Peace Studies in China

Peace Studies in China History and present of Peace Studies as an academic discipline in the People s epu li of Chi a Johannes Heller Master of International Studies (Peace and Conflict Resolution) A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of International Studies in the School of Political Science and International Studies at the University of Queensland. 28 October 2016

Abstract Abstract This thesis examined the explanations for the emergence of Peace Studies as an academic discipline in China by means of a content analysis of the Chinese literature on Peace Studies. This literature was identified through a keyword search for the terms peace studies and peace esea h in the China Academic Journal Full-Text Database (CJFD) of the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Out of the resulting 153 articles a selection of 30 articles was made in accordance with their comparatively high number of downloads and citations in the CJFD. This literature was analysed according to two pairs of components of the emergence of Peace Studies in China which are actors and influences as well as history and ideas. The study showed that academic experts participated in the development of Peace Studies through the opening of Peace Studies courses at the university level and through publishing articles, although no dedicated Peace Studies journal has emerged yet. Only few academics stayed committed to this endeavour for longer than five years. They were influenced by international university institutes or individual researchers, but also cooperated domestically through Peace Studies conferences. Equally, historic events played an important role through providing the impetus to the engagement with Peace Studies like the Nanjing Massacre and creating an amenable environment in times of supportive government policy. An examination of the ideas found in the Chinese literature on Peace Studies revealed that methods and conceptions of peace were similar to ones in the West even though they varied in some instances. Overall, this thesis found that the emergence of Peace Studies as an academic discipline in China can be explained by a combination of the existence of individual Peace Studies entrepreneurs, international cooperation with Chinese universities, a general interest of the academic community in the topics and theories of Peace Studies, and conducive historical events. 2

Acknowledgements Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like express my gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Sarah Teitt for her continuous support and helpful commentary on the various draft versions of this thesis. I also would like to thank my fellow students Bipasha Chaudhuri and Casey Lee Barratt for their time and shared insight while they also wrote thei aste s theses. I am, furthermore, grateful to Liu Cheng and Chen Jianrong who both took the time to have a conversation with me and provide me with valuable information about Peace Studies in China in general and their personal work in particular. I want to extent my thanks to Alan Hunter, Egon Spiegel, and Gerald Chan as well for answering my questions to the best on their knowledge. Moreover, I want to thank the German Academic Exchange Service for their provision of my scholarship without which it would not have been possible to begin this degree in the first place. Finally, I want to sincerely thank my partner Linda John. Her indefatigable assistance through proofreading my draft versions for this thesis and providing emotional support was invaluable. 3

Table of contents Table of contents Abstract... 2 Acknowledgements... 3 List of abbreviations... 6 1. Introduction... 7 2. A Western view on Peace Studies in China... 8 3. Methodology of the study... 12 4. Actors and influences... 18 4.1 Actors... 18 4.1.1 Academic experts... 18 4.1.2 Institutes... 21 4.1.3 Research outlets... 23 4.2 Influences... 27 4.2.1 International cooperation... 27 4.2.2 Domestic cooperation... 30 4.3 Analysis of actors and influences... 31 5. History and ideas... 34 5.1 History... 34 5.1.1 Seminal political or social events... 35 5.1.2 Important Peace Studies events... 37 5.2 Ideas... 39 5.2.1 Breadth of literature... 39 5.2.2 Chinese Peace Studies... 40 5.2.3 Conceptions of peace and Peace Studies... 41 5.3 Analysis of history and ideas... 46 6. Conclusion... 47 Bibliography... 50 4

Table of contents Annexes... I Annex 1 Full list of publications... I Annex 2 Keyword searches (by publication year)... VIII Annex 3 Selected and read literature... X Annex 3.1 Reading list... X Annex 3.2 Peace Studies (by citation)... XIV Annex 3.3 Peace Studies (by downloads)... XVII Annex 3.4 Peace Research (by citation)... XX Annex 3.5 Peace Research (by downloads)... XXIII Annex 4 Author affiliation... XXVI 5

List of abbreviations List of abbreviations ASEAN CAIFC CASS CJFD CNKI CPAFFC CPAPD CPC IPRA PRC UNESCO Association of Southeast Asian Nations China Association for International Friendly Contact [ 中 际 好联络会 ] Chinese Academy of Social Sciences [ 中 社会科学院 ] China Academic Journals Full-Text Database [ 中 期刊全文数据 ] China National Knowledge Infrastructure [ 中 知识基础 施 ] Chinese People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries [ 中 人民对外 好 会 ] Chi ese People s Asso iation for Peace and Disarmament [ 中 人民争取和 裁军 会 ( 和裁会 )] Communist Party of China International Peace Research Association People s epu li of Chi a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation 6

