N U M U N X V Y O U H A V E T H E F L O O R A P R I L , Cabinet of Simón Bolívar, 1821 BACKGROUND GUIDE

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1 N U M U N X V Y O U H A V E T H E F L O O R A P R I L , Cabinet of Simón Bolívar, 1821 BACKGROUND GUIDE

2 Introduction As a member of this historical Simon Bolivar committee rooted in the year 1820, it is your responsibility to influence the outcome of the Latin American Wars of independence towards the outcome of your liking. The end goal is not set in stone. Fighting both allies and enemy revolutionaries, you must influence the committee and head revolutionary Simon Bolivar to pursue a future for the Latin American states that most directly benefits your beliefs. A tumultuous time in history, the conflicts, alliances, and wars of this time will be at the heart of this committee. As this committee is rooted in a historical context, cunning and wit are not enough to be successful. A clear understanding of the influences of Bolivar s revolutions is key. Think about the political climate of this time, both in Latin America and Europe. Ask yourself what the driving factors of the revolutions are, and what personal factors influence your individual position. Throughout conference, the goal is to shape Latin America into what your position believes it should be. This will be a fast paced crisis committee, so having a grasp on the historical context as well as your personal position is vital. Historical Background The Spanish Empire was infamous for its culture, power, and colonial possessions in the Americas. Columbus s 1492 accidental discovery of the Americas 2

3 launched an era of extensive Spanish presence and influence that has transformed their colonial possessions socially and politically. Social Structures & Values One significant social impact was the creation of racial hierarchies throughout the Spanish American colonies. Six accepted tiers of social strata were established: Peninsulares, Creoles, Mulattoes/Mestizos, Indio, Negro, and Slaves. 1 Peninsulare refers to those born on the Iberian Peninsula who are deemed pure and possess almost all of the political power within these countries. Creoles are native-born yet have two Peninsulare parents, permitting a considerable degree of social mobility. Mulattoes and Mestizos have mixed race identities and exist in the middle of the social classification system. Indio has become the term for indigenous people in the region, belonging to communities with little to no rights. Negro describes those with black ancestry who also hold few or no rights. Lastly, slaves comprise the lowest tier and do not possess any rights. 2 These race-based classes, introduced by the Spanish, have become increasingly important in creating distinctions and divisions among various groups of people. The social structure established a basis on which the Spanish colonial administration and its political systems could function. For instance, due to racial tiers 1 "Latin American Social Hierarchy," Hierarchy Structure, last modified Novemer 14, 2017, 2 Ibid. 3

4 and preferences, the colonies became predominantly ruled by Peninsulares and Creoles, those with the greatest ties to Spain. 3 Both groups found themselves in positions of authority within the clergy, government, and military. 4 Though both groups were favored, the tiered system soon led the Spanish government to view Creoles less favorably than the Peninsulares. These new divisions were evident during the reforms under the Bourbon dynasty. Beginning in 1700, the Bourbon dynasty took control of the Spanish crown and created a series of reforms, commonly referred to as the Bourbon Reforms, in an attempt to strengthen the crown s authority over its empire. 5 Not only did the Bourbon dynasty replace the term kingdoms with colonies in order to establish superiority over its colonies, it also replaced local Spanish colonial authorities with crown-appointed outsiders. This decision limited political power chiefly to Peninsulares, excluding the established elite class of Creoles. The Bourbon Reforms further angered many of the wealthy Creole elites in South America through its religious, economic, and military changes. For example, the reforms limited the power of the Catholic church (and the powerful local leaders within it) by taking control of church revenues, exiling the society of Jesuits, and 3 J. Lockhart, R.A. Kittleson, and D. Bushnell, History of Latin America, Britannica Encyclopedia, September 19, 2016, 4 Ibid. 5 Bourbon Reforms, Encyclopedia.com, last modified October 6, 2016, 4

