THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON

Transcription

1 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON I. Causes A. Background Causes: The cumulative discontent with the Old Regime ("Ancien Regime") 1. The inefficient, corrupt government of France a. France had an absolute monarchy with centralized, concentrated power based on the divine right of kings b. There was no means of redress for people unhappy with the government i. No representative assembly: The Estates General had not met since 1614 ii. Legal system (Parlements) was controlled by the nobility, not trusted by the common people iii. No uniform code of laws existed; law was applied arbitrarily with respect to privilege iv. Middle class had no political input in spite of its growing economic importance c. Both the power and the ability to change were held by those with no interest in making change of any kind except to restore the power of the old nobility 2. Social structure created two classes: privileged and unprivileged a. The Estates system of social classes dated from the Middle Ages b. Less than 2% of France's 24 million people (1st and 2nd Estates) held these special privileges including exemption from taxation and special judicial treatment c. The Estates system did not correspond to the realities of the classes contribution to French society; it did not reflect either wealth or abilities d. Peasants still had many feudal obligations in addition to their tax burden e. Upper middle class carried an increasing portion of the tax burden because of its ability to pay but had no say in government practices 3. French economy was worsening due to wars, mercantilist regulations, inflation, high government expenses and the lack of governmental incentives for individual growth a. Strong mercantilist regulations stifled the growth of business, trade, and banking in the name of support for the nation

2 b. The wealthy Middle Class began to assert its economic power through financial institutions (banks and other lenders) c. The Middle Class wanted increased political power to reflect its new growing economic importance d. Inflation ( ) caused rising prices, but wages did not rising at the same rate. e. Government income depended on the poorest section of social structure, taxes paid by the Third Estate. f. The Third Estate's tax burden increased as government expenses increased and the economy worsened 4. Spirit of the Enlightenment: The intellectual movement working for reform in the 18 th century inspired criticism and ideas for improvement. a. Criticism of the French governmental system and its practices was increasing. b. Belief in reform and progress came from the Enlightenment. c. Rising expectations of a better life now came from society at large. d. Ideas of Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Smith and others were well known. e. France had one of the most literate populations in Europe. B. Immediate Cause: Economic mismanagement and financial crisis 1. French government was heavily in debt. a. Wars with the English and aid to the U.S. in the American Revolution were costly. b. Large French army and navy were expensive to maintain. c. Cost of maintaining the royal court at Versailles in its accustomed style was huge. 2. Sources of income were lessening due to the declining economy. 3. Banks of Europe began to refuse loans to the French government due to its poor credit. 4. French middle class wanted political power a. Middle class already gave strongest economic support to the government b. Middle class wanted fewer of the restrictions of mercantilism

3 c. French banks began to restrict the credit of the government. C. The Solution: Either increase taxes or find some new group to tax. 1. Since the Third Estate was already over burdened, this suggested taxing the First and Second Estates. 2. Several finance ministers were dismissed for suggesting such reforms. 3. The nobility opposed any taxes on their class or any change in their privileged status. 4. King Louis XVI tried to impose taxation and tax reform by decree feeling this would bring him popular support. 5. Parlements blocked any change in the tax structure saying that only the Estates General could make such changes. a. Louis dismissed the Parlements. b. People rioted against Louis actions because of the absolutism of his actions. c. People had become opposed to law by decree even though the Parlements typically defended the rights of the nobility. 5. Assembly of Notables was called in 1787 by Louis XVI. a. Louis XVI hoped the Assembly of Notables would either adopt a new tax program or remove the restrictions on the taxing of the First and Second Estates. b. The Assembly concluded that only the Estates General could make such a change. c. Nobility obviously felt that a return to rule by the Estates General (its last meeting was in 1614) would mean a return to medieval ways and their medieval dominance. d. Medieval ways: First and Second Estates would combine against the Third Estate i. The nobility hoped to reclaim more of its lost power. ii. The absolute monarchy under Richelieu and Louis XIV had centralized power. e. The Middle class also hoped to use the Estates General to change the system and increase its own political power. f. The Lower class hoped to be relieved of the obligations of feudalism.