1 Introduction 1. Introduction Gathering information about war and peace is possibly as old as human conflict itself. Searching for solutions to stabilise political environments and to solve conflicts under rigorous academic theories and conditions is, however, a development of the 20 th century. All societies have suffered under war and violence and it can be assumed that all societies have developed ways to end wars and establish peace. The embodiment of this search for peace can be found in modern Peace Studies. While there is a broad array of Western research on the development of Peace Studies in the United States and Europe, little has been said about other regions of the world. An example for this neglect can be China. 1 Even though increasing attention is payed to Chi a s aims and actions on the international stage, the current understanding of the history and present of Peace Studies as well as peace movements in China is barely existent in English writings. 2 Therefore, this thesis asks the following question: what explains the emergence of Peace Studies as an academic discipline in China? To answer this question Chinese literature on Peace Studies was identified through a keyword search for the terms peace studies and peace esea h in the China Academic Journal Full-Text Database (CJFD) of the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) and two pairs of components of the emergence of Peace Studies were analysed. The first pair contained actors which are producers of knowledge in the field of Peace Studies in China, i.e. authors, institutions, research outlets. It also contained influences such as cooperations between these actors and international institutions or individuals. This pair was examined to understand the current as well as historical context of Peace Studies in China. The second pair of components of the development of Peace Studies in China consisted of historical events with relevance for Peace Studies in particular as well as for the broader society in general. It also included ideas formulated in the Chinese literature on Peace Studies. The 1 The te China is used i this thesis e lusi el fo the People s epu li of Chi a. 2 This thesis uses capitalisation to connote the existence of disciplines and academic fields of study (e.g. Peace Education, Peace Psychology, International Studies), but does not capitalise terms that stand for activities and processes that are no fields of study (e.g. peace movement, peace action). 7

2 A Western view on Peace Studies in China content of a selection of 30 Chinese articles on Peace Studies was analysed to identify the thematic diversity of the Chinese literature on Peace Studies, their views regarding the establishment of a separate Chinese branch of Peace Studies as well as Chinese conceptions of peace and Peace Studies. This pair was studied to gain an insight into the historical awareness and content of Peace Studies in China. The aim of this thesis is to fill the gaps in the existing literature on Peace Studies in China as well as broaden their scope to include more Chinese authors, articles and institutes in the analysis and, thereby, making them accessible to a readership without access to the original Chinese sources. 2. A Western view on Peace Studies in China Peace Studies is difficult to define, as the field is very broad and specific programs may carry different names depending on their academic focus. Peace Studies, Conflict Resolution, Mediation and Critical Security Studies are some examples of courses that may be concerned with conflicts in similar ways. Stephenson (1999: 810) states that Peace Studies are or at least should be interdisciplinary, international (if not transnational), policy oriented, value explicit, and committed to peace as a value in itself. Conventionally, Peace Studies are divided into three different fields, which are the scientific investigation of peace (Peace Research), the conveying of its results to others (Peace Education), and the ealisatio of poli i pli atio s ased o these fi di gs pea e a tio Galtu g : 108). 3 Out of these three fields the thesis focussed mostly on Peace Research. There are only few authors who have investigated Peace Studies in China over the years. These include Gerald Chan, currently professor in the Department of Politics and International Relations at the University of Auckland, in the late 1990s; Alan Hunter, professor of Asian Studies at the Centre for Trust, Peace and Social Relations at Coventry University in the United Kingdom, in the first decade of the 21 st century; and Egon Spiegel, 3 Peace action is sometimes also termed peace movement (Stephenson 1999: 816) or peace activism (Stephenson 1999: 819). 8

2 A Western view on Peace Studies in China Chair for Applied Theology at Vechta University in Germany, since 2009. The writings of these scholars were summarised in view of their information regarding Peace Studies in China. Chan authored an article in 1998 called Chinese Perspectives on Peace and Development which was published in Peace Review and subsequently included in his book Chinese perspectives on International Relations published in 1999. His article gave an insight into the changing Chinese perspectives on Peacekeeping, the relationship of peace and development as seen from the Chinese government and with the most relevance for this thesis an overview regarding the historic development of Peace Studies in China. He asserts that Peace Studies had existed in the former Republic of China since the 1930s. As evidence he mentions the publication of The World Peace Movement [ 世界和 运动 ] by Hua Chao [ 超 ] (1930) 4 and A Brief History of the International Anti-aggression Movement [ 际反侵略运动大会简史 ] by Zhang Minren [ 张闽 ] (1939) (Chan 1998: 36; Chan 1999: 124). 5 Subsequently, he states that academic writings on peace existed et ee the fou di g of the People s epu li of Chi a P C i a d the Chinese withdrawal from the World Peace Council and other communist organisations in 1967 after which they all but disappeared (Chan 1998: 36; Chan 1999: 124-125). It was only when Deng Xiaoping, paramount leader of China between 1978 and 1989, ascended to power and interactions between China and the West increased that the outlook for Peace Studies brightened in the early 1980s. Chan notes that an Institute of Peace and Development was founded, which published its own journal on Peace Studies. He also includes the creation of the Chinese People's Association for Peace and Disarmament (CPAPD) in 1985, which held more than 20 activities in 1986, the United Natio s I te atio al Yea of Pea e (Chan 1998: 4 When confronted with an originally Chinese term, name or title this thesis uses the English translation followed by Chinese characters / Hanzi in square brackets. The use of Hanyu Pinyin is reserved for the transliteration of names of persons and places. 5 Chan does not give the Chinese characters for the titles and names of the author, he also gives the year 1936 as the publication date of the second book. However, a search on the Stanford University Libraries website provided the information on The World Peace Movement (Stanford University Library undated/a) and the Brief History (Stanford University Library undated/b) as it was used in the text. 9