5 eliminating privileges enjoyed by the Catholic clergy. Second, the Spanish crown established burdensome trade restrictions and taxes that sparked opposition. 6 Additionally, the Bourbon Reforms expanded the Spanish military and established local militias in the colonies. Within the local militias, Spanish officials held the highest positions and Creoles held secondary offices. 5 Though the Spanish crown considered many of the Bourbon reforms successful, the second-tier treatment of Creoles led many of those Creoles to begin channeling discontent toward the crown. 7 This resentment contributed to social unrest and growing desires to break ties with Spain. Beyond the changing race and class dynamics, Enlightenment thinking was also instrumental in forming colonial resistance movements. The Enlightenment, also called the Age of Reason, was a movement that began in Europe and later spread to the New World. Enlightenment thinkers encouraged the use of reason as a tool through which humans [can] understand the universe and improve their own conditions. 8 One important result of this rational logic was a transformation in the way people viewed their government. 9 Writers such as Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau 6 Miles Wortman, Bourbon Reforms in Central America: , The Americas 32 (October 1975): Ibid. 8 Brian Duignan, Enlightenment, Encyclopaedia Britannica, last modified June 27, 2017, 9 Age of Enlightenment, New World Encyclopedia, last modified December 6, 2007, 5

6 advanced a social contract model, which states that authority is vested in the consent and agreement of the governed, not in arbitrary hierarchies or monarchies. 10 This stood in direct contrast to common forms of government at the time, which usually vested ultimate power in a monarch. The Enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality, and government through consensus led to several revolutions, most notably the American and French Revolutions. The French Revolution, for example, was a result of backlash by Enlightenment-inspired citizens angered by increased economic disparity and a lack of equal political representation between commoners and the elite. 11 Eventually, riots and social unrest led to the execution of Louis XVI, the French king. 3 Within the context of the American Revolution, Enlightenment ideas helped to define and mold the philosophies and modes of thought that provided the groundwork which led to the Revolution and the establishment of the United States of Americas 12. Galvanized by both revolutions and ideas on which they were based, revolutionary Simon Bolivar analyzed the writings of Enlightenment authors such as Montesquieu and Voltaire during his studies in Europe Enlightenment, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, last modified August 20, French Revolution, History.com, last modified August 29, 2017, 12 Henry J., Sage. "The Enlightenment in America, 13 Gerhard S. Masur, Simon Bolivar, Encyclopedia Britannica Online, last modified February 1, 2001, 6

7 Political Unrest Beyond influencing the social structure in its colonies, Spain s political alliances and conflicts also shaped the politics within the colonies. Following the French Revolution, a series of military conflicts known as the French Revolutionary Wars broke out between France, Britain, Spain, and a number of other monarchies. In response to the instability created by the conflict, French general Napoleon Bonaparte staged a successful coup d etat in 1799, leading to his ascension as emperor of the French empire. 14 Due to his military experience and strategic thinking, Bonaparte achieved a temporary French victory against Austria, Russia, and Britain. 15 This victory led to the signing of the 1802 Treaty of Amiens, which established a ceasefire between Britain and France. 16 Following the ceasefire, France began building its relationship with Spain, eventually acquiring the Louisiana Territory from the country in Initially, Bonaparte wanted to reestablish the French Empire in the New World, but the overthrow of French control within Saint Domingue (modern-day Haiti) and the possibility of future expensive wars quickly induced Bonaparte to sell the territory to 14 "Napoleonic Wars," Britannica Academic, 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 7

8 the United States at $15 million. 17 Nonetheless, the Spanish purchase of the Louisiana Territory from the French helped solidify an alliance between both countries. Unfortunately, only a year after the signing of the Treaty of Amiens, the ceasefire ended due to Napoleon s refusal to create a trade treaty with Britain, and Britain s belief that France was violating the provisions of the Treaty of Amiens. 18 The resurgence of hostilities with Britain led to a campaign of wars called the Napoleonic Wars, fought throughout continental Europe. Though the Spanish-French alliance during this period seemed strong, Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, formally installing his brother Joseph Bonaparte as the Spanish king and imprisoning the Charles IV, the former king. 19 This invasion produced the Peninsular War, primarily involving France, Spain, Portugal, and later Britain. 20 Because the legitimacy of the Spanish government remained fragile and few endorsed a Napoleonic Spanish kingdom, many Spanish colonies in the Americas saw the opportunity to begin orchestrating their long-desired independence. Spain was no longer seen as an imminent, all-powerful threat to the colonies; after they were invaded by the French, and those under colonial rule felt the power of the Spanish empire weakening and thought it was an opportune time to agitate for increased 17 "Louisiana Purchase," Thomas Jefferson's Monticello, last modified August 10, 2003, "Napoleon Bonaparte," History.com, last modified June 19, 2011, ; "Louisiana Purchase." 18 "Napoleonic Wars." 19 Ibid; 20 Lockhart et al., History of Latin America. 8