4 g. Each group favored a meeting of the Estates General but for different, clashing ends. 6. Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates General for May, 1789 to deal with the crisis. a. The Third Estate objected to the method of representation: 300 from each estate but with voting by order. b. Louis XVI increased the representation of Third Estate to 600 (equal to the number of the First and Second Estates combined) but insisted on voting by order c. Old voting system, voting by order, still allowed each Estate only one vote d. Third Estate demanded a single assembly with each representative having one vote, voting by head. D. The Catalyst to Revolution: Poor harvest of 1788 and severe winter of Poor harvest lowered the income of peasant farmers and raised the price of food. 2. Unemployment and inflation were worsening for city workers; prices were rising at double the rate of rising wages. 3. Landowning nobility wanted to collect on feudal obligations because of its declining income. 4. Cost of bread rose dramatically for the urban working class; 90% of the wages of the urban working class was spent on bread as food by Storming of the Bastille actually came on the very day, July 14, 1789, when the price of bread peaked in Paris. II. Meeting of the Estates General, Spring 1789 A. Convened May 5, 1789 with delegates bringing cahiers d'oleances, notebooks of grievances 1. Most complaints and calls for reform of the government came from the Third Estate 2. Some members of the Second Estate (enlightened nobles) and several members of First Estate (priests) sided with the Third Estate in calls for reform. B. After six weeks arguing over voting methods (voting by order vs. voting by head), the Third Estate declared itself to be the National Assembly, June 13, Louis XVI ordered Estates General disbanded and used the army to close its meeting hall.

5 2. Third Estate went instead to an unused indoor tennis court met and swore the "Tennis Court Oath": the vow to not disband until a constitution was written, June 20, Many First and Second Estate members joined the National Assembly. 4. Louis recognized the National Assembly but also recalled the army from the frontiers and ordered it to surround Versailles. 5. This was the first revolutionary act although it was by a small group and lacked popular support III. Revolution of the people A. Uprising in the city of Paris: the Storming of the Bastille, July 14, Anger due to food shortages, high prices, the fear of military repression and royal reprisals continually mounted. 2. Louis XVI dismissed his Finance Minister Jacques Necker who favored tax reform on July City workers and tradesmen armed themselves 4. Bastille prison was stormed July 14, 1789 in a search for arms and ammunition. 5. New city government for Paris was installed. a. Jean Bailly was chosen mayor; Marquis de Lafayette was named head of the National Guard to stop property destruction. b. Revolutionary tri-color (red, white, and blue) was adopted as the emblem: red and blue were the colors of Paris; white was the color of the king. 6. Louis XVI went into the city of Paris declaring his sympathy for the people. 7. Necker was reinstated as finance minister by Louis XVI. B. The Great Fear 1. Rumors spread of a coming famine. 2. Military forces called in from the borders began massing outside Paris. 3. July-August 1789, peasants in the countryside attacked manor houses, destroyed records, killed estate managers. 4. Actions actually resemble peasant revolts of the Middle Ages. IV. Early actions under the National Assembly,

6 A. Feudalism and all privileges of the nobility were abolished, August 4, 1789 B. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, August 27, Embodied the ideals of the early revolution, especially those of the middle class 2. Proclaimed all men "born and remain free and equal in rights" 3. Natural rights mentioned include "liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression" 4. Provided for freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly and right to petition government, and freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment 5. Guaranteed due process of law and recognized the sovereignty of the people 6. Showed the strong influence of the Enlightenment and the philosophes, especially Rousseau C. Women's march on Versailles, October 5-6, Mob from Paris led by working class women angry over food prices marched to Versailles. a. The royal family still lived at Versailles considered removed from Paris. b. Crowd demanded to see the baker, the baker s wife, and the baker s son (Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and the dauphin, Prince Louis) for relief from the high prices 2. King Louis XVI and his family were moved into Paris to the Tuilleries Palace. 3. National Assembly also moved its meetings to Paris. 4. From this point, the city of Paris had great influence on the Revolution. D. Secularization of religion 1. Church property was confiscated, November 1789, to pay off the national debt 2. The sale of the Church lands was used to back new money, assignats 3. Civil Constitution of the Clergy, July 12, 1790 a. Created a French national church under the control of the French government b. Church officers would be democratically elected by the people, and the salaries would be paid by the government. c. Became the most controversial action taken in the early Revolution