2 A Western view on Peace Studies in China 36-37; Chan 1999: 125). While Cha s a ti le is a rare glimpse into the history of Peace Studies in China and to my knowledge the only one in English so far, his account of Peace Studies leaves some open questions with regards to the influence of the mentioned publications and the existence of peace organisations in the 1990s. 6 His assessment at the ti e as that the e is o a ade i stud of pea e i Chi ese u i e sities Cha :. In the year following the pu li atio of Cha s ook the World History Study Section of the History Department of Nanjing University and the Centre for Peace and Reconciliation Studies at Coventry University started a cooperation to build Peace Studies in China (Liu 2006: 200). 7 Alan Hunter from Coventry University and Liu Cheng [ 刘成 ] from Nanjing University summarised the outcomes of this cooperation in several publications. Based on the conference proceedings of the first international conference on Peace Studies in China, held at Nanjing University in 2005, Hunter edited a book titled Peace Studies in the Chinese Century in which Liu authored the afterword called Aspirations for Peace Studies in China. They co-authored a piece in the journal Peace Forum in 2009 called Peace Education with Chinese Characteristics and Hunter wrote The Emergence of Peace Studies in Chinese Higher Education in the same year for the edited book Higher Education and International Capacity Building. With regards to Peace Studies in China, all three sources reviewed the cooperation between Coventry and Nanjing Universities between 2000 and 2005 as well as the development of Peace Studies at Nanjing University. Both articles stated that various Chinese academics translated Western publications on Peace Studies and authored original Chinese articles during the cooperation of the universities. Also, a series of edited monographs called Peace Archives had been printed, courses in Peace Studies taught for undergraduates and postgraduates at Nanjing University, as well as the first textbook on Peace Studies aptly named Peace Studies [ 和 学 ] published by Liu Cheng in 2006 (Liu 6 This will be followed up in chapter 4 on actors and influences. 7 This cooperation was formalised when Coventry University received a grant from the Higher Education Link program to work with Nanjing University in the discipline of Peace Studies between 2002 and 2005. The Program gave funding to various academic exchanges between the United Kingdom and China from the mid- 1980s until the first decade of the 2000s, with a focus on technical and scientific projects (Hunter 2009: 222). 10

2 A Western view on Peace Studies in China 2006: 200; Hunter 2009: 223; Hunter & Liu 2009: 58). By 2009 about 1000 students had participated in Peace Studies courses at Nanjing University (Hunter & Liu 2009: 58) and efforts had been made to extend Peace Education to non-tertiary education with the publication of a series called A series on growing up in peace [ 和 成长 书 ] published in 2009 by Nanjing Publishing House [ 南京出版社 ], each of the books in the series addressing pupils of a different age group (Hunter & Liu 2009: 59). While the writings of Hunter and Liu have done much to record the beginning of peace research at Nanjing University in detail, they are less concerned with enquiring into Peace Studies efforts e o d Na ji g U i e sit. The e tio Wa g )hi he g s [ 王志成 ] 2003 book Eager for Peace: Contemporary Theories of Inter-religious dialogue [ 和 的渴望 : 当代宗教对话理论 ] as well as Han Hongwen [ 韩洪文 ], who published an in-depth analysis of the European and US Peace Studies literature in 2002 called Peace Research in the 20 th century: A historical Study [20 世纪的和 研究 - 历史性考察 ]. 8 The also state that Pea e esea h i Chi a sta ted i Hu te & Liu : ith the esta lish e t of cooperation between their two universities. In the same year in which Hunter and Liu published their last article, Egon Spiegel held lectures on Peace Studies in Nanjing which would grow into a cooperation between him and Liu (Spiegel undated). 9 His experiences in China and a thorough record of the conferences and lectures he participated in were published 2015 in a German book chapter called Peace Studies in China. Interim results of a cooperation: Impressions and Outputs [Friedenswissenschaft in China. Zwischenbilanz einer Kooperation: Eindrücke und Erträge]. While piegel epeats so e of the pu lishi g i fo atio al ead gi e i Hu te s a d Liu s 8 No Chinese characters are given for the articles in the original source. Information was corroborated with an e t fo Wa g )hi he g s ook at the ha ghai Li a e site (Shanghai Library undated/a) and a reference fo Ha Ho g e s ook i a a ti le Xu La Xu :, foot ote. 9 The first entry regarding Nanjing is a lecture with the title Ought implies can. Practice, principles, and perspectives of nonviolent acting, on 1 December 2009 (Spiegel undated). 11

3 Methodology of the study articles earlier on, he makes them accessible to German readership and expands them with information about more recent conferences 10 and lectures that he held alone or together with Liu (Spiegel 2015: 132-3). 11 Ho e e, piegel s iti gs a e also ostl o e ed ith the work done at Nanjing University and publications from Nanjing University. This information is published only in German in a book mostly unrelated to Peace Studies, which renders it inaccessible to most international peace researchers. 12 Looking at the literature surveyed in this review it becomes apparent that information about Peace Studies in China is not readily available. To date there is no study in English that provides an overview of Peace Studies in China. This thesis extends and builds on the previous work of the aforementioned authors, widens the scope of their work and makes a broader range of Chinese authors and literature known to Western scholars interested in Peace Studies in China. 3. Methodology of the study To trace and understand the emergence of Peace Studies as an academic discipline in China this thesis did, first, investigate the context in which Peace Studies are conducted and, second, carried out a content analysis of Chinese academic literature on Peace Studies. As was stated in the literature review, Peace Studies are envisioned as interdisciplinary, transnational, policy oriented, value explicit, and committed to peace as a value in itself (Stephenson 1999: 810). The last point may be seen as a difference between Peace Studies and the more traditional interpretations of International Relations and Security Studies, 10 Spiegel recalls conferences in 2011 at Nanjing University to the topic of Religion and Peace, where he held the keynote spee h, a othe o e i haa i No al U i e sit i Xi a ith the topi Peace, War, and Conflict Transformation, where he held the keynote speech as well, and mentions preparations for a fourth conference (Spiegel 2015: 132-3). 11 Spiegel mentions lectures with Peace Studies related content at Nanjing University, Nanjing Normal University, Yangzhou University, Anhui Normal University, Xi'an International Languages University, Shaanxi Normal University, Wuzhou University, and Harbin Normal University (Spiegel 2015: 132). This information might give an indication to which universities in China are generally interested in engaging with Peace Studies programs. 12 The title of the book reads The Economisation of the World and the Fate of the Humanum [Die Ökonomisierung der Welt und das Schicksal des Humanum]. 12

