Index. Armed conflict, 44, 75, 76, 90, 98, 100, 101, 105, , 162 Aronowitz, A. A., 42, 69, 71, 79, 80, 83, 86, 94, 95, 143 Ayoob, M.

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1 Index A Absence of parental supervision and monitoring, 135, 144, 238 Adepoju, A., 14, 24, 102, 103, 156, 165 The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (African Children Charter), The African Union Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, 197 The African Union Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa, 197, 200, 201 The African Youth Charter, 197, 201 Albania, 70, 80 83, 86 Allain, J., 22, 128, 129 Angeles, M. B., 16, 107, 134, 194 Angola, 2, 103, 106, 122, 140 Anti-Slavery International, 42, 43 Argentina, 93 95, 99 Armed conflict, 44, 75, 76, 90, 98, 100, 101, 105, , 162 Aronowitz, A. A., 42, 69, 71, 79, 80, 83, 86, 94, 95, 143 Ayoob, M., 47, 49 B Bales, K., 26, 35, 96 The Balkans-South-Eastern Europe, 81, 84 Barry, K., 3, 11, 12 Bedeski, R., 52 Belize, 94 Bellamy, I., 46 Berdal, M. R., 45 Bermudez, L., 29, 120, 128 Booth, K., 47 Botswana, 2, 103, 106, 139 Brazil, 79, 83, 93 96, , 124, 128, 143 British Broadcasting Corporation, 120 The Author(s) 2018 R. O. Iroanya, Human Trafficking and Security in Southern Africa, African Histories and Modernities, 245

2 246 INDEX Burgess, J. K., 23, 26, 53, 55 Burkina Faso, 101, 102 Burundi, 86 Buzan, B., 4 7, 46, 47, 49, 50, 53, 54, 56 58, C Cameroon, 83, 101, 102, 122 Canada, 12, 51, 73, 93, Canada Commission on Human Security (CCHS), 51 The Caribbean, 68, 74, 82, 93, 95 98, 105 Causes of human trafficking, 8, 42, , 237, 240 Causes of human trafficking in Africa, 5, 8, 13, 14, 19, , , 196 Causes of human trafficking in the Americas, Central America, 93, 94 Central Europe, 13, The Charter on Human and Peoples Rights (The Banjul Charter), Child-headed households, 135, 144, , 177, 238 Child labour and migration, The Children s Act, 205, Children s Institute, 131 Child trafficking, 3, 5, 25, 28, 71, 87, 93, 101, 103, 126, 207, 212 Chitupila, C. V., 20, 162 The City Press, 141 The classic view of security, Collapse of the Soviet Union, 5, 78, Colombia, 70, 79, 83, 86, 93 95, 100 Communication and judicial co-operation, Comparison of South African and Mozambican Anti-trafficking legislation, The concept of human trafficking, The concept of organised crime, 39 The concept of security, 25, 45, 46 Conceptual differentiation, 14, 36 Conceptualising human trafficking, 6, 11, 19, 26 29, 226 Conditions facilitating domestic human trafficking, 104, , Conditions facilitating human Trafficking Asian region, Conditions facilitating human trafficking in Mozambique, 8, 145, , 239 Conditions facilitating human trafficking in South Africa, 5, 8, 18, 106, 112, 120, 121, 125, 130, , 139, 142, , 228, 234, 238 Conditions facilitating international trafficking from Mozambique, 154, , 238 Conditions facilitating international trafficking into South Africa, 122, 137, 145 Consent, 2, 15, 26, 28, 36, 37, 58, 134, 153, 208, 209, 214, 216 Consultancy Africa Intelligence, 138 The contemporary view of security, 47, 48, 109 Continued existence of historical conditions, 86, 144 Control of victims, 26, 30, 37, 38 Corruption among public officials, 172, 173, 178, 233, 238 Costa Rica, 94 Cote d Ivoire, 101