7 i. It polarized the people over the question of religion and the state ii. It divided the clergy over its loyalty to France or the Church E. Government organizational reform: France was divided into 83 departments for administration replacing the old system of provinces for administration and justice, the system still in use in modern France F. Forming of political clubs in Paris 1. Composed primarily of business and professional men 2. No political parties existed in France prior to the Revolution 3. Jacobin Club (the largest and most influential) a. Originally held relatively moderate views consistent with the Enlightenment b. Gradually became very radical demanding the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic c. Produced the most radical leaders such as Maximilien Robespierre d. Jacobins split into two factions after the Republic was formed, 1792 i. "The Mountain", the most radical faction, was joined by radicals from the Cordeliers, and was composed mostly of middle class professionals mostly lawyers ii. Girondists, the moderate faction, came mostly from the provinces 2. Cordeliers a. Radicals who favored the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of republican government b. Combined with the Jacobins during the early republic c. Leaders: Georges-Jacques Danton, Camille Desmoulins, Jean-Paul Marat 3. Feuillants a. Moderate-conservatives that favored a limited constitutional monarchy b. Suppressed by the Jacobins after the abolition of the monarchy G. The Flight to Varennes, June 20, Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette and their children attempted to flee France by carriage.

8 2. They were caught at Varennes, less than 25 miles from the border with the Austrian Netherlands. 3. The royal family was brought back to Paris under guard. 4. They remained under virtual house arrest for the remainder of their lives. 5. This was the major action bringing suspicion upon Louis XVI as an opponent of the Revolution H. Prussia and Austria issued the joint Declaration of Pillnitz, August Condemned the Revolution 2. Declared it their goal to restore the French monarchy to power I. Constitution of 1791 established a constitutionally limited monarchy 1. Louis XVI accepted the Constitution in September 1791: The Flight to Varennes and the Declaration of Pillnitz had already damaged the prestige and support for the monarchy. 2. Supreme governmental power was vested in a one house legislature. 3. Separation of powers made the King and his ministers the executive branch but the power was limited by the legislature not equal to it. 4. King had the power to temporarily suspend law, not block it. 5. Local governments were not forced to follow national law. 6. Voting was limited by the amount of taxes paid; only about half of the male citizens of France had the right to vote a. Voters elected members of an electoral college that elected the legislature b. Membership in the electoral college was further limited by a wealth requirement J. Laissez faire economy was adopted. Unfortunately it lowered revenue for government. K. National debt problem was aggravated by the falling national revenue. 1. Government began to confiscate the property of the Church and the émigrés. 2. Middle class and the upper class feared the loss of their private property due to mob rule. 3. International business feared the climate of uncertainty in France. L. Success of the Revolution was threatened

9 1. Confidence in the monarchy declined as the government was undermined. a. Louis XVI was now seen as the chief counter-revolutionary. b. Marie Antoinette, as the sister of the Emperor of Austria, was seen as a foreign agent. 2. French aristocrats resented the loss of power and prestige. a. Many aristocrats plotted to overthrow the revolutionary government. b. Many fled to Austria putting pressure on Marie Antoinette s brother to intervene. 3. Peasant uprising in Vendée supported the Church and the Clergy. 4. Workers of Paris still wanted relief from high prices and inflation. 5. Major foreign powers saw the French Revolution as a threat to their own political order. 6. Radicals in the Legislative Assembly supported more rapid change, many favored republican government instead of the constitutional monarchy. V. International Relations A. Emigrés, the old aristocracy, left France 1. The largest group went to Austria 2. In the homeland of Marie Antoinette, they put pressure on the Austrian government to intervene 3. Many had diplomatic connections to the aristocracy that ruled most of Europe B. The Pope condemned the Civil Constitution of Clergy and the Revolution, February 1791 C. Louis XVI's attempt to escape France put the monarch and the royal family under virtual house arrest in the Tuileries Palace in Paris. D. Declaration of Pillnitz was issued by Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor (and brother of Marie Antoinette), and King Frederick William II of Prussia 1. Both rulers promised to intervene to protect the royal family and restore the monarchy if other major powers agreed 2. The Declaration was actually meaningless because of the British position which did not oppose the Revolution at the time 3. The Declaration was received in France as an international challenge to the Revolution.