3 Methodology of the study which see states as actors with legitimacy to use violence or coercive force (Rank 2006: 118). While the specific topics dealt with by Peace Studies may change in accordance with the political situation and the geographical or cultural context, the ge e all o e auses of increases and decreases in violence, the conditions associated with those changes, and the p o esses hi h those ha ges happe tephe so :. Peace Studies is divided into three different fields which are Peace Research, Peace Education, and peace action. In his work Peace: Research Education Action Johan Galtung (1975: 27) asserts that Peace Research emerged and detached from Peace Education and peace action in the 1950s, but started to re-establish the connection in the 1970s. He sees Peace Research as more focussed on theory and the other two fields as focussed on practice, ut eaffi s thei elatio ship asse ti g that the e is othing so practical as a good theory o a thi g so futile as a theo ithout a tio Galtu g :. Whi h of these three fields should take precedence under the umbrella of Peace Studies is a matter of continuous debate (Stephenson 1999: 819). Following the end of the Cold War a diversification and codification of processes directed at peace took place. Peacemaking, Peacekeeping, and Peacebuilding have been used to describe the activities and processes of engagement of international and national actors at different stages of a conflict (Morrison et al. 1999: 737). These processes may be researched under the rubric of Peace Research or seen as independent areas of enquiry. The literature often does not clearly differentiate between Peace Studies, Peace Research, and Peace Education. This thesis employed the term Peace Studies with regards to the academic engagement in research and teaching with peace and conflict inside and outside of the university context. The term Peace Research is used with regards to the creation and publication of academic research. As the term Peace Education is understood as education on all levels of society including primary and secondary schools as well as government officials and the general public, it is not in the focus of this thesis. As this thesis inquire into the emergence of Peace Studies as a discipline in China, a short definition of the te discipline should be made. Krishnan (2009: 9-10) asserts that 13

3 Methodology of the study a discipline should generally have a particular object of research that is described by a body of accumulated specialist knowledge. The research object should be organised by theories and concepts, described by specific terminologies, and investigated with specific research methods. There should also be some kind of institutional manifestation like professional associations, university courses or specialised departments. This last point is also emphasized by Becher & Trowler (2001: 41) who also add the existence of dedicated journals to the list. But not all points on the list have to be fulfilled to claim the existence of a discipline (Krishnan 2009:10). Kenneth Boulding (1978: 130-131) identifies two phases of discipline development, which he calls bibliography phase and textbook phase. In the first phase a wide range of research is published, courses are instituted, journals started, and societies formed. According to him, two leading questions for that phase are: does it have a bibliography; and can you give an examination in it? The second phase is defined by a homogenisation of research that a e su a ised i a te t ook. I this thesis K ish a s list a d Bouldi g s phases ha e ee used as poi ts of o pa iso to judge the e iste e of Peace Studies as a discipline in China. The literature for the content analysis was sourced from the China Academic Journals Full-Text Database (CJFD) [ 中 期刊全文数据 ], which is part of the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) [ 中 知识基础 施 ]. The CJFD is the most comprehensive and accessible database for Chinese articles on Peace Studies. According to its website, the CJFD is the largest Chinese journal database in the world with a range of 10,283 academic journals from various fields (CNKI undated/a). Journals not included in the CJFD were not included in the content analysis. The lite atu e fo this thesis as sele ted a o i atio of the sea h te s pea e studies [ 和 学 ] a d pea e esea h [ 和 研究 ]. To ensure the focus on the emergence of Peace Studies as an academic discipline in China, a reference to the discipline usi g the te pea e studies o pea e esea h was seen as a necessary prerequisite, as it shows that the respective authors were aware of the discipline and is willing to 14

3 Methodology of the study participate in the discourse related to it. 13 The existence of either of those terms in the subject of an article in the CJFD 14 qualified it to be included in the content analysis of this thesis. 15 A sea h i the CJFD ga e a d esults fo pea e studies a d pea e esea h respectively. A search for articles that included either of the terms resulted in 153 articles, which means that 17 articles had used both terms in their subject description. These 153 articles were identified as the Chinese literature on Peace Studies (see Annex 1 for a list of these 153 articles). Usi g the te s pea e studies a d pea e esea h as i fo ed the aforementioned three part division of Peace Studies into Peace Research, Peace Education and peace activism or movements. More insight could have been gathered by the inclusion of pea e edu atio as sea h te. Ho e e, the o e as that this ould possi l detract from the focus on academic Peace Studies as some Peace Education literature deals with the specifics of introducing and conducting Peace Education in primary and secondary schools (Stephenson 1999: 810). Therefore, while some additional insights could have been gai ed i ludi g the sea h te pea e edu atio, it ight also ha e ha ged the fo us of the thesis away from academic engagement with Peace Studies. To compare the number of Chinese articles on Peace Studies with the number of articles regarding other Peace Studies related subjects, searches were conducted for the te s pea e edu atio [ 和 教育 ] esults, o fli t esolutio [ 突 解 ] (324 esults, pea e uildi g [ 建 和 ] esults, pea e a d de elop e t [ 和 发 13 The omission of those terms from the title, abstract or keywords does not prove an unawareness of Peace Studies as a discipline, but might hint at an unwillingness or disinclination to engage in a discussion about it. 14 The CJFD data ase does ot state hi h i fo atio of the a ti le is sea hed fo the sea h field su je t [ 主题 ]. Judging from the results, however, it includes the abstract, title, and keywords of an article, but excludes a full-text search. 15 The CJFD comprises 10 series, which are Science/Technology/Engineering A (Mathematics, Physics, Mechanics, Astronomy, Geology and biology), Science/Technology/Engineering B (Chemistry, Chemistry Industry, Metallurgy Industry, Environmental Science and Mining Engineering), Science/Technology/Engineering C (Mechanics, Aeronautics, Traffic, Hydraulic, Architecture and Energy), (D) Agriculture, (E) Medicine/Hygiene, (F) Literature/History/Philosophy, (G) Politics/Military/Law, (H) Education/Social Science, (I) Electronics/Information Technology, (J) Economics and Management. The 10 series are further divided into 168 subjects of databases (CNKI undated/a). To minimise the inclusion of irrelevant topics the search was narrowed down to the series F, G, H, and J. 15