3 INDEX 247 Criminalisation, 16, 109, 189, , 195, 200, 216 Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 131, 205, Criteria for identifying security threats, 55 57, 227 Criticism of the Protocol, Cultural practices, 74, 75, 107, 130, 134, 144, 162, 168, 169, 177, 238 Cultural practices and beliefs, Cybercrime, 41 D Defining transnational organised crime, Delagoa Bay, 136 Delport, E., 108, 127, 136 Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), 2, 17, 101, 102, 109, 122, 127, 156 Difaqane, 136 Discourses, 3, 6, 24, 25, 29, 30, 50, 85, 175, 198, 201 Domestic human trafficking in South Africa, 130, 134, 135, 238 Domestic trafficking, 17, 29, 38, 39, 69, 71, 96, 106, , 129, 130, 145, 152, 153, 157, 162, 177, 178, 215, 229, 238, 239 Domestic trafficking in Mozambique, 152 The Dominican Republic, 83, 94, 96 Drug Trafficking, 23, 40, 84, 93, 127, 132, 143, 174, 220, 232 E Economic and political stability of South Africa, 137 Economic threats, 54 The Economy, 43, 88, 105, 107, 137, 171, 172, 233 Ecuador, 93 Efforts to prevent human trafficking in Southern Africa, El Salvador, 93, 94, 97, 100 England, 84, 136 Environmental threats, 55 Estonia, 80, 81, 83 Ethiopia, 103, 105, 175, 233 Exercise of ownership rights, 33 Exploitation, viii, 2, 12, 22, 67, 119, 152, 186, 231 The extent of trafficking in Europe, F Factors facilitating human trafficking in Europe, Factors facilitating human trafficking in the CIS region, Family disintegration, 132, 133, 144, 170, 177, 238 Feingold, D. A., 12, 13, 20, 21 Fellows, S., 128, 129, 160 Female and child headed households, , 177, 238 France, 14, 79, 83, 84, 102, 136, 137 Frankel, P., 2, 5, 14, 15, 17, 18, 23, 36 G Gastrow, P., 7, 25, 172, 173 Geographical causes, Geographical patterns, 108 Geographical proximity, 81, 90, 98, 108, 136, 139, 140, 145, 174, 175, 177, 205, 238 Germany, 70, 79, 80, 82, 83, 90, 94, 102, 125 Ghana, 84, 101, 102, 105 Glasius, M., 50

4 248 INDEX The global extent of human trafficking, Global initiatives to prevent human trafficking, 186 Globalisation, 3, 19, 20, 29, 42, 45, 57, 77, 84 86, 104, 140 Global patterns and security implications, Gould, C., 18, 25 Govender, S., 132 Gramegna, M. A., 25 Graycar, A., 36 The Guardian human trafficking and, 218 nature of, 217 organised crime, 218 transnational organised crime, 218 Guatemala, 93 95, 97 Guyana, 94 H Handmaker, J., 19 Hargreaves, S., 133 Harington, 106 Haynes, D. F., 27, 31, 38, 231 Historical conditions, 73, 84, 89, 98, 99, , 112, 130, 136, 144, 145, 162, 170, 171, 177, 237, 238 Historical patterns, 98, 99, 106, 205 Historical precedents, 73, 74, 110, 130 Historical reasons, 130, 131, 136, 137 Historicity, victimization and causality, HIV/AIDS, 20, 43, 134, 135, 161, 167, 169, 213, 214, 232 Honduras, 93, 94, 97 Hosken, G., 122, 228 Hübschle, A., 156, 157 Human organ trafficking, 67, 72, 110, 111, 128, 129, 160, 161, 192, 232, 233, 237 in Mozambique, 129, 161 Human Rights League, Mozambique, 129 Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), xv, 5, 161 Human security approaches to, 29, concept of, 50 Human trafficking, or human smuggling in Africa, 16, 59 in the Americas, in Asia and the Pacific regions, 70 discourse, in Europe, 30 and slavery, 15, 26, 38, 236 in South Africa and Mozambique, 129 in the successor states of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, trends in Mozambique, trends in South Africa, I Illegal trafficking in natural resources, 41 Illegal weapons trafficking, 40, 41, 175, 220, 232 Immutable social status, 34, 58 Increased migration among women, Indian Ocean, 12, 158 Initiatives to combat human trafficking in Mozambique, 211 Initiatives to counter human trafficking in South Africa, 206

