Chapter- IV "Structure of Employment" of migrant agricultural labourers

Transcription

1 117 Chapter- IV "Structure of Employment" of migrant agricultural labourers Agriculture is one of the pnme components of economy in developing countries. These countries are characterised by a very small non-agricultural sector. Agriculture remained the bottom base of economy and society of India since the dawn of human habitation (Raza, M ). The term,'agriculture has a broad connotation in modem economics and embraces in its fold activities incidental or allied to cultivation of land and animal husbandry, livestock rearing, fisheries, forestry and hunting etc. Agriculture, takes its broad connotation, accounts for nearly half of our national income and engages nearly 70 percent of working population. Indian agriculture by and large is labour intensive starting from ploughing of field to threshing out and storage of the output, at every stage, labour is deployed. Thus, it constitute the predominant activity of the country and the largest single sector in its labour force. Despite the progress made by the other sectors of the national economy over the last quarter of a century s a result of planning, agriculture has continued to hold its predominant position at

2 118 almost the same level. The agricultural sector is the main source of employment for unskilled continuously growing labour force. According to 1991 Census 67.0 percent of the countries labour force is employed in agriculture. Further, though the planners have high hopes on agriculture for raising employment opportunities in the country. Comparing the employment growth in agriculture during nineties with that of eighties, it is found that on an average for the country as a whole the employment elasticity of output was around 4.9 percent, with this elasticity, 3 percent annual growth in agriculture could have generated 1.8 percent growth in employment (Alternative Economic Survey, 1999). Bhalla, S. (1986) has made a comparative study of growth rates in agricultural output, labour productivity and employment per hectare during to and found that the growth in labour use not keeping pace with the growth per hectare in agriculture out!jut and total employment in agriculture. Agriculture is different from other industries is as much as it has certain peculiar characteristics, the first and foremost of which is seasonality. The seasonal nature of agricultural operations limits the scope of human effort in controlling the timing as well as level of

3 119 production. This has its affect on employment and hours of work of the labour engaged in agricultur& and consequently on the earnings of labour too. Another characteristic of agriculture is subsistence type of farming. Generally, this type of agriculture cannot afford to employ labour except in case of exigencies like peak season operations. Similarly peculiar features in regard to employer - employer relationship, organization of labour and migration of labour from one agricultural region to another, arise in the agricultural sector as a result of its characteristic, social and economic structure pervaded by low productivity and earnings and lack of the necessary urge and drive among its workers to improve their conditions. Haryana is one of the two Indian states, which have been experienced very high rate of agricultural growth, especially in food grain production. Since the formation of the state, Haryana's agriculture was accelerated by the new agriculture strategy adopted in late sixties with the introduction of high yielding variety of seeds followed by fertilizers, agro-chemicals and farm mechanization. The scope of employment in agriculture mainly for labourers is growing day by day in Haryana. Due to low participation of family labour (member) and local labour in agricultural pursuits results in labour scarcity which is

4 120 neutralized by the in migration of labour from less prosperous neighbouring states. With the introduction of new agro-technology the employment of labour to carry out agricultural operations has tilted in favour of these migrant labourers from neighbouring or distant states. The main objective of this chapter is to analyse the employment structure of migrant agricultural labourers in all the three regions of Haryana. The important characteristics related to migrant agricultural labourers are such as causes of migration, occupational position, their mode of employment, work activity before migration, nature of their employment, wage rates, wage structure, total earnings during the season/year, man-days employment, hours of work, participation in burgeoning, debt, savings, their effect on local labourers and awareness about migration laws and workers rights etc discussed also. Causes of Migration: Chronic poverty 1s the dominant factor responsible for the prevalence and perpetuation of migration of agricultural labourers. Nearly half of India's population subsists below poverty line (UNICEF, 1990). The land distribution is most iniquitous, with nearly 50 percent of the households in the ownership of only 4 percent of the land. As many as 27.2 percent of the rural households are agricultural tenants and

