attended school. Even with these advances, some groups suffered. Public secondary education failed to reach most African Americans in the early 20th century. Not until 1954, with the Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, did federal court decisions call for an end to separate and usually inferior schools for African Americans. By the 1960s, the nation s schools wrestled with the problem of a rising discrepancy between suburban schools and inner-city schools. Many students in inner cities attended schools that were housed in decaying buildings and that had dated instructional materials. On the other hand, students in the suburbs enjoyed new facilities and equipment. In both the inner city and the suburbs, violence and drugs have raised issues of safety. KEY ISSUES The debate over public education has focused on three key issues. First is the question of how to change schools to improve the From the earliest days of the nation, American leaders have stressed the importance of education. quality of education. Second is the issue of school financing. Should different school systems in a state receive equal funding? The third issue has to do with affirmative action programs intended to remedy past discrimination. IMPROVING QUALITY People have offered many ideas on how to improve schools. Some critics say that lack of discipline is a major problem. Others point to the disparity in technology between wealthy and poor schools. During his presidency, Bill Clinton called for all schools in the country to be connected to the Internet and its vast supply of information. Another reform receiving support is the creation of charter schools. In this plan, certain schools receive a charter, or contract, from a local school district, a state education department, or a university. Charter schools promise innovations in education. In return for freedom to operate as they choose, charter schools promise to increase students achievement levels. By the end of the 1990s, about 1,600 such schools were in place in approximately 34 states. Some school reformers favor the voucher system, in which states issue a certificate to parents, who then use it to pay for their child s education at a school of their choice. The school exchanges the voucher for payment from the government. Supporters of the voucher system believe that parents will seek schools that provide higherquality education. Public schools will then be forced to compete with private and parochial schools, and with one another. The competition should increase the overall quality History of Education in the United States Emma Willard opens Troy Female Seminary, an academic school for girls (page 256). Horace Mann begins the push to spread public education (page 488). African Americans who had been slaves begin to create and attend schools (pages 388, ). Brown v. Board of Education finds segregated schools unconstitutional (pages ). Federal government begins providing aid to public schools (page 895).

44 of education, supporters argue. During his run for office in 2000, President George W. Bush voiced support for vouchers. I don t know whether or not the voucher system is a panacea, he said, but I m willing to give it a shot to determine whether it makes sense. FINANCING EDUCATION In most states, school funding relies on local property taxes taxes paid on the value of real estate in a town or city. When schools are funded primarily by property taxes, however, schools in poorer areas receive less money than those in wealthier communities. According to the magazine Washington Monthly, one New Jersey town spends $13,394 per pupil on schooling. Another town just five miles away spends only $7,889. Court cases have raised legal challenges to unequal school funding in more than 20 states. In 1993, Michigan voters approved a plan that abandoned reliance on local property taxes as the basis of school funding. Now schools get their money from a smaller state-controlled property tax, an increased sales tax on consumer purchases, and increased taxes on purchases of such items as cigarettes and alcohol. Because the state sets property tax rates and monitors its school systems budgets, it can even out inequalities. AFFIRMATIVE ACTION Many Americans support the idea of programs that give women and minorities greater educational and workplace opportunities. At the same time, a large majority disapprove of quotas, the setting aside of a certain number of jobs or college admissions for members of these groups. This point became the focus of a court case challenging affirmative action. In the 1970s, Allan Bakke had twice been rejected by the medical school at the University of California, Davis, which instead admitted a number of minority students who had lower grades and test scores. Bakke argued that his rights had been denied. The Supreme Court, in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978), ruled that the school had A federal commission report A Nation at Risk severely criticizes public education (page 1047). Education summit issues Goals California voters ban affirmative action in education and other areas. Number of charter schools in America reaches roughly 1,600. Jessica Riley, a hearingimpaired volunteer teacher, helps a hearing-impaired second grader with his reading. to admit Bakke but also said that institutions could use race as one factor among others in determining admission to a college. In 1996, voters in California passed an initiative that banned race or gender preferences in college admissions. On January 3, 2001, a lower federal court issued a new ruling that expanded upon the Bakke decision. In Hopwood v. Texas, a federal judge ruled that a university could not legally have separate admissions tracks for white and minority candidates. The court said that such a plan discriminates against nonminority students. Most recently, President George W. Bush has made a commitment that no child will be left behind. A cornerstone of his education program is accountability for student performance with national annual reading and math assessments in grades 3 through 8. Clearly the issue of how to reform public education will continue to be the subject of debate as President Bush pushes his agenda for education reform. PREDICTING EFFECTS What do you think will be the most important education issue the country will face in the coming years? Why? RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links for the Epilogue to find out more about Issues in Education. Epilogue 1107

