The Urban Book Series

Transcription

1 The Urban Book Series

2 Aims and Scope The Urban Book Series is a resource for urban studies and geography research worldwide. It provides a unique and innovative resource for the latest developments in the field, nurturing a comprehensive and encompassing publication venue for urban studies, urban geography, planning and regional development. The series publishes peer-reviewed volumes related to urbanization, sustainability, urban environments, sustainable urbanism, governance, globalization, urban and sustainable development, spatial and area studies, urban management, urban infrastructure, urban dynamics, green cities and urban landscapes. It also invites research which documents urbanization processes and urban dynamics on a national, regional and local level, welcoming case studies, as well as comparative and applied research. The series will appeal to urbanists, geographers, planners, engineers, architects, policy makers, and to all of those interested in a wide-ranging overview of contemporary urban studies and innovations in the field. It accepts monographs, edited volumes and textbooks. More information about this series at

3 Christian Obermayr Sustainable City Management Informal Settlements in Surakarta, Indonesia 123

4 Christian Obermayr Institute of Geography University of Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria ISSN X ISSN (electronic) The Urban Book Series ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Library of Congress Control Number: Springer International Publishing AG 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

5 Foreword Today, more than half of the world s population lives in cities and more than 30% of all urban dwellers live in slums or slum-like marginalized quarters. Against this background, the provision of decent housing continues to be one of the main challenges of our urbanizing world. This is internationally recognized by the Sustainable Development Goals, approved in 2015, which establish as the first target of its Sustainable Development Goal 11 to ensure, by 2030, access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing as well as to ensure access to basic services and to upgrade slums. In the same sense, Habitat III, the United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development, has tried to progress in direction of a New Urban Agenda in However, once again it became clear very rapidly that the urgency of the worldwide deficits in the provision of adequate housing is not recognized enough as a political priority. This is insofar astonishing as the shortcomings in housing continue to cause severe conflicts in cities all over the world. To claim the Right to the City, as it became a common practice in recent years, means, above all, to fight against inequality and marginalization on the one hand, and the struggle for improvement of housing conditions, the access to basic services and for the guarantee of a self-determined life, on the other. Therefore, urban policies and urban governance not only have to design and to implement innovative strategies and measures to alleviate the still existing massive deficiencies in the housing sector, but also have, in a broader sense, to uncover and to eliminate the underlying causes of those deficiencies. This is the context of Christian Obermayr s work which is based on his outstanding master s thesis in urban geography. It is the Indonesian case study Surakarta, a mid-sized Javanese town, where he studied the dynamics of urbanization, housing patterns and, more specifically, measures of slum-upgrading and inner-urban resettlements during several months of empirical research. Concerning these issues, Surakarta represents an excellent case study, being internationally recognized as an example for best practices in the fields of urban policy. Besides the very interesting findings of his empirical study, Christian elaborates a wider framework on urban development and urban policies in Indonesia as a whole. v

6 vi Foreword This country has run through an accelerated process of urbanization only in recent years, causing manifold challenges for urban policies and urban planning. In order to contextualize the specific Indonesian political approaches and answers against this urban challenge, Christian Obermayr analyses systematically the international debates on housing strategies for the urban poor, on the treatment of informal settlements, marginalized quarters and slums, which have changed significantly over the last decades. Christian Obermayr s book does represent an important contribution to the study of informal settlements, their characteristics and formation processes in general, highlights important strands of global discourses on adequate housing policies and gives deep insights into the recent state and developments of housing conditions of Indonesian settlements. Furthermore, it provides a detailed insight into the structure and processes of successful housing policies in an Indonesian city. All in all, Christian s book is a remarkable contribution to the international and interdisciplinary discussion on one of the most challenging topics for our common urban future. Prof. Dr. Martin Coy Institute of Geography University of Innsbruck Innsbruck, Austria

7 Preface One billion people live in slums. Inadequate housing conditions prevail for a large part of humankind and efforts to ease the problem seem to be inadequate and not sufficient. This study contributes to the global debate on adequate housing policies by the presentation and comprehensive examination of the approach of an Indonesian city Surakarta in managing its informal settlements. The question is addressed whether Surakarta s policy in dealing with the informal sector and marginal settlements can be a role model for other cities and an example for good governance. For this purpose, first, current trends in urban development, as well as international discussions on adequate strategies to improve the living conditions in slums are illustrated on both, a global and a national (Indonesian) scale. Following this analysis, a detailed examination of Surakarta s housing policy regarding the poor its procedures and mechanisms is carried out, using four concrete programmes as examples. For understanding the procedures applied, Surakrta s resettlement scheme is analysed in more detail. The results show that Surakarta s city government has put in place an effective and inclusive approach characterized by community-based steering groups for implementing slum-upgrading and resettlement measures. By involving substantial parts of the affected residents, a political commitment for improving living conditions of the poor and showing elements of good urban governance the examined policies can be assessed as inclusive and efficient. It can be argued, however, that the approach is top-down induced and shows also deficits regarding participation and transparency. This work is based on Christian Obermayr s outstanding master s thesis, defended in 2013 at the Institute of Geography, University of Innsbruck, Austria. Innsbruck, Austria Christian Obermayr vii