3 Methodology of the study 展 ], esults a d ha o ious so iet [ 和谐社会 ] (139,334 results). While the first three terms are roughly comparable in their number of results, the last two gave results out of proportion when compared to the previous categories. This has to be seen in context with their use in domestic politics. The te ha o ious so iet, for example, was officially introduced in the 4 th Plenary Session of the 16 th Party Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC) in September 2004 and elaborated upon in more detail by the president of China, Hu Jintao, in a speech at the CPC Central Party School in February 2005. It was seen as a major advancement in CPC theory building and the value orientation of this generation of Chinese leaders (Gu 2013: 106-7). Before 2005 only 405 articles had been written that included the term ha o ious so iet in their subject. The vast majority of articles on the subject (99.7%) have been written after 2005, with 85.7% written between the clarification of the term in 2005 and the end of 2012, when government offices were in the process of being transferred to the next generation of political leaders (see Annex 2 for a comparison of the results regarding the search for different terms sorted by year of publishing). As time and space of this thesis did not allow for an in depth analysis of all 153 articles, a selection of 30 articles was made. In a first step, the lists of results for the respective sea hes fo pea e studies a d pea e esea h e e a ked a o di g to thei itatio index as well as their number of downloads from the CNKI website. The highest ranking articles were included in the reading list (see Annex 3 for the respective result lists ranked according to citations and downloads). 16 In a second step, the combined list of articles on pea e studies a d pea e esea h as su e ed, lo g ti e pe iods ithout a representative article were located, and one or more articles from that time were selected 16 Annex 3 is called Selected and read literature. It is divided into 5 parts, which incorporate the list of 30 selected articles read for the content analysis sorted by their reading order (Annex 3.1); the most cited articles for the search te pea e studies a ked itatio i de A e. ; the ost do loaded a ti les fo the sea h te pea e studies a ked u e of do loads f o the CNKI e site A e. ; the ost ited a ti les fo the sea h te pea e esea h a ked by citation index (Annex 3.4); and the ost do loaded a ti les fo the sea h te pea e esea h a ked u e of do loads f o the CNKI website (Annex 3.2). All data was collected on 2 September 2016. 16

3 Methodology of the study based on citations, downloads and topic (see Annex 1 for a list of the Chinese literature on Peace Studies with the selection of read articles shaded in green). Using the Chinese literature on Peace Studies, this thesis analysed two pairs of components of the emergence of Peace Studies as a discipline in China which are, first, actors and influences and, second, history and ideas. To begin, actors and institutions that constitute the academic landscape of Peace Studies in China were investigated. This investigation answered the questions of who does research on Peace Studies in China and how this research is done. Actors in this context are the producers of knowledge, which includes key Chinese academic experts that publish works related to Peace Studies, engage in Peace Research or teach Peace Studies at university level. It also contains Chinese research or university institutes that employ peace researchers or train the next generation of peace researchers by providing courses or a platform for exchange with regards to Peace Studies. Finally, it also consists of research outlets like academic journals that often carry Peace Studies articles or publishing houses that print Peace Studies monographs or series. These actors are influenced by international groups like foreign university institutes or the United Nations as well as foreign individuals such as Johan Galtung, Alan Hunter or Egon Spiegel through cooperation or inspiration. Producers of knowledge also cooperate and collaborate domestically with each other by means of conferences or researching together. This investigation was supported by further research on institutional websites. Subsequently, the second pair of components, history and ideas, were examined. To answer the question of what is done in Peace Studies in China, the role of seminal events for the emergence of Peace Studies in China that changed the way Peace Studies are seen or done was examined. Seminal events include historical and political events like the Massacre of Nanjing, the end of the Cold War and changes in political control and the related changes in policy as well as incidents that may be more specifically relevant for Peace Studies, e.g. the United Nations International Year of Peace 1986, the opening or closing of important Peace Research institutes or a Peace Studies conferences. Next, the 17