10 E. Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria and Prussia. 1. Girondists believed that war would unify the nation, stop counterrevolutionary activities and bring the best revolutionary leadership to power. 2. Louis XVI favored war to increase the power of the monarchy or, if France were defeated, to defeat the revolutionaries. F. Prussian and Austrian armies began an invasion of France. G. "Brunswick Manifesto" 1. Issued by the Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Prussian army 2. The Manifesto promised the destruction of Paris if the royal family were harmed H. War radicalized the Revolution and the fear of invasion led to the "Second Revolution" VI. Second Revolution A. New wave of fear swept people in early Summer The army lost several battles and many high ranking army officers defected. 2. Prussian and Austrian armies seemed unstoppable in their advance toward Paris. 3. Distrust of King Louis XVI, Queen Marie Antoinette, and the fear of returning emigrés grew. 4. Poverty and hunger in the cities, especially Paris, worsened. B. Paris mob and troops stormed the Legislative Assembly forcing the abrogation of the Constitution of 1791 (the constitutional monarchy): the "Second Revolution", August 10, King Louis XVI was suspended from office and placed under arrest. 2. Legislative Assembly, elected by universal manhood suffrage, replaced the National Convention. 3. Paris Commune, a revolutionary government, was established in Paris. C. September Massacres 1. Prisoners held in Paris jails were slaughtered by the citizens who were in panic due to the advancing Prussian army. 2. People feared reprisals for the treatment of the royal family and other aristocrats. 3. Approximately 1200 were killed without trials in a chaotic massacre, the greatest disorder of the entire Revolution.

11 VII. National Convention met for the first time, September 20, A. Battle of Valmy, fought the same day the Convention first met, defeated the Prussian army and stopped its advance on Paris. B. Jacobin Club dominated the National Convention but split into 2 factions 1. Girondins, mostly from the provinces, favored a federal system and moderate reform 2. The Mountain, mostly from Paris, favored radical reform including a republic with a centralized government C. Execution of Louis XVI 1. Girondins tried to delay the King s trial for treason. 2. Louis XVI was tried and convicted by the National Convention; the vote: 361 to Louis XVI was executed by guillotine, January 21, Girondins' defense of Louis caused a loss of their support and a suspicion of their goals. D. French army launched a military offensive annexing Nice, Savoy, Basel, and the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium). E. War was declared on France by the Netherlands, Prussia, Austria, and Britain, February 1, 1793: "War of the First Coalition; lasting until the Treaty of Campo Formio, Oct. 17, 1797 F. Losses by the French army in Belgium caused a fear of invasion from radicals called "enragés" 1. Enragés invaded the Convention and forced the arrest of the Girondin leaders, May 31, The Mountain gained control of the National Convention. 3. Girondins who did not flee Paris were sent to the guillotine. G. Problems faced by the National Convention, June France was threatened by a foreign invasion 2. Peasants were rebelling against military conscription 3. Cities refused to follow the centralization of the Parisian-controlled National Convention

12 4. Catholics rebelled in support of the clergy 5. Anarchy prevailed in the countryside where roving groups looted at will 6. Economy was still worsening especially among Parisian workers H. National Convention, dominated by The Mountain, attempted a program to win the war, restore order, and create democratic government. 1. National Convention established the Committee of Public Safety. a. 12-man committee with absolute power to meet the crisis b. Members were democratically elected monthly by the National Convention. c. Dominant member of the Committee: Maximilien Robespierre, Parisian lawyer 2. Established the Committee of General Security supervising police, arresting anyone suspect of opposing the revolution 3. Established Revolutionary Tribunal: revolutionary courts that carried out the "Reign of Terror" meant to eliminate all opponents of Revolution a. Executed 20,000-40,000 between June, 1793 and July, 1794 b. 2,639 documented executions in Paris c. Queen Marie Antoinette executed October 16, 1793 d. Most affected groups: the clergy, Girondins and other political dissidents, protesting laborers, aristocrats, Catholics of the Vendée, royalists e. Committee crushed Hebertists (extreme radicals who opposed merchants and the bourgeoisie); leaders executed by Spring 1794 f. Destroyed the radical Paris Commune: It never regained the support of the workers and it lost the support of the radicals in the Convention g. Executed the followers of Danton losing the support of the conservatives in National Convention 4. Lazare Carnot, Minister of War, reorganized the French army a. Convention passed levée en masse, conscripting all able-bodied men b. By Spring 1794, France had an 800,000 man army, the largest in Europe, dedicated to defending France, French interests, and winning the Revolution c. Committee of Public Safety crushed provincial and urban revolts ruthlessly 5. Committee imposed economic controls on wages and prices