8 Acknowledgements This book was tricky to compile. When I began to think about doing my thesis in Indonesia, I heavily underestimated the work lying ahead of me. Interestingly, the first idea to this study was born on one of the long rides on Argentina s dusty roads. Crammed in a car with Martin Coy, enjoying free lectures and his comprehensive advice, the idea matured to do some field work in an Indonesian city. Martin, thank you for your guidance! The research would not have been possible without the financial support of University of Innsbruck which funded a part of the fieldwork. At the Institute of Geography, I had the possibility to become integrated into a great working group and I owe special thanks to you, the members of the AGEF, for your advice and your support with coffee and mate tea. You saved me from desperation At this point I want to express my gratitude to all Indonesians, who supported my work in 2011, endured my questions and made me feel at home. Junun, Nurhadi, Emma and Utia, Fauzan, Fadilla, Febrisca, Ahmad, Hazan thank you for your help and your attempts to teach me some pieces of Bahasa Indonesia. A big matur nuwun goes to my flatmates in Solo s English dormitory for their advice and kindness. In particular, I thank Ian who saved me from thieves and introduced me to his family and his hometown. I also thank the members of UNS, Pak Gamal and Ibu Winny for their professional council. In particular, I express my gratitude to Agung, without whom this work would never have had any chance to be realized. Thanks for your help with the interviews and for the great discussions! Furthermore, I want to express my thanks to all the staff of Solo s government, for their support in all questions and their willingness to provide me with all available information. Thanks for all your efforts! Thanks are also owed to my parents, Rosemarie and Hans-Otto, who supported me and made my studies possible. Thanks also go to my sister Alexandra for her help with the graphics and proofreading. To my flatmates, Jenny and Viola, and all other friends, thanks for your patience in enduring my absence of social life. Last but most importantly, I owe thanks to my girlfriend Marina, who did not only proofread the whole work two times (!), but is also a sorceress in increasing my mood. Thank you for being there! ix

9 Contents 1 Introduction Purpose and Research Questions Structure and Scope... 5 References Part I Global Developments and Urban Challenges 2 The Global Development Context Population Growth and Urbanization Reasons for Urbanization Effects of Urbanization Democratization and Decentralization Democratization Decentralization Globalization and Neoliberalism Neoliberalism Structural Adjustments Effects on Cities Fragmentation, Inclusion and Exclusion Fragmenting Development Fragmentation in Cities Challenges for City Administrations References Informal Housing and Marginal Settlements Slum, Squatter, Marginal and Informal What Does It Mean? UN-Habitat s Slum Definition A Low-Cost Housing Typology Central Areas Periphery xi

10 xii Contents 3.4 Formation of Slums Invasion and Infiltration Model of Inner-City Migration and Its Influence on Squatter Formation The Global Housing Discourse Habitat I and Habitat II Cities Without Slums and the Millennium Development Goals Sustainable Development Goals and Habitat III Dimensions of the Challenge of Slums Recent Data and Trends References Global Housing Policies and Governance Stakeholders of Housing Policies The World Bank UN-Habitat Phases of Housing Policies A Historic Perspective Negligence, Social Housing and Subsidies Eviction and Resettlement Assisted Self-help Enabling Policies Participatory Slum Improvement Constraints for Effective Housing Policies The Concept of Governance The Evolution of Governance Urban Governance Good Urban Governance Outlook References Part II Indonesia 5 Introduction to Indonesia Administrative Structure Socio-economic Disparities Population Economy Poverty Migration Historical Paths Struggle for Independence Guided Democracy and Authoritarian Rule