4 Actors and influences role of ideas in the emergence and change Peace Studies in China was inspected through analysing the content of the 30 selected Chinese articles on Peace Studies. One aspect considered was the breadth of published Peace Studies research and ongoing research projects. Another aspect was the perceived differences or similarities of Peace Studies in China and international or Western Peace Studies as well as suggested augmentations of international Peace Studies to fit the Chinese context, for example through focussing on Chinese peace traditions in Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism or including socialist and Marxist ideas into Peace Studies. A last aspect regards different theories and conceptions of peace and the envisaged role and aim of Peace Studies in Chinese society. The results of the investigations of actors and influences as well as history and ideas and their respective analysis are presented in the following two chapters. 4. Actors and influences This chapter provides answers to the questions who is engaged in the academic field of Peace Studies in China and how are Peace Studies conducted. The actors and the influences that affect them constitute the academic landscape in which Peace Studies in China takes place. First, the actors of Peace Studies in China were examined followed by an investigation of the influences that act upon them. 4.1 Actors Actors in the field of Peace Studies in China are the producers of knowledge that create and shape Peace Studies as a discipline. Regarding the actors involved in Peace Studies, three subdivisions were made to facilitate the enquiry. They constitute different kinds of actors, namely academic experts, institutions and research outlets. 4.1.1 Academic experts Looking at the individual academic experts and their contributions to the Peace Studies literature in China, it is apparent that the number of articles they have written and the frequency of the citation of their articles by other researchers differs widely. 18

4 Actors and influences An analysis of the Chinese literature on Peace Studies in China shows that most authors have only contributed one or two articles. There are only seven authors in the Chinese literature on Peace Studies that have written three or more articles (including co-authored articles). Out of the three most prolific researchers two have written four articles. 17 Wang Meng [ 王梦 ] from Tianjin Foreign Studies University, School of Law and Political Science [ 津外 语大学涉外法政学院 ] wrote four articles on Galtu g s pea e thought i and 2015. Xiong Jianhua [ 熊建 ] wrote four articles between 1987 and 1991 that introduced Peace Studies and its theoretical foundations (Xiong 1987, 1988, 1990) as well as the International Peace Research Association (IPRA) (Xiong 1991). Xiong was affiliated ith Ce t al Chi a No al U i e sit s hool of Politi al ie e, I stitute fo Pa t Histo [ 中师范大学政治系党史室 ] and called for the introduction of Peace Studies into China, the creation of dedicated research facilities and the cooperation with international institutes and partners (Xiong 1987: 51). However, the most prolific author on Peace Studies in China is Liu Cheng [ 刘成 ] from the School of History at Nanjing University [ 南京大学历史系 ]. Since 2005 he has written 11 articles and co-authored four including works on Sino- Japanese relations (Liu 2006), Feminism and Peace Studies (Liu 2009), Peacebuilding (Liu 2015), and general introductions to Peace Studies and Peace Research (Liu 2005a, 2010, 2016). The number of downloads of Peace Studies articles from the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) website and the overall number of citations of articles in other academic writings is another source of information about the situation of scholarship on Peace Studies in China. According to a query performed for this thesis on the China Academic Journals Full-text Database (CJFD) on 2 September 2016, the majority of articles 17 Four authors wrote three articles. Chen Zhongdan [ 陈仲丹 ] wrote one article and co-authored two between 2002 and 2015 with the earliest one introducing Peace Studies to China. Li Xiangping [ 李向 ] wrote two articles and co-authored one between 1996 and 2004 mostly on the relationship of culture and Peace Studies. Han Hongwen [ 韩洪文 ] wrote three articles between 2000 and 2002 on Peace Studies in the 20 th century as well as the Peace Research of Quincy Wright. Finally, Yao Hongyue [ 姚洪 ] wrote three articles in 2006 on the establishment of Marxist Peace Studies and Chinese Peace Studies. 19

4 Actors and influences of the Chinese literature on Peace Studies examined in this thesis were downloaded less than 100 times (82 articles) and never cited by another publication. Only 36 articles (23.5 %) had been downloaded more than 200 times. The two most downloaded articles that are specifically about Peace Studies are Peace and War from the Perspective of Peace Studies [ 和 研究视角 的和 战争问题 ] by Liu Cheng with 755 downloads and Initial Insights regarding Feminist Peace Studies [ 对女 主 和 研究的几点初步认识 ] by Li Yingtao [ 李英 ] with 708 downloads. Li was at the time affiliated with the Institute of Foreign Affairs in the School of English at Beijing Foreign Studies University [ 京外 语大学英语学院外交学系 ]. With regard to the number of citations by other academic publications, there are only 11 articles that have been cited more than ten times. The three most often cited articles are A Summary of Peace Studies of Western Countries [ 西方 家和 研究综述 ] by Liu Cheng from 2005 (cited 21 times), a text by Johan Galtung also from 2005 called Approach to Harmony - Several Interpretations of Peace Studies [ 和谐致 之道 于和 学的几点阐释 ] translated by Lu Yanming [ 卢彦 ] (cited 25 times), and a text by Andrew Rigby, former professor for Peace Studies at Coventry University, from 2004 called Peace, Violence, and Justice: The core Concepts of Peace Research [ 和 暴力 正 : 和 研究的核心概念 ] translated by Xiong Ying [ 熊莹 ] (cited 30 times). If two of the most cited articles on Peace Studies in China are translations from foreign researchers, it begs the question of whether Peace Studies in China is actually dominated by foreign voices. While some articles that are written or co-authored by or translated from foreign researchers are very influential, the field does not appear to be dominated by them. Only 13 articles of 153 have been written by authors with Western or Japanese names. It is unclear without deeper investigation how many of the Chinese authors are working overseas, have studied overseas or are overseas Chinese in general. However, only one such case was found in the 30 selected articles, namely Li Yingtao [ 李英 ] and Lin Jing [ 林静 ] who wrote Feminist Peace Research: Origins of the Idea and Conceptions of Peace [ 女性主 和 研究 : 思想渊源 和 构想 ]. The second author works as professor for 20