5 INDEX 249 Initiatives to prevent human trafficking in Africa, Insufficient political will, 144, 177, 178, 238 Internal human trafficking in Mozambique, 162 International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), 163 International human trafficking from Mozambique, 154 International Labour Organization (ILO), 1, 69, 93, 95, 101, 108, 127, 134, 165, 169 International Organisation for Migration (IOM), 2, 13, 14, 17 19, 23, 26, 42, 70 72, 81, 88, 103, 120, 124, 128, 155, 156, 174, 177, 206, 207, 235, 236 International trafficking, 4, 30, 72, 76, 80, 81, 95, , 110, 111, , 129, 130, , 157, 162, 170, 178, 215, International trafficking in Mozambique, 153, 156, , 238 International trafficking into South Africa, 122, 137, 145, Inter-regional and international trafficking in South Africa, 125 Inter-regional trafficking into Mozambique, 122, 123, 153, 154 Inter-regional trafficking into South Africa, 120, 122, 123 Iran, 71, 86 Iraqi, 86 Irin News, 152, 173 Italy, 14, 70, 79 82, 102, 125 J Jamaica, 94 Japan, 51, 71 73, 76, 77, 88, Jordan, A. D., 126, 190, 192 Judicial co-operation, 190, 193 K Kempado, K., 20, 44, 58 Key states party obligations in the protocol, 192 Kidnapping, 2, 3, 14, 24, 26, 38, 39, 95, 121, 130, 131, 134, 136, 153, 160, 197, 217, 229, 236 Koen, K., 29, 121, 126 Kolodziej, E.A., 47 Kosovo, 80, 81, 86 Krause, K., 52 Kruger, H.B., 23, 25, 31, 33, 34, 37, 154, 174, 193, 195, 207, 209 Kupita kufa, 168 L Labour trafficking, 83, 89, 91, 94, 110, 127, 128, Lack of sufficient political will, 177 Laczko, F., 14, 25 Latin America, 79, , 110 Latvia, 80, 81, 83 Lee, J.H., 73 Lee, M., 16, 29, 43, 73 Legal personality, 33, 34, 58 Legislation, vii ix, 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 15 18, 20 24, 27, 28, 54, 105, 109, 130, 131, 141, 144, 145, 162, 173, , 185, 186, , 195, 197, 198, , 205, 206, , 219, 220, 234, 235,