5 121 percent agricultural labourers. Nearly one third population of India lives in slums and improvised tenements (Ministry of Labour,1989). These poor families are compelled to send their family persons to the labour force, since they do not have any surplus to sustain them and they can not sacrifice the smaller gains of the present with the larger gains of the future. The adult unemployment is widespread in these poverty stricken families. The poverty stricken and unemployed population from rural areas rriigrate to the highly dynamic economies like Haryana and Punjab (Jain, S.C. 1981). Labour mobility is essential for most efficient use of resources in these economies. Economic and technological conditions change at different rates in different segments of the state's economy. In this process opportunities are created for increasing the productivity of labour by transfer of labour among uses. The reasons that led labourers to migrate have been represented in table-4.1 Table- 4.1 Causes of migration of agricultural labourers. Sr. No. Causes No. of Respondent Region A Region B RegionC Total 1 Unemployment 33(32.67) 39(44.32) 05(9.26) 77(31.68) 2 Natural Calamities 05(4.95) -(-) 31(57.41) 36(14.81) 3 Better Job opportunity 03(2.97) 02(2.27) -(-) 05(2.06) 4 Earn More money 55(54.41) 45(51.14) 14(25.92) 114(46.91) 5. Any other 5(4.95) 2(2.27_2 4(7.41) 11(4.531 Total 101(100) 88(1 00) 54(100) 243(100)

6 122 Table-4.1 reveals that out of total 243 respondents percent respondents migrated in Haryana to earn more money, percent respondents migrated due to unemployment at their native places. Remaining percent and 2.06 percent respondents migrated in Haryana due to natural calamities and better job opportunities respectively and only 4.53 percent respondents were migrated by any other cause of migration which includes high financial burden, large size of family and unskillness. Unemployment, natural calamities, better job opportunity, earn more money, poverty, economic burden, large size of family, less number of earners in family were the major problems which compelled the respondents to migrate from their native places to the developed state of Haryana. Region-wise analysis shows that maximum percent respondents of region 'A' migrated to earn more money. Next percent respondents migrated due to unemployment, 4.95 percent respondents migrated due to natural calamities at their place of origin and only 2.97 percent respondents migrated in search of better job opportunity.

7 123 The migration of percent respondents was due to unemployment at their native place percent respondents migrated in region B to earn more money. No respondent migrated due to natural calamities. Only 2.27 percent respondents migrated by any other cause. In region C, maximum percent respondents were migrated due to natural calamities and percent respondents were migrated to earn more money in this region and only 7.41 percent respondents migrated due to presence of other causes for their migration at their place of ongm. The exact number of interstate migrant labour is not available however, as per 1981 census, there were 23.4 million interstate out migrants, of which 6.2 million migrated for employment. Census data further shows that interstate migration for employment has steadily increased overtime from percent in 1961 to percent in In a break up of the interstate migration in terms of employment, it is Uttar Pradesh which heads the list 56 percent migrants going outside Uttar Pradesh give employment is the reason for migration. It is also fairly high for Bihar (52 percent), J & K (50 percent), Rajasthan (47

8 124 percent), Tamil Nadu (45 percent) and Orissa (45 percent). These interstate migrant workmen are mostly landless or land poor, unskilled, illiterate, over 50 percent of them belong to scheduled castes and backward castes (Bajaj C. Subhash, 1997). Occupational position: Following table gives the information about the occupational position of the sampled migrant agricultural labourers. This position holds good for the time when the survey was conducted. Data regarding the occupational position of migrant agricultural labourers suggests the percent respondents come in Haryana after securing their work and percent respondents come at the place of destination in search of work (table 4.2). Table :4.2 Occupational position of migrant agricultural labourers No. of Respondents Sr. Work Position Region No. A. Region B Region C Total 1 Came after securing 63(62.38) 61(69.32) 31(57.41) 155(63.79) work 2 Come in search of 38(37.62) 27(30.68) 23(42.59) 88(36.21) work Total 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243(100)

9 125 Region-wise analysis reveals that in region A, percent respondents migrated after securing work and percent migrated in Haryana in search of work percent respondents in region B and percent respondents in region C migrated after confirmation of their work. A significant percent agricultural labourers in region C migrated in search of work. Only one third agriculture labourers migrated in region 'C' in search of work. The above analysis aside some broad features of their contacts at the place of destination. Mode of Employment: The mode of employment of migrant agricultural labourers was the important consideration for the present study. This spells out not only the nature of the market for migrant agricultural labourers, but also to an extent, the degree of risk involved both on the part of the employer and employee. During the survey, the workers were asked to name the various modes by which they received employment. Although sometimes they named more than one mode, the most important mode was identified. Table- 4.3 provides a view of the percentage of migrant agricultural labourers reporting their mode of employment.