45 The Communications Revolution Can information on the Internet be both reliable and accessible? On a spring day in 1997, 12-year-old Sean Redden had just logged onto the Internet in his home in Denton, Texas, when he encountered a startling message: Would someone help me? The plea turned out to be a distress call from an Internet user nearly 7,000 miles away in Finland. The person had suffered an asthmatic attack that left her barely able to breathe. After obtaining more information from the women, Redden contacted his local police. They in turn alerted Finnish authorities, who located the women and rushed her to medical care at a nearby hospital. This digital rescue is just one example of the power and reach of the Internet, which has dramatically changed American society like nothing else in recent history. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE In the 1940s, when computers first came into use, they took up huge rooms and required fans or elaborate air-conditioning systems to cool the parts that provided them with power. In the years since, the parts that power computers have become miniaturized and have been made much more powerful. Today, not only can personal computers perform more operations more quickly than the first giant computers did, but they are also affordable for many people. The development Many observers credit computer technology with driving the nation s astonishing economic growth during the 1990s. of inexpensive personal computers has made it possible for ordinary families to use the latest technology. THE INTERNET A very important component of computer use today is the Internet, a worldwide computer network. In the 1960s, the Department of Defense began to network its computers in order to protect its ability to launch nuclear missiles following a feared Soviet attack. Then in the late 1980s, the National Science Foundation created its own network, NSFNET, and allowed anyone to access it. However, only a small group of computer-science graduates and professors used the system. At about this time a digital revolution arose as thousands of industries across the country began using computers to run their businesses, and millions of Americans bought personal computers for their homes. With so many computers suddenly in use, NSFNET steadily grew into the large and crowded Internet, which includes the World Wide Web. THE COMPUTER REVOLUTION The numbers alone demonstrate the influence of computer technology on modern life. By mid-1999, more than 80 million Americans were logging onto the Internet either at home or at work. In 2000, about 60 percent of U.S. households owned at least one personal computer. What s more, nearly every business in the nation, from hospitals to accounting firms and airports, has implemented computer systems to handle many of its daily operations. Many observers credit computer technology with driving the nation s astonishing economic growth during the 1990s. With computers allowing employees in nearly every field to perform their jobs more quickly and easily, worker productivity and output increased a major reason for the decade-long boom. History of the Communications Revolution U.S. Department of Defense creates ARPANET. First browser, or software for accessing the World Wide Web, developed. Three million people worldwide use the Internet. 1108

46 EVERYDAY USES Computer technology not only has improved how Americans work, but also has dramatically altered how they live. Millions of citizens now buy everything from flowers to books to stock on-line. In 1999, the nation spent $18.2 billion in electronic transactions, also known as e-commerce, and analysts predict that amount will soar to $108 billion by While Americans once communicated strictly by phone or letter, they now talk to each other more and more through their computers. Computers have also affected the way Americans learn. In 2000, 77 percent of public school classrooms had Internet access, up 13 percent from A growing number of universities offer classes and even complete degree programs wholly over the Internet. HIGH-TECH CHALLENGES For all the benefits and opportunities it has brought, computer technology also has created its own set of challenges. There are few laws and regulations governing the Internet. Thus, while it is a treasure trove of useful information, the World Wide Web also has become a center for the dissemination of pornographic and hate material. The growth of computers also has led to the growth of cybercrime. Computer vandals, known commonly as hackers, engage in everything from the theft of social security numbers and other vital personal information to the disabling of entire computer systems. The Federal Bureau of Investigation estimates that cybercrime costs Americans more than $10 billion a year. What concerns officials even more is the growing possibility of cyberterrorism hackers stealing or altering vital military information such as nuclear missile codes. Meanwhile, a large number of Americans worry about the growing digital divide, the notion that computer technology remains out of reach for many of the nation s poor. According to recent statistics, nearly 80 percent of households earning $75,000 or more owned a computer, compared with only about 20 percent of households earning between $15,000 and $25,000. Many fear that poor families unable to purchase computers are falling even further behind in a country where computer skills are fast becoming a necessity. CLOSING THE GAP Actually, the nation is working to close the gap. In San José, California, for example, officials were able to invest $90,000 in a program to teach computer skills to welfare College senior Demetress Roberts uses a computer program to teach Latino Outreach student Angel Leonardo about fractions. recipients and homeless people. In LaGrange, Georgia, the mayor helped the local cable company by endorsing a deal to give free Internet access for one year to all the town s residents who sign up for basic cable. Meanwhile, libraries, schools, and senior centers provide free access. A number of proposals to provide people with greater access to computers and training are working their way through the federal and various state governments. THE FUTURE As the 21st century begins, the computer revolution shows no sign of slowing. The digital technology that has so transformed the nation continues to improve. As the computer age rolls on, Americans and the rest of the world most likely will face exciting new opportunities. PREDICTING EFFECTS What do you think will be a new breakthrough and a new challenge for Americans in the next decade of the Computer Age? Congress passes Telecommunications Act, allowing companies to engage in a variety of communications endeavors (page 1084). Over 200 million people around the world use the Internet. RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links for the Epilogue to find out more about The Communications Revolution. Epilogue 1109