9 independence. These colonies established their own local juntas, or governing bodies and militias, during the political chaos that resulted from French occupation of Spain during the Peninsular War. 21 Revolutionaries in Mexico attempted to win independence from Spain in 1810, but were defeated and executed a year later. 22 Although Spain still maintained control of its colonies, revolutionary fervor intensified. As discussions of independence commenced, the remaining leaders of the Spanish government sought to reinstate Spanish sovereignty and maintain the loyalty of Spain s colonies by forming a new legislative body in 1810 known as the Cortes of Cadiz. In addition to undertaking both governing and legislative authority, the Cortes also established a new liberal system of government. 23 It produced the Constitution of 1812, which established a constitutional monarchy and abolished the Inquisition, aristocratic privileges, feudal obligations, and seignorial levies. 24 Despite the liberal constitution s imposed restrictions on the monarchy, the 1812 Constitution failed to satisfy the demands of the American colonies. For example, it did not permit the 21 "Latin American Wars of Independence," in International Military and Defense Encyclopedia, ed. by Trevor N. Dupuy (Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 1993), 22 Struggle for Mexican Independence, History.com, 23 Heather Thiessen, Cortes of Cadiz, Encyclodia.com, last modified November 12, 2016, 24 Heather Thiessen, Spain, Constitution of 1812, Encyclodia.com, last modified October 6, 2016, 9

10 degree of political autonomy and free trade that the colonies had expressly desired. 25 Moreover, many Creoles were left unhappy with their continued lack of equal representation in important footholds of power. 26 Despite the promises contained in the 1812 Constitution, Ferdinand VII s reclaiming of the Spanish throne in 1814 led to the dissolution of the new constitution. 27 He dismissed the attempt by the Cortes of Cadiz to mediate the rights of the mainland and its colonies; instead, he opted for stronger military presence and greater trade regulation. 28 This constant radical shift in power coupled with the disrespect from Ferdinand VII toward the the colonies provoked many in the Creole class to join the fight for independence. Though royalist support continued, proindependence forces used the discontent from both the Cortes and Ferdinand s restoration to fuel stronger military and political campaigns for independence. 29 Of the ongoing independence campaigns, Venezuela s initial attempts are significant because they increased the military and political authority of Simon Bolivar, a wealthy, European-educated, Venezuela-based Creole. In 1810, a Venezuelan junta successfully ousted Spanish colonial officers after Bolivar convinced Francisco de Miranda, a key leader of the failed 1806 Venezuelan independence 25 Ibid. 26 History of Latin America. 27 Latin American Wars of Independence. 28 History of Latin America. 29 Ibid. 10

11 movement, to return to Venezuela to renew the cause. By 1811, the Patriotic Society of Caracas announced the First Republic of Venezuela. 30 Though the First Republic was dismantled in 1812 following the collective efforts of non-whites and royalists against the rebellious army, Bolivar s promotion to colonel increased his political importance. A Second Republic was established in 1813, but also eventually shattered because Bolivar had once again failed to win the support of the non-whites in Venezuela. Bolivar fled to other colonies where he fought several battles but returned to Venezuela in 1817, motivated by a wider ethnic base. This time, with the support of the llaneros (Latino herders acting as cavalry) and a new military plan, Bolivar occupied new territory and declared the formation of Gran Colombia. 31 The popularity of Bolivar in the rebellious territories is so great, he is commonly referred to as El Libertador, the Liberator. Current Situation In December of 1819, a congress in Angostura met to establish the Republic of Colombia, often referred to as Gran Colombia. Now, 1820 has been a year of triumph for Simon Bolivar. The battle of Boyacá in 1819 marked a major turning point in South America, with most of the Spanish royalist army surrendering to Bolivar s military forces. Simon Bolivar is president and head of military forces and 30 Masur, Simon Bolivar. 31 Antonio De La Cova, Simon Bolivar: The Liberator, Latin American Studies, last modified February 1, 2002, 11