4 Actors and influences International Education Policy at the University of Maryland in the US. But even if some of the authors were overseas Chinese, the fact that they are writing in Chinese for a Chinese audience indicates that they are participating in the Chinese discourse on Peace Studies on domestic Chinese terms. In general, it seems that literature on Peace Studies in China is overwhelmingly written by and for Chinese authors and survives independently from foreign inputs. 4.1.2 Institutes An analysis of the individual authors raises the question of what university and research institutes these authors are mostly affiliated with. There is no consistent information about author affiliation, especially in older articles. This can, for example, be seen in the following case: While one of four articles of Xiong Jianhua stated his affiliation to Central China Normal University (Xiong 1987: 55), the other three did not give any information on his affiliation (Xiong 1988, 1990, 1991). Similarly, for the author of the oldest article on Peace Studies, Geng Xiaoman [ 耿小曼 ], no affiliation is given (Geng 1985). Three insights were gathered from the 30 selected Chinese articles on Peace Studies, a el that a autho s e e affiliated ith tea he s u i e sities [ 师范大学 ] usto a il t a slated as o al u i e sities, that many authors had researched history in their PhD, and that Nanjing University had the most authors affiliated with it. The selection of 30 articles included pieces written by one person as well as collaborations and translations. Overall, 26 authors participated in creating these 30 articles. Excluding four authors that worked at overseas institutes and universities there were 12 academics o ki g at u i e sities a d eight a ade i s o ki g at tea he s u i e sities at the ti e of publishing their respective articles. However, these 12 academics of the first group worked only at five different universities, while the eight academics working at the teachers colleges hailed from seven different institutes. Nine of the authors in China did a History PhD or worked at a History Department, while five authors were employed at Political Science or 21

4 Actors and influences Public Management Departments. 18 The university with the most researchers was Nanjing University. Four researchers were employed as professors, namely Sun Yiping [ 亦 ], professor at the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies at Nanjing University [ 南京大学哲学系 宗教学系教授 ], Liu Cheng, professor at the Institute for World History of the Department of History at Nanjing University [ 南京大学历史学院世界历史系 ] as well as Cheng Xiaolü [ 陈晓律 ] and Chen Zhongdan [ 陈仲丹 ], both professors at the Department for History at Nanjing University [ 南京大学历史系教授 ]. Another three authors did their PhDs at Nanjing University, which are Ni Chunna [ 倪春纳 ] at the School of Government [ 南京大学政府管理学院 ], Sun Xiaoguang [ 晓光 ], and Lu Yanming [ 卢彦 ] both at the Department of History [ 南京大学历史学院 ] (see Annex 5 for the list of authors and their affiliation). Peace Studies institutes located at Chinese universities are very rare. The possibly first and only one in China so far is the Peace and Conflict Research Institute [ 和 突研究中心 ] at the School of International Studies and Academy for Overseas Chinese Studies [ 际 系学院 / 侨 人研究院 ] of Jinan University [ 暨南大学 ] in Guangzhou (JNU undated). This institute was opened in 2012 by Chen Jianrong [ 陈建荣 ] and engages in research as well as teaching of Peace Studies. According to Chen, more than 1500 students have participated in the 12 courses that he held since the opening of the institute. These courses have been supplementary until now, but will be made into compulsory courses for students of International Studies beginning in 2017 (Chen Jianrong, personal communication, 21 October 2016). There are also various institutions engaging in the support and facilitation of Peace Research outside universities. One is the Charhar Institute [ 察哈尔学会 ], a nongovernmental think tank on diplomacy and International Relations established in 2009 and lo ated i u al He ei. Liu Che g as ell as Ala Hu te a e high le el esea he s [ 高级 18 The authors with history degrees include Liu Cheng (Liu 2010), Sun Xiaoguang [ 晓光 ] (Sun & Liu 2015), Sun Yiping [ 亦 ] (Sun 2012), and Cheng Xiaolü [ 陈晓律 ] (Cheng 2005). Jiang Qin [ 江琴 ] holds master's degree in History (Jiang 2011). 22

4 Actors and influences 研究员 ] of the Institute (Charhar Institute undated/a). The Charhar Institute joined the International Peace Research Association (IPRA) in September 2014 and stated in a related announcement that it would engage in conflict and reconciliation research as well as in international conferences (Charhar Institute 2014). In 2016, the Institute for Nanjing Massacre History and International Peace Research [ 南京大屠杀史 际和 研究院 ] was created in Nanjing (JSTT undated). Its work will mostly be focussed on the commemoration of the 80 th anniversary of the Massacre of Nanjing in 2017. The development of Peace Studies activities with Chinese characteristics seems to be a lesser, but also openly stated aim of the institute (JSTT 2016). 19 In general it can be seen that the Chinese academic experts writing on Peace Studies are connected to various universities and teachers colleges, most importantly Nanjing University. Most of them are either connected to History or Political Science institutes at their universities. Dedicated Peace Studies institutes at universities are rare and only one was found, which is located at Jinan University and led by its creator Chen Jianrong. Outside of the university context two institutes were found that dealt with Peace Studies research or work. Thus, little formal institutionalisation can be attested to Peace Studies in China. 4.1.3 Research outlets To answer the question of how research on Peace Studies is circulated in China research outlets academic journals as well as publishing houses were investigated. An analysis of the 153 Chinese articles written on Peace Studies and Peace Research between 1985 and 2016 shows that no journal has published more than six articles on the subject and most of them published these articles during a very short period of time. For example, the CASS Journal of Political Science [ 政治学研究 ] 20, which was founded in 1985 and is still ongoing, carried 19 Already in 2003 the Nanjing International Peace Research Institute [ 南京 际和 研究所 ] was established by the Nanjing City Academy of Social Sciences [ 南京市社科院 ], but little information is available about its work and aim. It is unclear what the relationship is between the two institutes. 20 The acronym stands for Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, which is the most comprehensive academic research organisation for the study of Philosophy and Social Sciences in China. 23