47 Curing the Health Care System How should medical coverage for the uninsured be funded? To pay for the medicine she needs, 79-year-old Winifred Skinner walks the streets of Des Moines every day collecting cans. I don t want to ask for handouts. I want to earn it, she insists. The soaring cost of prescription drugs especially among the elderly is just one of the key issues facing American health care today. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE National health insurance for Americans was first proposed by President Harry S. Truman in 1949, but Congress failed to approve it. It took the legislative skill of President Lyndon B. Johnson to enact Medicare in The program covered most of the cost of medical care for people age 65 and above. By the 1990s, Medicare was taking an increasing share of federal spending. In hopes of controlling costs and providing universal coverage, President Clinton proposed a complex plan. However, lobbying by doctors and private insurers and the public s mistrust of big government caused Congress to defeat Clinton s plan in Meanwhile, many Americans were afraid they would be denied health insurance because of preexisting conditions medical conditions that are present when a person applies for coverage. The Health Insurance Portability and Account- Irene Holmes holds her son while technician Roberta Montoya takes a blood sample at the Sandia Health Center. ability Act, passed in 1996, removed that concern. It required insurers to provide coverage to all new employees who had had health insurance before changing jobs. HEALTH CARE REFORM Health care continued to be a hot topic during the 2000 presidential campaign and beyond. One of the issues up for debate was the need for prescription-drug coverage for the elderly, a reform many thought should be addressed as part of an overhaul of the Medicare system. Also high on the agenda were the need to protect patients rights and the need to expand health coverage to the ranks of the uninsured. SOARING DRUG COSTS When Medicare began in 1965, the cost of prescription drugs was small compared with that of hospital stays and doctors visits. But with the development of new medicines and treatments for heart disease, arthritis, and other chronic conditions, drugs have become the fastest-growing component of health-care spending. About 40 percent of people on Medicare don t History of Health Care in the United States s 1981 Truman introduces a bill for national health insurance that is ultimately rejected by Congress (page 845). Department of Health, Education, and Welfare is established. President Johnson and Congress enact Medicare and Medicaid into law (page 896). President Nixon increases funding for Medicare and Medicaid (pages ). AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is first identified (page 1046).

48 have prescription-drug coverage. Many elderly citizens will pay well over $1,000 a year out of pocket for medicine or else do without. During the 2000 campaign, the Democrats proposed a drug benefit through Medicare, while Republicans wanted to give seniors the option to choose their own insurance plans, subsidized by the federal government. An even bigger controversy was looming, however: whether the drug-benefit issue should be tackled on its own or whether the government should first deal with the bigger problem of reforming Medicare as a whole. THE FATE OF MEDICARE The outlook on Medicare is simple. If nothing changes, Medicare will start running out of money by 2010 and is expected to go bankrupt in The reasons are rising costs and demographic changes. Americans are living longer now than they were in 1965 about seven years longer on average. As a result, seniors form a greater proportion of the population than before. While rising numbers of elderly drive up the cost of Medicare, the revenues targeted to pay for it are expected to go down. As the population ages, fewer people will work and pay the taxes that fund Medicare. Today, four workers pay taxes for every person who receives Medicare, while in 2035, only two workers will be available to do the job. Workers taxes will go up especially if health costs rise. What is to be done? This is one of the toughest questions facing policymakers in the early 21st century. Among the approaches that Health care is too important for any modern society to permit many of its citizens to go without it. HENRY J. AARON, FORMER DIRECTOR, BROOKINGS ECONOMIC STUDIES PROGRAM have been proposed are placing more restrictions on Medicare benefits, raising the age of eligibility, or increasing the share to be paid by the elderly. Michael Tanner of the Cato Institute favors raising the age rather than the premium: premiums already represent a significant burden for many elderly Americans.... Any major increase... risk[s] pushing many of the elderly into poverty. PROTECTING PATIENTS RIGHTS Another priority issue of the 2000 campaign was a bill that would make it easier for privately insured Americans to resolve disputes with their health maintenance organizations (HMOs) or other insurance providers. The bill, called the Patient Protection Act, would allow the insured to seek emergency care without receiving prior approval and to visit pediatricians, gynecologists, and other specialists more freely. It also granted them the right to have any denial of care by a health insurer be reviewed by outside medical experts. Patients who were not satisfied with the outcome of their review would have the right to take their health-insurance providers to court. Members of the Bush administration have opposed the last part of the bill, saying they want to put a cap on damages and restrict suits to federal courts, which are often less generous to the plaintiff than state courts. THE UNINSURED MILLIONS The number of people without health insurance continues to be extensive, totaling 15.5 percent of Americans at the turn of this century. Late in 2000, leading advocates of consumers, the insurance industry, and hospitals groups that had once been adversaries jointly proposed a costly new plan to extend health insurance to more than half of the uninsured population. Some 11 million of the uninsured are children. In 1997, the federal government developed the Children s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) to provide funding to states so that they could offer health coverage to children of lowincome people who earn too much to qualify for Medicaid (which covers the cost of medical care for the poor). By the end of 2000, more than 3 million children had benefited from the program, and a federal initiative was in place to reach millions more. PREDICTING EFFECTS Do you think that more or fewer Americans will receive health care coverage ten years from now? Explain why you think so Congress passes Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). The Children s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) is enacted. Congress extends the Medical Savings Accounts pilot program through 2002 as "Archer MSAs." RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links for the Epilogue to find out more about Curing the Health Care System. Epilogue 1111