12 rebel leader Francisco de Paula Santander is vice president in charge of administration. The new state is comprised of three main bodies: New Granada (Cundinamarca Department), Venezuela, and Quito. Despite this military and political success, independent statehood is still just a notion. 32 Military Campaign Despite being the figurehead of Gran Colombia, Bolivar continues his military campaign in Ecuador and Peru with the intent of conquering new territory and solidifying the newly established state. 33 Liberation in Ecuador is led by Bolivar and officer Antonio José de Sucre, who divided the country to eventually seize the capital, Quito. Sucre was promoted to the status of general and is responsible for a small army that can defend Bolivar s interests in southern Gran Colombia. There are two clear sides to this Spanish-American conflict: the royalists and the patriots. A royalist (Spanish or Latin-American) supports the idea of giving Spain ruling authority, hopes to grant the Peninsulares full control, and wants to officially remain Spanish property. Royalist leaders include Pablo Morillo, Santiago de Liniers, and Jose Fernando de Abascal. 34 A patriot (Spanish or Latin-American), however, is someone who wants complete independence from Spain and hopes Juntas will replace 32 Masur, "Simon Bolivar." 33 Ibid. 34 Marion Lansing, Liberators and Heroes of South America. Boston, L. C. Page & Co.,

13 any current governing bodies in South America. Patriot leaders, also known as Liberatores, include Jose de San Martin, Manuel Belgrano, and Bernardo O Higgins. 35 Royalists and patriots have different war tactics because they possess two polar motivations for engaging in conflict. Patriots passionately seek communities of justice, liberty, and equality and accuse the royalists of being power-hungry, racist, and elitist. In contrast, loyalists fight to maintain current power and class dynamics and accuse the patriots of upending deep-set political, social, and economic systems. 36 Bolivar is a gifted military strategist. He was able to win the Battle of Carabobo in 1821 for Venezuela by uniting all caudillo forces. For Peru and Ecuador, he is able to use these forces to push in from their northern direction into the south. Those revolting in the south are able to push north, and together they engulf the targeted area. The llaneros (Latino herders) make up most of Bolivar s increasingly all- American military force. State-Building Santander is the acting president. As military allies and partners, Bolivar trusts Santander with substantial economic and political control. Both leaders promote a centrist ideology but differ in Santander s extreme adhesion to the sanctity of 35 Robert Harvey, Liberators: Latin America's Struggle for Independence, Woodstock, The Overlook Press, Ibid. 13

14 constitutional law. This belief system differs from Bolivar, who is more interested in the military responsibilities of leadership than the political ones. One of Santander s greatest challenges is the economic condition of Gran Colombia, which not only carries debts from liberation battles but is currently engaged in military conflict. The aim of this new republic will be to liberalize trade as well as stimulate and stabilize the economy. Existing leaders believe that a stable economy will promote legitimacy and peace. Because many of the funds have been depleted by war, Santander may have to institute unpopular economic policies that mirror those of colonialism such as harsh protective tariffs. While there are plans to promote innovation and technology through government subsidies and relaxed immigration programs, these are less possible given the significant lack of capital. 37 Spain is in the midst of its own revolution, facing a mutiny against conservative King Fernando VIII. Fernando has agreed to reinstate the Spanish Constitution of 1812, which severely limited the monarchy and religious powers, following backlash from his decision to dismiss its mandates 38 General Morillo (of the liberal regime) and Bolivar have just declared joint six-month armistice (as of November 26, 1820), but this declaration cannot eradicate the political tensions. Spain has formally recognized 37 Anthony McFarlane, "The State and the Economy in Late Colonial and Early Republican Colombia," Ibero-amerikanisches Archiv 23, no. 1/2 (1997): 61-89, 38 Adrian Shubert and Helmut G. Koenigsberger, "Spain," Encyclopædia Britannica, last modified November 2,