4 Actors and influences five articles between 1985 and 1989, but none since then. 21 The Journal of Nanjing University (Philosophy, Humanities and Social Sciences Edition) [ 南京大学学 ( 哲学 人文科学 社会科学 )] also published five articles, four of which were put forth in a special edition in issue 2 of 2005 and the remaining one in issue 6 of the same year. Taken together with the conference organised by Nanjing University in 2005 it may be seen as part of a concerted effort to establish Peace Studies in China. The journal did not carry articles on Peace Studies after 2005. Another journal that published its articles on Peace Studies in the form of specialised segments is the Journal of Historical Science [ 史学月刊 ], namely three articles in issue 12 of 2013 and most recently three articles in issue 7 of 2016. The first of the two published the articles under the heading Reassessment of Peace Studies Research [ 和 学研究的反思 ] with an accompanying introduction. 22 In issue 7 of 2016, five articles and one introduction were published under the topic of New Developments in Peace Studies Research [ 和 学研究的新进展 ], three of which were included in the Chinese literature on Peace Studies. 23 The journal Academia Bimestrie [ 学海 ] also published six articles on Peace Studies. The journal is sponsored by the Jiangsu Academy of Social Sciences [ 江 省社会科学院 ] and was founded in 1990. It carried special sections in issue 3 of 2004 and issue 1 of 2012 as well as single articles in 2006 and 2010. The journal with the longest running stretch of publishing articles on Peace Studies or Peace Research is Social Sciences Abroad [ 外社会科学 ], which runs since 1978. Six articles were published in the years 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991, 2005, and 2013 respectively. 21 See CNKI entry for 政治学研究, last accessed on20 October 2016. There are also no entries available for the years 1990 until 1994 (CNKI undated/b). 22 The Journal of Historical Science also carried a fourth article called Peace, Non-violence and Indian Philosophy [ 和 非暴力和印 哲学 ] by Rajendra K. Patil, which was not detected by the search on Peace Studies and Peace Research as it does not carry these key words. 23 The excluded articles were Peace and Indian Culture [ 和 印 文 ] by Rajendra K. Patil (translated by Sun Chaojing [ 朝靖 ]), Artificial Intelligence and Peace Studies [ 人工智能 和 学 ] by Alan Hunter (translated by Liu Shuyu [ 刘舒羽 ]), and Peaceful Anti-Terrorism: The Way of Dialogue [ 和 反恐 : 对话之道 ] by Johan Galtung (translated by Bai Shuang [ 白爽 ]). 24

4 Actors and influences While these descriptions show that journals were occasionally willing to publish articles, it is evident that they are either not committed to publish them regularly or that there is not enough research produced by academics to warrant more publications. 24 Previously there seem to have been journals dedicated to the discussion and study of peace. According to Xiong (1987: 55) there were several journals in the 1950s that discussed peace issues. In 1951 the China People's Committee for Safeguarding World Peace [ 中 人民保卫世界和 委员会 ] started to publish a monthly journal called Safeguarding Peace [ 保卫和 ], which ran for 42 issues until 1955. It ran another 24 issues under the title International Outlook - Peace Journal [ 际展望 和 月刊 ] until it was discontinued in 1956. Another o thl jou al as pu lished People s P ess [ 人民出版社 ] in Beijing from 1958 called Questions of Peace and Socialism [ 和 和社会主 问题 ]. After 28 issues it was discontinued in 1960. 25 In the 1980s three organisations started to publish their own peace related publications. The Chinese People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries (CPAFFC) [ 中 人民对外 好 会 ] began to publish Voice of Friendship [ 声 志 ] in 1983, which continues to this date (Xiong 1987: 55; CPAFFC undated). The CPAFFC is itself a e e of the Chi ese People s Asso iatio fo Pea e a d Disa a e t CPAPD [ 中 人民争取和 裁军 会 ( 和裁会 )], which was founded in 1985 as a mass organisation directing originally 21 now 24 member organisations towards safeguarding world peace, disarmament and prohibition of nuclear weapons (Chan 1998: 37; Peace 1985: 3-4). Starting in the same year the CPAPD began publishing the English language journal Peace [ 和 ], which is still ongoing in 2016 (see the CPADP undated). An Organisation that is not part of the CPAPD is the China Association for International Friendly Contact (CAIFC) [ 中 际 好联络会 ]. It started to publish an in-house journal in 1986 titled Friendly Research [ 24 To make a comparison: in 2015, an average issue of the bimonthly journal Social Science Abroad had about 22 articles (CNKI undated/c). In the same year, 21 articles were published on Peace Studies and Peace Research in China, which was the most prolific year to date. 25 This information was corroborated with the online catalogue of Shanghai Library (Shanghai Library undated/b, undated/c, undated/d). At the time of writing only the Chinese version could access the catalogue entries. 25