13 I. Constitution of 1793 established the Republic (France s First Republic ) was declared as the Year I under the new republican government. 2. Universal manhood suffrage was to be the basis for the new rule. 3. The Constitution never took effect because of the war emergency. J. Committee abolished slavery in France and its colonies K. Committee established schools for boys; schools lacked money and teachers so they were never implemented L. Success of the Committee actually brought its demise 1. Reorganized French armies drove out invading armies and captured the Low Countries; Austrians and Prussians were distracted as they were involved with the partition of Poland 2. Execution of Hebertists and Dantonists caused a growing fear of Robespierre and his followers in the Convention 3. Abolition of the Paris Commune and the dropping of wage and price controls angered workers and shopkeepers in Paris M. Thermidorean Reaction (called "The White Terror" in the provinces) ended the rule of the Committee of Public Safety and the Reign of Terror 1. The Convention ordered the arrest of Robespierre and his associates on July 27, 1794; they were executed July 28, The Revolution began a shift to more conservative policies a. The effort was now on economic stability for the property-owning middle class b. The Convention removed controls on wages and prices c. Inflation returned 3. May 1795, Parisian mob of workers threatened the Convention now the under control of the middle class demanding the return of order and stability 4. The Middle class favored some gains of the Revolution, such as equality and republican government with a written constitution, but feared democracy since it lead to mob rule 5. National Convention produced the Constitution of 1795 (Constitution of the Year III) VIII. The Directory (Le Directoire): This name identified with the French government, A. Conservative constitution (Constitution of the Year III) returned rule to the middle class

14 1. Literate French men could vote but only for "electors" who voted for the Council of 500 and the Council of Ancients 2. Electors had to be property owners; political power was returned to property-owning class 3. The two legislative bodies chose the Directory, the 5-man group with executive power. B. Constitution of 1795 annexed Belgium 1. Other European nations, especially Britain and Austria, opposed the annexation of Belgium 2. France was now committed to a pro-war policy to defend the annexation. C. The Directory had opposition on both the political right and political left 1. The Right favored the restoration of the monarchy; many monarchists were in the army. 2. City workers still favored more radical policies and a return to democratic rule. 3. The conspiracy of equals was led by Babeuf in a. These radicals favored the abolition of all private property and parliamentary government b. The attempted coup was defeated by the military under the control of The Directory c. The government troops that defended The Directory were commanded by the young General Napoleon Bonaparte. D. War of the First Coalition continued as the Directory took power 1. The Directory, like earlier governments of the Revolution, saw war against the other European powers as the best unifier for the French people 2. Napoleon Bonaparte was sent to take over the under-supplied French army in Italy fighting the Austrians 3. Napoleon was victorious and forced the Treaty of Campo Formio, 1797, ending the War of the First Coalition, gaining a victory for the Directory and making Napoleon the most popular man in France a. Cisalpine Republic (the Duchy of Milan and part of the Papal States in northern Italy) was established under French control b. Austrian Netherlands and most of the west bank of the Rhine was ceded to France

15 c. Austria received the republic of Venice as compensation; France received the Ionian islands E. Free elections were held in 1797 electing a majority that favored a constitutional monarchy 1. Coup d'etat of Fructidor a. Republican Directors and legislators nullified the election results b. Two Directors many legislators who favored monarchy were dismissed 2. Republican coup leaders were backed by the troops of Napoleon 3. Coup left the Directory dependent upon the backing of Napoleon and the army loyal to him F. Napoleon invaded Egypt, under the rule of the Ottoman Turkish Empire, in an attempt to cut the British supply line to India 1. The invasion caused the entry of Russia into the war because of the Russian desire to expand into the Middle East 2. The Second Coalition was formed: Britain, Russia, Austria, the Ottoman Empire, Portugal, and the Kingdom of Naples. 3. British fleet under Lord Horatio Nelson defeated the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile preventing supplies from reaching Napoleon's army 4. Napoleon was forced to abandon his French army in Egypt and return to France G. Coup d'etat of Brumaire, November, 1799, was led by Napoleon Bonaparte 1. The Directory was criticized for its lack of dynamic leadership and corruption 2. Property owners and other conservatives feared a coup from the left 3. The only successes in rule of The Directory came from the army under Napoleon 4. Napoleon with his army conspired with 2 of the Directors to oust the remaining 3 Directors and establish a new government: "The Consulate" IX. French Government under Napoleon, A. Background of Napoleon Bonaparte 1. Born 1770 on the island of Corsica; Corsica was claimed by France from the Italian state of Genoa the year before Napoleon was born 2. Schooled at the French military academy and entered the military as a career; rank limited by the status of his birth