10 126 Table- 4.3 Mode of employment of migrant agricultural labourers. Sr. No. Mode of getting No. ofrespondents employment Region A Region B Region C Total 1 Approaching 88(87.13) 51(57.95) 31(57.41) 170(69.96) landlords/owners 2 Trough any -(-) - (- ) -(-) -(-) medium/contractor 3 Other source 13(12.87) 37(42.05) 23(42.59) 73(30.04) Total 101(100) 88(100) 54( (100) Table-4.3 reveals that percent respondents got employment by directly approaching the landlords/owners. The mode of employment of percent respondents was other source. The role of contractor was negligible as a mode of providing employment to agricultural labourers. The majority of workers in the survey areas reported that they received employment through the existing personal contacts with their employers. Region-wise analysis suggests that more pronounced response of respondents was seen in region B & C than region A, where a sizeable

11 127 proportion of migrant agricultural labourers received employment in agricultural activities through the other sources. Other sources includes fallow labourers and a person other than employers who provides them information about work. Next in importance to personal contacts, was the method of approaching the landlords and rich cultivators percent respondents in region A, percent respondents in region B and percent respondents in region C were employed through approaching landlords/land owners percent respondents in region A, percent in region B and percent respondents in region C got employment by the other sources. Work activity before migration Work activity and caste are inter~liked in the traditional social structure of the villages of India. The occupational pattern in the villages is still close to traditional system despite some changes. Generally people's traditional occupation is known as the main occupation among the villagers. Occupational change is taking place where some people leave their traditional occupations.

12 128 Table -4.4 Work activity of migrant agricultural labourers before migration No. of Respondents Sr. No. Work activities Region A Region B Region C Total 1 Agricultural labourers 73(72.28) 70(79.55) 12(22.22) 155(63.79) 2 Cultivators 08(7.92) 10(11.36) 31(57.41) 49(20.17) 3 Non-Agricultural 13(12.87) 03(3.41) 06(11.11) 22(9.05) labourers 4 Any other 07(6.93) 05(5.68) 05(9.26) 17(6.99) Total 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243(100) Table 4.4 shows the nature of earlier work activities held by the respondents at their native place. It shows that maximum percent respondent's earlier job involved work in agriculture as labourer. Nonagricultural labourers accounted for only 9.06 percent of the total respondents. Another percent and 6.99 percent respondents were engaged in cultivating work activities and any other type of work activities respectively in the study area. A comparison by regions of previous work activities held by respondents brought out that percent respondents in region A, percent respondents in region Band percent respondents in region C were agricultural labourer before migration.

13 129 A similar companson of the migrant agricultural labourer's previous work activities were held shows that 7.92 percent respondents in region A, respondents percent in region B and percent respondents in region C were cultivators. Maximum respondents having non-agricultural labour work activities found in region A, were percent. Any other work activity of the respondents accounted for 6.93 percent in region A, 5.68 percent in region B and 6.99 percent in region C. Region A and region B shows the similar previous occupation pattern held by the respondents at their place of origin. Respondents having cultivation as their previous activity were percent maximum in region C. Nature of employment: Agricultural development has led to change in the nature of employment in agricultural activities. Relation between agricultural labourers and their employer farmers and mode of wage payments have also experienced change from Patron-client to Master-servant relations (Bhalla, S., 1989). The agricultural labour enquiry defines an agricultural labour as a person who for more than half of the total number of days on which he

14 130 actually worked during the year, worked as an agricultural labourer (Singh D., 1974). Mainly there are only two types of agricultural workers employed either for casual work or for regular farm work, on a continuing basis. Those who are employed on daily basis for rush of work to meet seasonal exigencies are known as casual labourers and those who employed on routine farm work for a specified period are known as attached workers (Bhagoliwal, T.N., 1976). For our analysis, we have categorized agricultural migrant labourers in to three categories: (1) Permanent labourers:- Those agricultural labourers who work with the Malik (employer) on contract, the payment may be in cash or kind and during this period the labourer is not free to work for others and he can not leave the malik at his will. (2) Semi-permanent labourers:- These agricultural labourers comes and work with malik for every year but after completion malik's work, they are free to work for others but at malik's will (Ahlawat, 1988). (3) Casual Labourers: Those agricultural labourers who employed on daily basis for rush of work to meet seasonal exigencies.

15 131 Table- 4.5 Nature of employment of migrant agricultural labourers No. ofrespondents Sr.No. Nature of Employment Region A Region B RegionC Total 1 Permanent labourers 13(12.87) 09(10.23) - (-) 22(9.05) 2 Semi-permanent 24(23.76) 32(36.36) - (-) 56(23.05) labourers 3 Casual labourers 64(63.37) 47(53.41) 54(100) 165(67.90) Total 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243(100) Data regarding the nature of employment of the migrant agricultural labourers suggests that most of the respondents percent were working as casual labourers. Their source of income was daily wage percent migrant agricultural labourers employed in the studied area as semi-permanent agricultural labourers. Only 9.05 percent respondents were employed as permanent agricultural labourers (Table- 4.5). Region-wise analysis shows that in all the regions under study, the farmers preferred employing casual labourers more. In region A,