6 250 INDEX Legislation to Combat Human Trafficking in Mozambique, Legislation to combat human trafficking in South Africa, 207 Legislative context, Lesotho, 103, 106, 107, 122, 126, 139, 140, 159, 228, 235 Lippman, W., 46 Lithuania, 70, 80, 81, 83 Lloyd, R., 173 Lobola, 169 Low risk and high profits, Luciani, G., 46 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, 99 Lutya, M.T., 6, 21, 42, 121, 131, 132, 166 M The main features of human trafficking, Malawi, 17, 103, 106, 122, 140, 154, 156, 158, 163, 172, 174, 175, 228 Maree, A., 20, 21 Martens, J., 3, 5, 120, 122, 123, 126, 137, 155, 159, 228 Mathebula, Nongoloza, 106, 130 Methods of operation, 33 35, 37, 58, 176 Mexico, 93, 94, Mfecane, 136 Military threats, 24, 46, 48, 53, 57, 227, 240 Milivojevic, S., 16, 192, 193, 195 Mokwena, S., 130 Mollema, N., 16, 17, 136, 171 Molo Songololo, 120, 121, 125, 126, 136, 159, 206, 207 Monitoring and border control, Morawska, E., 35, 85 Mosse, M., 172, 173 Motivation of migrant smugglers, Mountain, A., 105, 123, 136, 170, 171 Moyo, I., 14 18, 20, 21, 23, 36, 106 Mozambique, viii, 4, 14, 103, 122, 151, , 225 Mozambique as a transit route, 153, 156, 157, 229 N Namibia, 103, 139 National Prosecuting Authority (NPA), 206 The Nation, 99, 123, 124, 233 Nature of human trafficking, 5, 12, 25, 27, 38, 174, 196 The Netherlands, 14, 70, 79, 82 84, 94, 102, 125 Nicaragua, 94 Nicola, P., 13, 15, 70 Nigeria, 70, 79, 82 84, 101, 102, 122 Non-Legal Efforts to Combat Human trafficking in Mozambique, North America, 13, 30, 85, 90, 93, 94, North and East Africa, North-East Asia, Northern Europe, 80, 81, 88 Nowak, M., 34 Nshimbi, C.C., 14 18, 20, 21, 23, 36, 106 O Ouagadougou Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings, Especially Women and Children, 178, 185, 197, 202, 203, 219, 239

7 INDEX 251 P Panama, 94 Pan American Health Organisation, 96 Paraguay, 93, 94 Parliamentary Monitoring Group, 209 Patterns of human trafficking in Mozambique, Patterns of human trafficking in South Africa, 152 Paucity of trafficking data, Perceived existence of opportunities in destination countries, 172 Personal lifestyles of South African youths, 132 Peru, 93, 95, 97 Political and social factors, 76, 91 Political Factors, 109 Political instability and armed conflict, 100, 110 Political Reasons, Political threats, Politico-economic factors, Poor enforcement of human trafficking law, 176 Poor implementation of Laws on prostitution, 141 Portugal, 80, 82, 84, 94, 158, 170, 175 Poverty, vii, 19 21, 42 44, 51, 55, 57, 58, 73, 74, 86, 97 99, 105, 129, 130, 144, 152, 161, , 168, 177, 178, 227, 236, 238, 239, 241 Presence of immigrant communities, The Prevention and Combating of Trafficking in Persons Act, 205 Programmes to combat human trafficking in South Africa, Push and pull factors, 3, 42, 136 R The referent objects of human trafficking, Regional Agreements, 75, 84, 86, 89, 90, 104, 110, 140, 175, 239 Regional commitments, 140, 141, 145, 238 Relationship between the Palermo Convention and the Palermo Protocol, 191 Reuters, 231 Rijken, C., 25, 30, 39, 186, 230 The rise in sex tourism, Rothschild, E., 50 Rwanda, 86, 109, 122 S Salt, J., 22, 36 38, 58, 90 The Salvation Army, 206, 207 The Schengen Agreement, Scope and purpose, 188 Scope and purpose of the protocol, 192 Securitization, Security, vii, 4, 13, 68, 145, 174, 185, Security context of the third world, Security issues, 22 24, 230 Segrave, M., 16, 192, 193, 195, 220 Sex trafficking, vii, 18, 27, 69, 95, 97, 120, 126, 127, 152, 154, Seychelles, 2 Slavery, viii, 3, 4, 11 15, 24 29, 31 33, 36 38, 58, 69, 84, 85, 89, 98, 99, 105, 110, 121, 122, 136, 137, 145, 171, 177, 186, 187, 194, 198, 213, 231, 236, 238 Slave trade, 3, 12, 14, 32, 35, 84, 85, 89, 98, 104, 105, 155, 186, 187