15 Bolivar and Gran Colombia, showing vulnerability for a once formidable superpower. Despite this slight concession, conservative Spanish leaders continue to resist the truce and exacerbate tensions with Gran Colombia. 39 Unity under Gran Colombia seems to be the most logical method for newly liberated states to gain regional and global legitimacy. The facade of a national image is met with many challenges to integrate a wide range of cultures, values, and geographies. Writings from supporters of the consolidation, notably José Manuel Restrepo, are attempting to create a history that emphasizes the military victories against Spain and similarities across cultural and historical backgrounds. Many leaders and citizens support these sentiments and are united by opposition to Spanish rule. 40 Unity in opposition to Spanish rule, however, might not be a strong enough bond to merge the three regions that comprise Gran Colombia. The creation of a single national identity as an unifying factor stands as an obstacle for such a diverse and extensive area. The nature of Spanish rule and the racial mixture that emerged as a result of the conquest created a branched society with a multitude of interests. In order to create a long-lasting nation, the central government has to encapsulate these demands in its policies, a task made difficult through the placement of the capital in 39 Leslie Bethell, The Cambridge History of Latin America, Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Matthew Brown, "Not forging nations but foraging for them: uncertain collective identities in Gran Colombia," Nations and Nationalism 12, no. 2 (March 2006):

16 Bogotá, Colombia. Because access to the capital is arduous for Venezuelans, who must traverse difficult geographical features, Venezuelan representation in Gran Colombian remains weak in comparison to the other two regions of Gran Colombia. The inability to communicate the wishes of a section of the population hinders Bolivar s goals of a unified country. 41 Another source of worry for the survival of Gran Colombia is the disagreement between the chosen national leaders in the congress of Angostura. This dispute originated before the consolidation of Gran Colombia and became more apparent once these men rose to power. Even though Bolivar and Santander fought side-by-side against the Spanish army, they have divergent strategies for leading a nation. These differences can be exemplified in the manner in which both men have chosen to manage prisoners of war. 42 While Bolivar preferred to exchange them with the fallen Spanish viceroys, Santander ordered their execution in a public square. Tensions between Bolivar and Paez also exist as the latter often criticized the former s shortcomings in military strategies that were costly for the independence of Latin America. 43 Disagreements in leadership styles became more noticeable once Bolivar 41 Sarah Pearce, "Colombia and Venezuela: A Tense Relationship Has Hopes for Cooperation," Colombia: From Crisis to Renewal. 42 Jay Kinsbruner, Independence in Spanish America civil wars, revolutions, and underdevelopment, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, Anthony McFarlane, War and independence in Spanish America, New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group,

17 had to delegate power as a consequence of his role as Libertador. Balancing the responsibilities of president and his plans to liberate more territories in South America has proved to be a difficult endeavor and has resulted in the current division of power. Bloc Positions Overview: While all supporters of Simon Bolivar are in favor of independence from Spain, fractures in the revolutionary coalition are emerging as the colonies approach victory. While Simon Bolivar s larger-than-life personality looms over all other revolutionaries, voices criticizing his tactics are becoming louder and louder. Even though Bolivar remains the head of state in Gran Colombia, his absence as he continues the fight in Ecuador and Peru leaves an opening for whatever faction can organize the quickest. Several issues, from the structure of the Colombian government to future territorial expansion, dictate which factions people fall into. Many factions, however, have overlapping interests, and might strike a deal to work together. Further, as the political situation evolves, so too may the political beliefs of Bolivar s cabinet. Federalists: It is not a coincidence that revolutions in Latin America occurred only a few decades after the Thirteen Colonies rose up against the British crown. The American Revolution is one of the chief influences of Simon Bolivar, and the constitution of Gran Colombia leans heavily on the one 17

18 drafted by the Americans in Federalists are the true believers of Bolivar s impossible dream, and support the expansion of Gran Colombia to include as many of the former Spanish colonies as possible in a federated system. To achieve this goal, the Federalists are committed to installing Simon Bolivar at the head of revolutions in Ecuador, Peru, and beyond. They even support granting him a stronger Presidential powers, should he ask. (Juan Bautista Arismendi, Luisa Cacares de Arismendi, Louis-Michel Aury, Louis Peru de Lacroix, Cristobal Mendoza, Daniel Florence O Leary, Juan German Roscio, Antonio Jose de Sucre) Separatists: One downside of the Federalists intense focus on Simon Bolivar as a leader is that, as Gran Colombian politics revolves around the capital Bogotá, anxiety over a federal system is rising elsewhere. Venezuelans, most specifically, are increasingly concerned that the nearly-impassable jungle between their homes and the rest of Gran Colombia is causing them to be ignored, and that the absorption of more territory into Gran Colombia will only make that problem worse. Separatists are not necessarily in favor of violent separation, but contend that South America should function as several related but individual nations free to pursue their own local interests. (Luis Brion, Juan Jose Flores, Jose de San Martin, Mariano Montilla, Jose Antonio Paez) 18