49 Breaking the Cycle of Poverty Who has the responsibility for helping the poor? Jim, a 55-year-old painter by trade, retreats each night to a Boston homeless shelter. He spends his days engaging in any work he can find but it s never enough to provide him with a roof over his head. Too many of the jobs available, he says, pay only the minimum wage or a bit higher, and they cannot cover the rent and other bills. Jim, who says his dream is to get a steady job, find an apartment, and settle down, insists that he never imagined he would find himself homeless. I never thought it could happen to me, he says. Jim is just one of more than 32 million citizens considered poor in a nation that continues to cope with the challenge of eradicating poverty. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Some part of the American population has faced poverty since the starving time at Jamestown during the winter of In the 20th century, poverty was most widespread during the Great Depression of the 1930s. That economic disaster led to several new government programs such as the 1935 Social Security Act, which created a pension fund for retired people over age 65 and offered government aid to poor people for the first time. Though the Depression ended with World War II, postwar prosper- Many of those Americans who live in poverty are employed. ity did not last. In the 1960s, President Lyndon B. Johnson declared unconditional war on poverty as his administration expanded education, training, and financial aid for the poor. The proportion of people living below the poverty level the minimum income necessary to provide basic living standards fell from 20 percent in 1962 to only 11 percent in However, economic hard times reappeared in the early 1980s and the poverty rate began to rise. In 1999, 32.3 million Americans lived below the poverty line which that year was marked by an annual income of $17,029 or less for a family of four. AMERICANS IN POVERTY Many Americans who live in poverty are employed. Known as the working poor, they hold low-wage jobs with few benefits and almost never any health insurance. Children also account for a major share of the poor, and their numbers are growing rapidly for many ethnic groups. The poverty rate among children in the United States is higher than that in any other Western industrialized nation. Like Jim in Boston, many of the poor are homeless. During the 1980s, cuts in welfare and food stamp benefits brought the problem of homelessness to national attention. According to the National Alliance to End Homelessness (NAEH), about 750,000 Americans are without shelter on any given night. Many experts on the homeless believe that the lack of housing is simply a symptom of larger problems. These include unemployment, low-wage jobs, and high housing costs, and in some cases, personal problems such as substance abuse or mental illness. SOME CAUSES OF POVERTY Experts agree that there are numerous causes of poverty. Lack of skills keeps many welfare recipients from finding or keeping jobs. They need more than job training, many observers insist, they also need training in work habits. Another factor that holds back increased employment is limited access to child care. Economist David Gordon related the results of a study of mothers who received History of the Cycle of Poverty in the United States High unemployment in the wake of the panic of 1893 leaves thousands homeless (pages ). Social Security Act is passed; government gives aid to poor for first time (pages 698, 707). Michael Harrington s The Other America shocks the nation by revealing extent of poverty (page 888). President Johnson announces War on Poverty (page 894).

50 Amherst College freshmen in Massachusetts hoe a field for a farm run by a local food bank in a school outreach community-service project. welfare. They could eke out a living, he found, by combining paid work and some outside support with welfare payments and food stamps. But, Gordon asked, suppose one of these mothers left welfare and took a full-time minimum-wage job. [If] she cannot find free child care and has to pay the going rate, her standard of living... would decline by 20 percent. To help meet the need for child care, a 1996 federal welfare law included $3.5 billion in funding for day care. For millions of Americans, the U.S. public education system has failed to provide the tools necessary for climbing out of poverty. Anne Lewis, an education writer, points out that three-fourths of all welfare/food stamp recipients perform at the lowest levels of literacy. In turn, she notes, low levels of literacy generally lead to low employment rates and lower wages. Another factor contributing to poverty has been discrimination against racial minorities. Current statistics highlight how much more prevalent poverty is among minorities. In 1999, the poverty rate among whites was 7.7 percent, while among Hispanics and African Americans it was 22.8 percent and 23.6 percent, respectively. FEDERAL WELFARE REFORM As the nation continued to struggle with poverty and homelessness, the cry for welfare reform grew louder. Critics of the system argued that providing financial aid to the poor gave them little incentive to better their lives and thus helped to create a culture of poverty. In 1996, the Republican Congress and President Clinton signed a bill the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act that cut more than $55 billion in welfare spending over six years and put a five-year limit on how long people could receive welfare payments. In addition, the bill cut benefits to recipients who had not found a job within two years. Supporters cheered the reforms, claiming that they transformed a system from one that fosters dependence to one that encourages selfreliance. Opponents of the law accused the federal government of turning its back on the poor especially children. Both proponents and critics of the bill agreed on one thing: the law s success depended on putting welfare recipients to work. The federal government offered three incentives to encourage businesses to hire people from the welfare rolls: tax credits for employers who hire welfare recipients, wage subsidies, and establishment of enterprise zones, which provide tax breaks to companies that locate in economically depressed areas. Throughout 2001, President George W. Bush called for $8 billion to help religious and other volunteer organizations to assume more responsibility for the needy. He supports time limits on welfare benefits and calls for able-bodied welfare recipients to get jobs, attend school, or train for work. It may be years before anyone can say whether or not the president s or other proposed welfare reforms break the cycle of poverty. PREDICTING EFFECTS What can be done to provide affordable child care to help the working poor? s Nixon s welfare reform bill the Family Assistance Plan dies in the Senate (page 1001). Welfare benefits and food stamps are cut under President Reagan (page 1041). Congress passes Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (page 1068). President Bush pushes for Charitable Choice Act, passed in the House in July. RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links for the Epilogue to find out more about Breaking the Cycle of Poverty. Epilogue 1113