16 3. Wars of the French Revolution gave opportunities for young, ambitious military figures like Napoleon to rise rapidly 4. Became general at 24 and became a hero in battle against the British for the port of Toulon 5. The Directory adopted a war for unification policy in 1796 and sent Napoleon to command the troops in Italy fighting the Austrians 6. Napoleon defended the republican Directors and republican legislators in the Coup d'etat of Fructidor 7. Napoleon was sent by The Directory to take over the failing campaign in Italy a. Napoleon succeeded against an even greater Austrian force b. Napoleon drove the Austrians from Italy claiming the territory for France 8. Napoleon emerged as the leader of the victorious army that was personally loyal to him 9. Governments of the French Revolution had been unstable and/or corrupt; the Army under Napoleon was stable and successful B. The Consulate was established by the Constitution of the Year VIII, The new constitution established an executive branch of 3 consuls with Napoleon as the First Consul, a virtual dictator 2. Constitution provided universal manhood suffrage voting for the "notables" or "electors" 3. Legislators were elected by electors under the control of Napoleon or appointed by Napoleon 4. Tri-cameral legislature dealt with laws proposed by the Council of State presided over by Napoleon a. Tribunate debated laws but did not vote for them b. Legislative Corps voted for laws but did not debate c. Senate had the right to veto legislation 5. First Consul appointed a prefect of police to run each of France's 83 departments; secret police helped to keep order C. Program of Napoleon 1. Instituted a strong central government with administrative efficiency

17 a. Prefect headed each of the 83 Departments and reported directly to Napoleon; this resulted in increased efficiency b. Political liberty and the freedom of expression were frequently curbed for order 2. Financial reforms a. Corruption and waste were largely eliminated b. Tax collection was reorganized and centralized c. French currency and financial status were stabilized for the first time since the beginning of the Revolution i. Bank of France (the unofficial national bank) was created ii. Budget was balanced based largely on the value of captured territory 3. Judicial reform: The Napoleonic Code (Code Napoléon) a. Contained five law codes: civil code, civil procedure code, code of criminal procedure, penal code, and commercial code b. All codes emphasized equality before the law without regard to class c. Protected private property; provided for contracts, leases, and business organizations including corporations d. Banned labor unions e. Recognized civil marriages and divorces giving the man preferential status f. Criminal code gave advantage to the government in detecting crime and the disadvantage to the accused in defense ( guilty until proven innocent ) g. Code Napoléon is still the basis of law in France, many Latin American countries and the state of Louisiana h. Little attention was paid to civil liberties and individual rights if they brought disorder 4. Economic reforms were offered to stimulate the economy a. Land reform allowed peasants to keep all land seized from aristocrats during Revolution b. Employment increased; food prices dropped 5. Religious unity was restored a. Peace with the Catholic Church was achieved through the Concordat of 180

18 i. This settle the dispute existing since the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 1790 ii. Catholic Church was given special status as the religion of the majority of the French but not as the established church iii. French government (Napoleon) would nominate bishops to be invested by the Pope iv. Bishops would appoint all priests; the system of electing priests established by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy was ended v. Government supervised the organization of the Catholic Church vi. Papal states were returned to the Pope (as long as he supported Napoleon s gains) b. Salaries of the clergy were paid by the French government c. Napoleonic Code guaranteed religious toleration d. Napoleon was not a Catholic but an atheist or a deist but he understood the need for religious peace within his empire 6. Educational reform: public education was established under state control a. Secondary schools established, the lycées, and professional and technical schools b. University of France, under government organization, supervised most education D. Napoleon was declared Consul for life and confirmed by a plebiscite, 1802 E. The Empire, Napoleon was declared Emperor of the French by the Senate 2. Declaration of the Empire was confirmed by a plebiscite 3. Pope Pius VII came to Paris for the coronation a. Pius VII only assisted in the coronation; Napoleon crowned himself b. Josephine Beauharnais, his wife, was crowned Empress by Napoleon F. Evaluation of Napoleon's rule 1. The highest goals of the Revolution for parliamentary government were not achieved