11 Contents xiii Transformation Consequences for Indonesian Cities Indonesian Settlements Origin Distinctive Elements A Model of the Indonesian City Dawn of the Urban Age Population Growth and Urbanization Contemporary Urban Developments Indonesia s Slums and Housing Policies The Kampung Question The Kampung Improvement Programme (KIP) Current Slum Dimensions Recent Developments in the Kampungs References Part III Case Study: The Indonesian City Surakarta 6 Introduction to Surakarta (Solo) Methods Used During the Fieldwork Solo, a City in Central Java Administrative and Socio-economic Setting The Housing Situation Slums and Squatters Pressing Issues and the Lack of Planning An Accurate Slum Map? Spatial and Functional Patterns References Urban Policies in Solo Participatory Planning: Musrenbang Informal Sector Management Housing Policies Social Housing Slum-Upgrading I: Program RTLH Slum-Upgrading II: Program RTLH Cluster Programme Relocation Case Study: Resettlement of 112 Families Socio-economic Structure Residents Satisfaction Comparison Between Old and New Settlement Successful Relocation? References

12 xiv Contents Part IV Conclusion 8 Sustainable City Management Final Considerations Slums and Intervention Strategies Global and Indonesian Trends Surakarta s Pro-Poor Policies Critically Assessed References Appendix A: Indicators Used for Generating a Slum Map for Solo City (cf. Sect ) Appendix B: The Original Questionnaire Used for the Household Survey (n = 52) in the New Settlement in Mojosongo Glossary

13 Abbreviations BAPERMAS, PP, PA and KB BAPPEDA BAPPENAS BLUD GLH BPN BPS CBD CBO CSR DPPKA DPU DTRK GDP GNP IDR ILO IMF KADES KIP KTP Badan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat, Pemberdayaan Perempuan, Perlindungan Anak dan Keluarga Berencana Agency of community and women empowerment, child protection and family planning Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Regional Development Planning Agency Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional National Development Planning Agency Badan Layanan Umum Daerah Agency of regional public service Baden Pertanahan Nasional Republik Indonesia National Land Agency of Indonesia Badan Pusat Statistik Central Agency of Statistic Central business district Community-based organization Corporate social responsibility Dinas Pendapatan Pengelolaan Keuangan dan Aset Office of Revenue, Finance and Asset Management Dinas Pekerjaan Umum Office of Public Works Dinas Tata Ruang Kota Department for spatial planning Gross domestic product Gross national product Indonesian Rupiah International Labour Organization International Monetary Fund Kepala Desa Head of village administration Kampung Improvement Programme Kartu Tanda Penduduk Identity Card xv

14 xvi LKMD/LPMK MDG NGO PPP RPJMD RT RTLH RTRW RUSI RW SUF UNDP UN-Habitat UNS VOC WTO Abbreviations Lembaga Ketahanan Mayarakat Desa Community Residence Council part of village administration. Later the name was changed to Lembaga Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Kelurahan (LPMK), mostly to differentiate to the Suhar-to era Millennium Development Goals Non-governmental Organization Public private partnership Rencana Pembangunan Jengka Menengah Daerah Regional medium-term development plan Rukun Tetangga Neighbourhood (smallest administrative unit), consisting of households and headed by the Ketua RT Rumah tidak layak Huni Sub-standard houses (slum houses) Rencana Tata Ruang Wilaya General spatial plan Republik Indonesia Serikat Rukun Warga Community unit (second smallest administrative unit), consisting of 5 10 RTs and headed by the Ketua RW Slum Upgrading Facility United Nations Development Programme United Nations Human Settlements Programme Universitas Sebeles Maret Vereinigte Oostindische Compagnie United East India Company World Trade Organization

15 List of Figures Figure 2.1 Global population development and share of urban and rural population (based on data from UN-DESA 2014) Figure 2.2 Global population growth , summed up for five year periods (based on data from UN-DESA 2014) Figure 2.3 Model of global fragmentation (reproduced from Scholz 2002: 7) Figure 2.4 Fragmentation of Brazilian cities (reproduced from Coy and Töpfer 2014: 104) Figure 3.1 Low-cost housing typology (based on Davis 2006: 41 46; Figure 3.2 Pacione 2005: ; Samyahardja et al. 2006: 97) Exemplary model of migration flows and squatter formation in Latin-American cities (reproduced from Bähr 1986) Figure 3.3 Urban slum population in developing countries (based on United Nations 2015b: 6; UN-Habitat 2016: 203) Figure 3.4 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 5.1 Urban population and share of slum dwellers in the MDG regions (Obermayr 2011) Changing housing policies in developing countries (by author) Sectors of society and actors involved in governance (based on United Nations 2007; Graham et al. 2003) UN-Habitat s characteristics of good urban governance (UN-Habitat 2003b: 19 29) Indonesian provinces and capital cities (The Australian National University 2013) Figure 5.2 Administrative levels of Indonesia (by author) Figure 5.3 Population density of Indonesia s regions 2010 (Obermayr 2012c) Figure 5.4 GDP distribution: share of Indonesia s regions (based on BPS 2016b) xvii