51 Tough Choices About Social Security How can Social Security be reformed so that it will have enough money to pay retirees? Economist Lester Thurow gives new meaning to the term generation gap. In the years ahead, class warfare is apt to be redefined as the young against the old, rather than the poor against the rich, he warns. Economics may become a major issue dividing generations, as young workers shoulder the costs of Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid the three major entitlement programs funded by the federal government. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE In the 1935 Social Security Act, the government promised to pay a pension to older Americans, funded by a tax on workers and employers. At that time, President Franklin D. Roosevelt said that Social Security was not intended to provide an individual s retirement income, but it was a base on which workers would build with private pension funds. In 1965, new laws extended Social Security support. In addition, the government assumed most health care costs for the elderly through the Medicare program and for the poor through Medicaid. These programs are called entitlements because their benefits are established by law rather than by specific appropriations by Congress. Thus, the recipients are entitled by law to the benefits. Citizens in favor of protecting Social Security rally on the U.S. Capitol grounds. Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid have received a lot of attention because the United States population is aging. This aging population will put a severe financial strain on these programs. SOCIAL SECURITY FUNDING The threat to Social Security can be attributed to a few important factors. First, when the baby boomers (those born between 1946 and 1964) retire, their huge numbers about 70 million by the year 2020 may overburden the entitlement programs. Second, Americans now live longer, so an individual s share of benefits from the program is greater than in the past. Third, the number of workers paying into Social Security per beneficiary will drop dramatically when the boomers start retiring. Currently, Social Security collects more in taxes than it pays in benefits. The extra goes into a trust fund that is invested. However, experts warn that if changes aren t made, by about the year 2015 the program will begin paying out more to beneficiaries than it takes in from History of Entitlements in the United States s 1975 President Roosevelt signs Social Security Act (page 707). Changes to Social Security allow reduced benefits at early retirement age 62. President Johnson signs Medicare and Medicaid into law (page 896). President Nixon increases Social Security payments (pages ). Congress includes cost-of-living adjustments for Social Security benefits.

52 the payroll tax. The program will begin to rely on the Social Security trust fund to pay retirees. If that trend continues, after the year 2036, the fund will run out of sufficient funds to pay retirees the full benefits due to them. Some experts predict disaster, and Americans have listened. One poll found that 81 percent of Americans under 40 believe that the Social Security program needs to be changed to guarantee its financial stability. Strengthening Social Security has consistently ranked among the top issues Americans want Congress and the president to address. OPTIONS FOR CHANGE A number of plans for reforming Social Security have been proposed. These different views have become the main options being debated in Congress and around the country. Raise Social Security Taxes Some people have suggested small tax hikes, arguing that since people s incomes are expected to rise, they will be able to afford an increase. Cut Benefits Some argue that benefits should be reduced by ending automatic cost-of-living adjustments or lowering payments made to retirees who earn over a certain amount of money each year. These wealthier people, they say, do not need to receive higher payments. Raise the Retirement Age Because people can now work productively later in life than they used to, some propose raising the retirement age. That will reduce the payments made and increase tax receipts. Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid have received much attention because the U.S. population is aging. Invest Funds in the Stock Market Some people suggest that the government should invest some of Social Security money in the stock market. They assume that stocks will rise, making the system healthier. Allow Individual Investing Others agree with allowing the funds to be invested but want individuals to control where their own funds are invested. THE FUTURE OF THE FUNDS During the 2000 presidential election, exit polls found that some 57 percent of Americans supported the privatization approach outlined by President Bush during his campaign: allow workers to divert a portion of their Social Security taxes into individual stock-market accounts. But the details of that plan had yet to be worked out. Meanwhile, the proposal drew its share of critics. Among them were advocates for disabled workers and their families a group that in 1999 made up 17 percent of all Social Security beneficiaries. According to a report from the General Accounting Office, under President Bush s plan a worker who becomes disabled and retires at age 45, for example, would receive 4 percent to 18 percent less in benefits. Some women s groups also opposed privatization. They said that it would jeopardize the guarantee of lifetime, inflation-adjusted benefits that the current Social Security system provides. Because women earn less than men, they would have less to invest, and their returns would be lower. Still others were concerned about the risk involved in relying on a volatile stock market. They questioned whether the funds in which people would invest their Social Security taxes would be secure. The funds seemed at risk even in federal hands. Although Republicans and Democrats pledged during the 2000 elections not to touch the Social Security surplus (funds paid each year toward future pensions), the 2001 budget fell short of expectations. Democrats blamed President Bush s tax cut, while Republicans accused Democrats of overspending. The Congressional Budget Office announced that the government would likely tap Social Security funds in Bush maintained that this would only happen in the case of a war, recession, or national emergency. By Sept. 11, 2001, America experienced all three. PREDICTING EFFECTS How would the economy be both helped and hurt if Social Security benefits were cut? Social Security is reformed to provide financial stability for many years. President Clinton appoints Advisory Council on Social Security to report on system s financial health. President-Elect Bush proposes a plan to divert a portion of Social Security tax into individual stockmarket accounts. RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links for the Epilogue to find out more about Tough Choices About Social Security. Epilogue 1115