8 252 INDEX Smith, R.K.M., 33 Smuggling, 2, 4, 8, 14 16, 24 26, 30, 32, 35, 36, 40, 58, 90, 108, 139, 140, 188, 220, 230, 236 Societal threats, Socio-cultural factors, Socio-cultural practices, 107, 108, 134, 135 Socio-economic conditions, 21, 112, 131, 132, 163, 165 Socio-economic factors, 99 Somalia, 79, 86, 122 Sources of threats to security, 47, 53, 58, 237 South Africa, vii, 3, 14, 101, 119, 152, 186, 225 South Africa as a transit country, South African and Mozambican efforts to combat human trafficking, South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), 155, 156 South African Law Reform Commission (SALRC), 120, 125, 127, 128, 138, 175, 196, 210, 229 South America, 13, 68, 76, 79 85, 88, 89, 93 95, 97 99, 111, 120, 122, 135, 229, 237 Southern Africa, 3, 4, 8, 13, 14, 16, 23, 59, 101, , 108, 122, 153, 155, 161, 174, 175, 205, 213, 219, 225, 240 Southern African Development Community (SADC), 178, 185, 197, 204, 219, 239 The Southern African Development Community Protocol on Gender and Development, 197, 203, 204 Southern African Research and Documentation Centre (SARDC), 141, 175 Southern Asia, Southern Europe, 80, 82, 83 Sowetan, 107, 159 Spain, 14, 79, 80, 82, 94 Sri Lanka, 71, 76, 86 Stability of Western Europe, 86 State obligations under the convention, 189 Statistics South Africa, 131, 138, 165 Stein, J., 58, 90 Sub-regional Differences, 70, Sub-regional variation, 88, 101 Sullivan, B., 194 Sullivan, J.P., 93 Swaziland, 17, 103, 106, 107, 122, 123, 127, 139, 140, 153, 154, 158, 159, 163, 174, 175, 212, 228, 235 T Tajikistan, 86, 87, 89, 90 Tanzania, 103, 106, 108, 163, 174, 175, 212 The 10 Year SADC Strategic Plan of Action on Combating Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, 178, 185, 197, 204, 219, 239 Theoretical issues, Theory, 20, 23, 57, 59, 140 Togo, 101, 102 Trafficking, vii, 1, 11 59, , , , Transatlantic slave trade, 12, 84, 89, 155 Transnationality, 2 Transparency International (TI), 173 Trans-Saharan slave trade, 104 Truong, T.D., 16, 19, 20, 25, 43, 44, 100, 107, 134, 167, 194 Typologies of human trafficking, 29

9 INDEX 253 U Ukuthwala intombi, 134 Ullman, R.H., 47 The UN Convention against Transnational Organised Crime of 2000-Palermo Convention, 185, 188, 195 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 50 United Nations International Children s Education Fund (UNICEF), 71, 77, 81, 101, 103, 109, 119, 121, 122, 153, 167, 206, 211, 212, 228 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), 1, 14 United States Department of States, 68, 69, 72, 82 84, 94, 95, 103, 122, 124, 141, , 157, 159, 169, , 212, 215, 229 United States of America (USA), 27, 69 71, 73, 74, , 110, 218, 234 The UN Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children of 2000-Palermo Protocol, 8, 14, 178, 187, 192 V Van der Hoven, A., 20, 21 Van der Watt, M., 121, 126, 133 Van Onselen, C., 106, 130 Van Vuuren-Smyth, B., 29, 121, 126 Victim protection, 190, 191, 235 Victim protection and assistance, 193, 194, 202 W Weekly Mail, 155 West and Central Africa, 101, 102 Western Europe, 68, 79 84, 86 90, 95, 96, 100, 103 Women s Network for a Better Work, 170 X Xenophobia, 19 Xinhua General News Service, 154 Z Zambia, 2, 106, 140, 163, 174, 175 Zimbabwe, 2, 17, 103, 107, 122, 124, 139, 140, 154, 158, 159, 163, 172, 174, 228, 235 Zimmerman, C., 31, 231