16 xviii List of Figures Figure 5.5 Indonesia s poverty rate (based on Stalker 2007: 7; BPS 2016a, b) Figure 5.6 Human development index of Indonesia s regions 2010 (Obermayr 2012a) Figure 5.7 Migration balance of Indonesia s regions (Obermayr 2012b) Figure 5.8 Indonesia s rural and urban population (based on UN-DESA 2012a) Figure 5.9 Indonesia s urban and slum population (based on UN-Habitat 2008: 178) Figure 6.1 Applied methods and their connections (by author) Figure 6.2 Sub-districts and selected quarters in Surakarta (Solo) (Obermayr 2012e) Figure 6.3 Surakarta (Solo) and surrounding region (by author) Figure 6.4 Impressions from Solo. Photos Obermayr (2011) Figure 6.5 Solo s administrative units (modified, based on Solo Kota Kita 2010a) Figure 6.6 Solo 2010: population density (Obermayr 2012b) Figure 6.7 Solo 2010: distribution of poverty (Obermayr 2012a) Figure 6.8 Solo s metropolitan region SUBOSUKAWONOSRATEN (by author) Figure 6.9 Middle-class apartment block in Solo Photo Obermayr Figure 6.10 (2011) Sub-standard housing areas in Solo. Photos Obermayr (2011) Figure 6.11 Identified slum and squatter areas in Solo 2011 (Obermayr 2012d) Figure 6.12 Spatial location of probable slum areas in Solo 2010 (Obermayr 2012c) Figure 6.13 Shopping malls and hotels west of the centre. Photos Obermayr (2011) Figure 6.14 Commercial axis northeast of the centre. Photos Obermayr (2011) Figure 7.1 One of the newly constructed markets (left) and kiosks in such a market (right) (Photos Obermayr 2011) Figure 7.2 The structure of the slum-upgrading programme program RTLH (by author) Figure 7.3 Inadequate houses in Solo 2006 (RTLH) and upgraded houses until 2010 (by author) Figure 7.4 Areas flooded during the 2007 flood event (Obermayr 2012a) Figure 7.5 The structure of Solo s relocation programme (by author)

17 List of Figures xix Figure 7.6 Relocation of 112 families from the riverbank in Kelurahan Pucang Sawit to a new settlement in Kelurahan Mojosongo (Obermayr 2012b) Figure 7.7 The new village in Mojosongo (Photo Obermayr 2011) Figure 7.8 Each family receives one basic house (left); the installed septic tank is coated with concrete (right) (Photos Obermayr 2011) Figure 7.9 Geographical location of the residents working place (by author) Figure 7.10 The residents monthly household income (by author) Figure 7.11 Residents satisfaction with the new settlement Figure 7.12 (average of all answers, by author) Resident s satisfaction with the relocation process (average of all answers, by author) Figure 7.13 Residents preferred place to live (by author) Figure 7.14 Comparison between old and new settlement (by author)

18 List of Tables Table 3.1 UN-Habitat s characteristics and indicators for slums (based on UN-Habitat 2003b: 11 12, 2008: 33) Table 3.2 The habitat agenda: important commitments (based on UN-Habitat 1996b) Table 4.1 Dimensions and activities of the approach participatory slum improvement (based on UN-Habitat 2003a: , 2009b: 53 54) Table 5.1 Country profile of Indonesia (if not indicated otherwise based on BPS 2016b) Table 6.1 Interviewed stakeholders and experts Table 6.2 Population of Solo 2009 (based on BPS and BAPPEDA Surakarta 2009: 36) Table 6.3 Slum and squatter households in Solo 2006 (Astuti 2009; BPS and BAPPEDA Surakarta 2009) Table 6.4 Available indicators (Solo) and similar UN-Habitat indicators for creating a slum map (Solo Kota Kita 2010b; UN-Habitat 2003, 2008) Table 6.5 Defined indicators and thresholds for the creation of a slum map Table 7.1 Official criteria for slum houses (RTLH) in Solo (Perwali 13/2007 art. 5 & 6) Table 7.2 Flood event 2007 in Solo: victims and received government aid ( ) per quarter (data received from Bapermas Surakarta 2011) xxi

19 List of Boxes Box 2.1 Statistical Issues What is Urban? Box 2.2 Defining Urbanization Box 2.3 Decentralization Explanation Attempts Box 2.4 Washington Consensus Box 3.1 The Earth Summit (Rio 1992) and Agenda Box 5.1 Transmigrasi Box 5.2 Pancasila Box 5.3 Origins of the Asian crisis Box 6.1 Solo Kota Kita Box 7.1 Lembaga Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Kelurahan (LPMK) Box 7.2 UN-Habitat s Slum-Upgrading Facility (SUF) xxiii