53 Women in the Work Force Will the American workplace grant men and women equal opportunities? Thirty-two years after entering a management training program at Boston s Federal Reserve Bank, Cathy Minehan now the bank s president is one of a select group of female executives who hold 3.3 percent of the nation s highest-paying jobs. A critical element in making it to the top is being in the pipeline to do so,... says Minehan. Aside from... [that,] they have to believe they can make it.... It is hard for women or minorities to believe they can progress if they cannot look up and see faces like their own at the top. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE In 1961, President John F. Kennedy named a commission to study the status of women in the workplace. Its report revealed that employers paid women less than men for equal work. The report also said that women were rarely promoted to top positions in their fields. Almost 40 years later, the U.S. Census Bureau found that more women than ever before worked outside the home about 60 percent. Women made up 47 percent of the American work force. Yet they held only 12.5 percent of the most senior jobs in a sampling of the Fortune 500, the nation s 500 largest companies. Women are still making less than their male counterparts averaging only 72 cents for every dollar. Some women who choose to pursue careers in business, government, or other organizations feel that a glass ceiling limits their career progress. It is said to be glass because it is an invisible barrier that keeps women and minorities from attaining promotion above a certain level. Its invisibility makes it difficult to combat. POSITIVE TRENDS Women have made great strides in recent decades. In 1997, they filled almost half of all jobs in managerial and professional specialty areas. Women have also been entering new fields, including construction work and blue-collar jobs such as equipment repair. In the academic world, women are better represented than ever before. In 1997, women received a record number nearly 41 percent of all doctorate degrees issued by universities. More degrees were given in the life sciences, the field in which women were most strongly represented. For many women, job success involved getting the right credentials and targeting a growth industry. A 2000 survey by the women s advocacy group Catalyst found that 91 percent of women with MBA degrees working in information technology reported high satisfaction with their current jobs, compared with only 82 percent of their male counterparts. This translates into opportunity for women in this growing industry, said Sheila Wellington, president of Catalyst. They re essentially telling us, This is the place to be. MONEY AND UPWARD MOBILITY Despite these positive signs, the key issues of unequal pay and unequal representation remain. Women are still making less than their male counterparts averaging only 72 cents for every dollar earned by men. According to the National History of Women at Work in the United States s Women working in Lowell, Massachusetts, textile mills strike (pages 213, ). 1 out of 10 single white women works outside the home, earning half the pay of men (pages 442, 450). Average pay for women workers is $269 a year, compared with $498 for men. One out of five women works outside the home (pages ). Women enter new professions but battle unequal wages (page 648).