19 Republicans: Republicans and Federalists tend to agree on the territorial goals of the revolution, and yet, find themselves bitter enemies. At the center of the controversy is the constitution of Gran Colombia, which the strongest pro- Bolivarian factions have argued is weak and grants too little power to the President. While Republicans still recognize Bolivar as President and Libertador, they side with Francisco de Paula Santander on the question of revising the constitution, and see Bolivar s requests for a new constitution as potentially tyrannical. Their primary goal in the coming years will be to defend democracy in Gran Colombia. (Andres Bello, Juan Manuel Cajigal, Francisco de Paula Santander, Santiago Marino) Mestizos, Negros, and Indios: While the races at the bottom of the Spanish caste system continue to be instrumental in fighting Spain, the revolution has also failed to deliver its promise of equality. While the first rebels pledged support against racism, the government of Gran Colombia is now taking the position that the revolution has solved race issues in South America, despite the objections of non-white racial groups in the country. Regardless of the political status of the Latin American Republics, this faction will aim to fight for an end to castes, racial equality, and continued vigilance against the evils of slavery in the Americas. The nation of Haiti, a country of liberated 19

20 slaves and an early supporter of Bolivar, may seek to intervene again. (Jean Pierra Boyer, Pedro Carmejo, Jose Prudencio Padilla) Questions to Consider 1. How would other foreign powers, mainly the United States and Europe, react to the Wars? Would their intervention affect the unity of Gran Colombia? 2. What are the impacts of bloc divides within individual countries? 3. Consider other Cultural/Political Revolutions that may have influenced this one: a. What similarities can be drawn to make a plan of action for the Committee? b. Does your position have any ties to these other revolutions? 4. What philosophical and political influences did Simon Bolivar have? 5. How did they affect Bolivar s political ideals? 6. Which other Libertadores did Bolivar work most closely with? 7. What is Bolivar s economic background? a. How did this impact his political career? b. How can your position leverage this in committee? 20

21 8. How can you leverage your portfolio powers to build alliances with other Libertadores? 9. What is Bolivarianism Recommended Sources America FBI Factbook on Nation s Histories Consult AP History textbooks Bibliography Age of Enlightenment. New World Encyclopedia. Accessed 29 October Duignan, Brian. Enlightenment. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Last modified June 27, Bourbon Reforms. Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 29 October

22 Enlightenment. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Accessed 29 October French Revolution. History.com. Accessed 29 October Henry J., Sage. "The Enlightenment in America." Sage American History. Accessed January 13, History of Latin America. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Accessed 29 October "Latin American Social Hierarchy." Hierarchy Structure. September 29, Accessed October 22, Latin American Wars of Independence. Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 29 October "Latin American Wars of Independence." In International Military and Defense Encyclopedia, edited by Trevor N. Dupuy. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, World History in Context (accessed October 23, 2017). Lockhart, J., Kittleson, R. A., & Bushnell, D. (2016, September 09). History of Latin America. Retrieved November 13, 2017, America#toc60864 "Louisiana Purchase." Thomas Jefferson's Monticello. Accessed October 22,

23 Lynch, John. Simon Bolivar and the Spanish Revolutions. History Today, "Napoleon Bonaparte." History.com Accessed October 22, "Napoleonic Wars." Britannica Academic. Accessed October 22, Simon Bolivar. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Accessed 29 October Thiessen, Heather. Cortes of Cadiz. Encyclopedia.com. Last modified November 12, Thiessen, Heather. Spain, Constitution of Encyclopedia.com. Last modified October 6, Wortman, Miles. Bourbon Reforms in Central America: The Americas 32 (October 1975):