19 2. Most of the French were satisfied by Napoleon's restoration of order and the resulting economic prosperity 3. Napoleon s loss of popularity came with the army's defeats beginning in 1812 X. Wars of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars - Overview, A. General causes 1. Revolution, its ideals, and the execution of Louis XVI threatened the established monarchies 2. Emigrés agitated for intervention especially in Austria (Marie Antoinette was the sister of the Emperors Joseph II and Leopold II) 3. Radicals felt that war would serve to unify the people behind the revolutionary government 4. Republicans felt that war would bring down the monarchy and destroy monarchies across Europe 5. Louis XVI felt that war would strengthen the monarchy and destroy the radicals 6. Legislative Assembly annexed Avignon and Alsace without the consent of the Papacy and the German princes B. Beginning of war 1. Declaration of Pillnitz: Prussia and Austria declared their readiness to intervene to protect the royal family, August 27, Austria and Prussia concluded an alliance, February Legislative Assembly of France declared war on Austria, April 20, French army was in disarray as a result of the Revolution a. Many experienced officers with aristocratic ties had fled France b. French government had the problem of establishing domestic order as well as fighting a war against invading enemies C. War of the First Coalition, Austrian and Prussian armies invaded France a. French armies were in retreat until the Battle of Valmy, September 1792 b. Brunswick Declaration: Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Prussian army, threatened to punish anyone who harmed the royal family

20 c. Invasion by Prussia and Austria caused the "Second Revolution": the fall of the monarchy and the establishment of the First Republic, August-September, Membership in the coalition grew after the execution of Louis XVI and the invasion of the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) by France: Austria and Prussia were joined by Great Britain, Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Sardinia, Naples 3. Lazare Carnot reorganized the French armies and the government issued the levée en masse conscripting all able-bodied men, French victories a. French took the offensive, b. French armies conquered and occupied the United Netherlands, the Austrian Netherlands, the Rhineland, part of Spain, Switzerland, and Savoy c. Treaties of Basel, 1795, ended the war with Prussia and Spain d. French army under Napoleon invaded Italy, 1796, and defeated Austria and Sardinia

21 5. Napoleon dictated the terms of the Treaty of Campo Formio, October 1797 a. War ended with all of the First Coalition except Great Britain b. Established the Cisalpine Republic composed of the Duchy of Milan and part of the Papal states under French domination c. Austrian Netherlands and the Ionian Islands were ceded to France; Austria was given the republic of Venice (Venetia) d. Most of the west bank of the Rhine was annexed by France D. War of the Second Coalition, Napoleon's army invaded Egypt a. Egypt was part of the Ottoman Empire and governed by the Mamelukes, military leaders descendents of former slaves of the Turks b. Napoleon defeated the Mameluke army at the Battle of the Pyramids c. Control of Egypt threatened the interests of Russia and Britain i. The route to the British colony of India crossed Egypt at the Isthmus of Suez ii. Russia was increasing its power and becoming interested in the Middle East 2. Russia allied with Britain and Austria to form the Second Coalition; joined later by Portugal, Naples, and the Ottoman Empire 3. French fleet was defeated by the British fleet under Lord Horatio Nelson at the Battle of the Nile forcing Napoleon to abandon his army and return to France 4. British occupied Malta; Russia invaded Switzerland and northern Italy 5. Russia began to fear growing British power in the eastern Mediterranean more than they feared the French causing the break up of the Second Coalition 6. Losses in Italy and the German states caused the fall of the Directory and the establishment of the Consulate, the dictatorship of Napoleon, Napoleon defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo in northern Italy and the Battle of Hohenlinden in Bavaria, Austria signed the Treaty of Luneville dropping out of the war 9. Britain and France signed the Treaty of Amiens, 1802, returning to France its conquered lands in Europe E. Colonial problems for France were caused by British naval power

22 1. Louisiana was returned to France by Spain in 1802, then sold to the United States in Haiti revolted beginning in 1791 and won its independence in 1804 F. War of the Third Coalition, Britain began war again in Austria and Russia joined with Britain in the Third Coalition in Napoleon led French armies across Europe in a march of conquest a. Austrians were defeated at the Battle of Ulm, October 1805 b. Combined Russian and Austrian armies were defeated at the Battle of Austerlitz, December 1805 (probably Napoleon s greatest military victory) 4. Treaty of Pressburg transferred Austrian lands in Italy to France as Austria dropped out of the war 5. Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine from several conquered German states 6. Holy Roman Empire dissolved, 1806; Holy Roman Emperor Francis II became Francis I, Emperor of Austria 7. Prussia entered the war a. Napoleon defeated the Prussian army at the Battle of Jena, 1806 b. Second French army defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Auerstaedt, Russian army defeated at the Battle of Friedland, 1807