54 U.S. Appeals Court judge Rosemary Barkett (center) delivers the keynote address during a special session of Florida s high court honoring the state s first 150 female lawyers on June 15, 2000, in Tallahassee, Florida. Committee on Pay Equity, there are a variety of reasons for this discrepancy: women are often socialized to aim toward lower-paying jobs, often have limited expectations about their leadership potential, and may have conflicts between the demands of work and family life. In the nation s most top-level jobs, women continue to be vastly outnumbered by men. As of 2001, women headed only two Fortune 500 corporations. Ninety of the Fortune 500 companies had no women among the ranks of their corporate officers. Of all line officers positions with profit-and-loss responsibility 7.3 percent were held by women, while men held an overwhelming 92.7 percent of these positions. Why are women underrepresented in the top jobs? In one Catalyst poll of women executives, blame was placed on three factors: male stereotyping and preconceptions of women, women s exclusion from informal networks of communication, and women s lack of significant management experience. On the other hand, the respondents suggested some approaches that had helped them succeed in the corporate world: consistently exceed expectations, develop a style with which managers are comfortable, seek out difficult assignments, and have an influential mentor. STRIKING OUT ON THEIR OWN Many women who are frustrated by the corporate environment at their Presidential Commission on the Status of Women reports: women are paid less than men (page 983). 20 states begin adjusting pay scales to equalize pay (page 1049). Women earn 76 cents for every dollar a man earns. Women-owned businesses are the fastestgrowing sector of the U.S. economy. existing companies are choosing to start their own business. As of 2000, according to the National Foundation for Women Business Owners, the number of womenowned businesses had doubled in the last 13 years totaling more than 9.1 million firms and constituted the fastest-growing sector of the U.S. economy. Notes Dixie Junk, owner of Junk Architects in Kansas City, It s more than having a business you get to create the culture you want. IT PAYS TO BE FLEXIBLE Another area of change affecting women in the work force has been an increasing number of options for flexible work arrangements, such as part-time work and telecommuting opportunities. In 1996, 60 percent of companies surveyed had formal policies or guidelines for some type of flexible work arrangement. One Catalyst study tracking 24 women who first used flexible work arrangements more than a decade ago found that all of the women now held mid- and senior-level positions, and more than half had earned promotions in the last 10 years. Says Marcia Brumit Kropf, vice-president of research and information services, Findings from this report suggest that even though working mothers may reduce career involvement for a period of time with the support of the right company career advancement does not have to get sidelined. PREDICTING EFFECTS What can be done to afford women the same opportunities as men? RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links for the Epilogue to find out more about Women in the Work Force. Epilogue 1117

55 The Conservation Controversy Can the nation balance conservation with economic progress? In 1990, Oregon logger Bill Haire hung a new ornament on the mirror of his truck: a tiny owl with an arrow through its head. The trinket represented the spotted owl as well as Haire s feelings about the federal government s decision to declare millions of acres of forest off limits to the logging industry in order to protect this endangered species of bird. If it comes down to my family or that bird, said Haire, that bird s going to suffer. The battle between loggers and environmentalists over the fate of the spotted owl is just one example of the nation s ongoing struggle to balance conservation with industrial progress. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Conservation, the management and protection of the earth s resources, began as a national movement in the United States during the early 1900s. In the wake of the country s industrial revolution, the federal government enacted numerous measures to protect the nation s natural surroundings. President Theodore Roosevelt expressed a particular interest in preserving America s forestlands. Like other men who had thought about the national future at all, he once remarked, I had been growing more and more concerned over the destruction of the forests. Hikers stand on a rock outcropping above the Jago River at the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in the Brooks Range of Alaska. Roosevelt established the first wildlife refuge in Florida and added more than 150 million acres to the nation s forest preserves. The 1960s and 1970s witnessed a resurgence of the conservation movement. In 1962, marine biologist Rachel Carson published Silent Spring, which warned of the destructive effects of pesticides. The book awakened Americans to the damage they were inflicting on the environment. In the two decades that fol- lowed, Congress created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and enacted such measures as the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, and the Endangered Species Act all in an effort to restore the health of the country s natural resources. THE MOVEMENT CONTINUES By the 1990s, Americans had done much to improve the environment. About two-thirds of the nation s History of Conservation in the United States President Theodore Roosevelt establishes the first federal wildlife refuge (page 529). President Franklin Roosevelt creates the Civilian Conservation Corps (page 697). Rachel Carson publishes Silent Spring (page 897). Congress establishes the Environmental Protection Agency; Congress passes Clean Air Act (page 1028). Congress passes the Endangered Species Act (page 1028).

56 waters are today considered safe for swimming and fishing, up from only one-third in And between 1970 and 1997, for example, the nation s yearly production of lead emissions plummeted from nearly 221 million tons to just 4 million tons. During those same years, the country nearly tripled the size of its national park space. In addition, a number of states have made independent efforts. California, for instance, has some of the nation s strictest air-pollution control laws, and these have helped to provide the Golden State with much cleaner air. Other states are playing their part as well in the nation s ongoing conservation effort. Not all action has been through government. Private groups such as the Nature Conservancy and numerous local land trusts have raised money to purchase forest and watershed lands and keep them pristine. In Texas several entrepreneurs created the Fossil Rim Wildlife Center, a 2,700-acre wildlife sanctuary that helps to nurture more than 30 animal species. ONGOING CHALLENGES AND DEBATES Despite the strides Americans have made in protecting their natural resources over the past half century, environmental problems still exist, and the nation still struggles to strike a balance between conservation and economic growth. Such a struggle is clearly visible in the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature that Earth experiences because certain gases in the atmosphere trap energy from the sun. Without these gases, As the 21st century begins, the nation faces the challenge of balancing energy needs with environmental concerns. heat would escape back into space and Earth s average temperature would be about 60ºF colder. Some greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, occur naturally in the air. But the burning of fossil fuels and other human activities add to the levels of these naturally occurring gases, causing global warming. Many scientists and public officials believe that global warming could prompt a range of environmental calamities, from severe flooding in some parts of the world to drought in others. Despite such dire warnings, the United States the world s largest producer of greenhouse gas emissions has done little to scale back its output of such gases. Many of the nation s business leaders insist that measures to cool down the atmosphere are too costly and thus would hurt the nation s economy. An issue of greater concern to Americans today and one that also is stirring debate between environmentalists and industrialists is the nation s growing appetite for energy. The United States consumes 25 percent of the world s energy, nearly all of it in the form of fossil fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas. Much of the fuel America uses comes from overseas in places such as the oil-rich Middle East. The reliance on foreign sources has left the United States vulnerable to price increases and fuel shortages. In May 2001, President George W. Bush revealed his energy plan. In the plan, he proposed loosening regulations on oil and gas exploration, a review of gas mileage standards, and a $4 billion tax credit for the use of hybrid cars that use a combination of gas and battery power. The plan also stressed the president s commitment to drill for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). I campaigned hard on the notion of having environmentally sensitive exploration at (ANWR), Bush has said. And I think we can do so. Environmentalists strongly oppose this plan, claiming that such drilling will destroy a fragile ecosystem. As the 21st century begins, the nation faces the challenge of balancing energy needs with environmental concerns. It is an issue that Americans will grapple with for years. PREDICTING EFFECTS Do you think the United States eventually will engage in greater domestic exploration of its natural resources to solve its growing energy needs? Why or why not? Congress passes Clean Water Act. Congress amends Clean Air Act to address new environmental problems, including acid rain and ozone depletion. Nations agree to a revised Kyoto Protocol, which requires industrial nations to preserve environnmental integrity. RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links for the Epilogue to find out more about The Conservation Controversy. Epilogue 1119

57 Terrorism Strikes America Tuesday, September 11, 2001, began as a normal workday in the United States, but after that day America would never be the same. On that clear and crisp morning, hijackers took control of four commercial airliners bound for cross-country destinations and heavily laden with passengers and fuel. In a coordinated, suicidal mission, the planes were deliberately crashed into each of the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon outside Washington, D.C. The attack on these prominent symbols of America s economic and military might was devastating. CHAOS AND DESTRUCTION As fire and smoke poured from the gaping holes in the New York skyscrapers, occupants and rescue workers rushed to evacuate the buildings. A short time later, in a scene that few Americans will forget, the 110-story twin towers collapsed into a giant heap of rubble, killing nearly 5,000 people and covering lower Manhattan in a thick cloud of ash. It was like nighttime, except for the burning, noted one eyewitness. What was left of the buildings was just fire, hulks of twisted metal and concrete and glass. Added another observer, I don t know what the gates of hell look like, but it s got to be like this. In Virginia, the assault on the Pentagon completely destroyed one wedge of the building and claimed an estimated 189 lives. A fourth hijacked Smoke pours from the twin towers of the World Trade Center after hijacked commercial airliners were crashed into the buildings on the morning of September 11, In the aftermath, both towers completely collapsed, killing thousands, injuring others, and leaving everyone in the area terror-stricken and covered in debris. 1120

58 Fairfax County Search and Rescue sends a team to join rescue efforts at the Pentagon U.S. military headquarters in Arlington, Virginia. plane crashed in an empty field in Pennsylvania after passengers, who had fathomed the hijackers purpose, fought back against the terrorists to gain control of the plane. Everyone aboard perished. THE NATION RESPONDS As the nation began to grasp the magnitude of the attack, airports and other transportation facilities as well as other commercial and government buildings were ordered closed. Grief stricken Americans stayed home from work, and public events were cancelled. People across the nation gathered to honor the dead and missing among them roughly 400 New York City firefighters who were in the towers when they collapsed. Amidst their shock and sorrow, Americans also found strength and unity. Donations of blood, food, and items from gloves to flashlights poured into New York. The Bush administration quickly began a massive investigation into the attack, and the president vowed not only to hunt down the culprits but also to eradicate all forms of terrorism. This battle will take time and resolve, Bush declared. But make no mistake about it: we will win. While some questioned whether such a goal could be achieved, few argued that the horrific events on September 11, 2001 a new date that will live in infamy for America forever altered the nation s course. A stunned nation prepared for fundamental changes from tighter security at airports to greater powers for the FBI and other law enforcement agencies. We look back at sunrise yesterday through pillars of smoke and dust,... wrote the New York Times a day after the attack, and we understand that everything has changed. September 12, 2001, (left to right) Revathi Manohor, Laura Doyon, and Taylor Ebling burn candles at a vigil in Washington Square Park, New York City, for victims of the previous day s attacks. A team of firefighters risk their lives to comb a still burning ground zero the remains of the towers in lower Manhattan searching for victims and ways to contain the destruction. RESEARCH LINKS CLASSZONE.COM Visit the links for the Epilogue for more information related to Terrorism Strikes America. Epilogue 1121