23 9. Treaties of Tilsit brought the surrender of Prussia and Russia, 1807, and the end of the Third Coalition a. Napoleon's brothers were recognized as kings: Joseph, King of Naples; Louis, King of Holland; Jerome, King of Westphalia b. Prussia lost territory to Saxony and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, allies of Napoleon c. Russia promised support for France against Britain; in exchange, Russia was given a free hand against the Ottoman Empire to take Constantinople 10. British fleet defeated the combined French and Spanish fleets under Lord Horatio Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar, October 1805, preventing a threatened French invasion of the British Isles a. Loss prevented any attempted invasion of England since the British Navy controlled the English Channel b. Nelson was killed in the Battle of Trafalgar 11. Continental System established by Napoleon a. Created by the Berlin Decree, 1806; expanded by the Milan Decree, 1807 b. Meant to destroy Britain economically by making it impossible for Britain to trade on the European continent i. All European ports were closed to British trade ii. French privateers were authorized to attack British ships and all neutrals that traded with Britain iii. All Napoleon s allies and satellite states were to follow the system c. Continental System was impossible to enforce: It hurt the French economy and other member nations more than it hurt the British G. Peninsular War, French troops invaded Portugal when it defied the Continental System a. The Portuguese monarchy fled to Brazil b. Britain came to the aid of Portugal landing an army on the Iberian Peninsula 2. French occupied Spain a. Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, was made King of Spain, 1808 b. Marshal Murat, Napoleon's brother-in-law, was made King of Naples

24 3. Spanish revolted against French occupation; British sent the army under Sir Arthur Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington) from Portugal into Spain 4. Peninsular War caused a serious drain on French military resources and encouraged Napoleon's enemies H. Continuing war, Austria renewed war, 1809 a. Napoleon defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Wagram and occupied Vienna b. Treaty of Schönbrunn (October 1809) i. Austria ceded Salzburg and the surrounding area to Bavaria ii. Austrian Poland was ceded to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw 2. The Papacy refused to support the Continental System a. French army occupied Rome and imprisoned Pope Pius VII b. France annexed most of the Papal States 3. Napoleon deposed his brother Louis as King of Holland after Louis objections to the Continental system I. War of the Fourth Coalition, Czar Alexander I could no longer support the Continental System because of its damage to the Russian economy and his prestige as Czar a. Napoleon invaded Russia with an army of 600,000 b. Russians retreated using the scorched earth policy i. Turned to fight the Battle of Borodino 75 miles west of Moscow a) Heavy casualties were suffered by both sides b) Napoleon captured Moscow but the city was burned by Russians c. French army began retreat harassed by Russian army and severe winter weather 2. Prussia, Russia, Austria and Britain formed the alliance of the Fourth Coalition 3. French army was defeated by the combined Russian, Prussian, and Austrian armies at Leipzig in the Battle of the Nations, October 1813

25 4. British army invaded southern France from Spain; the British unable to fully commit to the continental war due to war with the United States ( ) 5. Dutch revolted against French rule, Russian, Prussian, and Austrian armies invaded France, January 1814; armies entered Paris, March 31, 1814 J. Napoleon abdicated as Emperor; Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba K. Allies restored the Bourbon dynasty under Louis XVIII L. The Hundred Days, Napoleon escaped Elba and returned to France, March 1, Napoleon returned to Paris as Emperor, March 20, Louis XVIII fled to London 4. Officer corps and many soldiers were still loyal to Napoleon; a new army was raised and marched into the Low Countries toward the Rhineland M. Combined army of British under the Duke of Wellington and Prussians under General von Blücher defeated Napoleon's army at Battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815 XI. Napoleon abdicated a second time and was exiled to the island of St. Helena A. Exiled to the island of St. Helena under British military guard B. Louis XVIII was restored to the throne as a constitutional monarch C. Napoleon died on St. Helena, 1821 XII. Effects of the French Revolution and the rule of Napoleon A. European boundaries needed to be restored after 24 years of revolution and warfare B. Rise of modern nationalism was based on loyalty and duty to the nation belonging to the people as opposed to the nation belonging to the monarch C. Latin American independence resulted from revolutions that came after Joseph Bonaparte was made King of Spain; all Spanish colonies in North and South America were lost by 1823 D. Rise of liberal movements to extend civil rights to the common people; the old hereditary class system was replaced by one based on achievement usually judged by wealth E. Warfare changed to the use of large armies composed of volunteers and conscripts committed to fighting to defend or extend their homeland from a nationalist sense of duty

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