16 132 there were percent respondents employed as casual agricultural labourers and percent employed as semi-permanent agricultural labourers and percent employed as permanent agricultural labourers. Region B shows almost similar employment pattern of agricultural labourers like region A. This is due to mainly similar cropping pattern in both the regions. Region C of our study area presents a totally different picture in case of nature of employment of migrant agricultural labourers. Hundred percent respondents were working as casual agricultural labourers in region C. Traditional Occupation of Migrant Labourers Nature of work in agriculture is considerably influenced by traditions and customs. Respondents were asked about their traditional occupation to analyse the crude occupational concentration or diversification. Table-4.6 reveals that out of total respondents percent migrant agricultural labourers were traditional agricultural labourers and remaining percent respondents came from other, than agriculture labour activities and non-agricultural activities.

17 133 Table- 4.6 Traditional Occupation of Migrant Agricultural Labourers Sr.No. Are you a traditional agricultural labourer? No. ofrespondents Region A Region B Region C Total 1 Yes 73(72.28) 70(79.55) 12(22.22) 155(63.79) 2 No 28(27.72) 18(20.45) 42(77.78) 88(36.21) Source : F1eld work Total 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243(100) Region-wise analysis shows that out of total respondents in region A percent respondents were traditional agricultural labourers and percent migrant agricultural labourers were attached with other agricultural activities and non-agricultural activities than agricultural labourer activities. Having more percentage, percent of traditional agricultural labourers was in region 'B'. Remaining percent migrant agricultural labourers engaged in other work activities than agricultural labour activities at their place of origin. Region 'C' presents a reverse picture. Only percent respondents were traditional agricultural labourers. Majority of

18 134 respondents was attached with other work activities than agricultural labour work activities. Structure of employment: Employment has been a major objective of modern time. Growth of the employment opportunities tended on the whole to lag behind an increase in labour force. Hence, expansion of employment opportunities commensurate with the increase in labour force is conceived as one of the principal aims. The demands for work in agriculture commensurate with the nature of agricultural operations and crop grown in a region. Employment in agriculture is mostly seasonal with varying intensities depending upon regional characteristics and crop pattern and influenced by a variety of factors such as farm size and use of such technological inputs improved seeds, insecticides, fertilizers, irrigation and farm power & machinery. This seasonal activity is followed by slack period, the duration of which varies from region to region. During slack seasons agricultural workers have to seek alternative sources of employment. In busy seasons, agricultural labour migrate from regions where labour is relatively abundant to regions where it is scarce.

19 135 Table-4.7 Structure of employment of migrant agricultural labourers Sr. No. Agricultural operations No. of respondents Region A Region B Region C Total 1 Wheat harvesting & 16(15.84) 13(14.77) 54(100) 83(34.16) threshing 2 Paddy transplantation 35(34.66) 32(36.36) - (-) 67(27.57) 3 Paddy harvesting 39(38.61) 30(34.10) - (-) 69(28.39) cum -threshing 4 Sugar cane 11(10.89) 13(14.77) - (-) 24(9.88) operations Total 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243(100) Of the total sample, percent respondents were employed in whe~t harvesting cum threshing, percent respondents were employed in paddy transplantation, percent respondents were engaged in paddy harvesting cum threshing and a few 9.88 percent respondents in studied area were employed in sugarcane operations (Table 4. 7). Sugarcane operations include sugarcane sowing, sugarcane cutting and preparing and sugarcane hoeing, paddy transplantation, paddy threshing cum harvesting were the important agricultural operations which provides employment for migrant agricultural labourers. The 2nd most important agricultural operation was wheat harvesting cum threshing. Sugarcane operations including sugarcane

20 136 sowmg, cutting, preparing and hoeing emerged a new operation for employment of migrant agricultural labourers in studied area. The region-wise analysis of employment structure of migrant agricultural labourers shows that percent respondents were employed in wheat harvesting and threshing, percent were employed in paddy transplantation, percent respondents were in paddy harvesting cum threshing and percent respondents in region 'A' were employed in sugarcane operations. The employment structure of respondents in region 'B' shows a similar picture like region 'A' percent respondents were engaged in wheat harvesting and threshing percent respondents were in paddy transplanting and percent respondents engag_ed-~ cane operation. Region 'C' shows a different picture for employment structure of the respondents. Hundred percent respondents of region 'C' were employed in wheat harvesting and threshing agricultural activities. This is due to less favourable geographical as well as climatic conditions for rice cropping in region 'C'. On the other hand, region 'A' and region 'B' has great advantage of irrigation, fertile soil and plain land which makes able them to grow rice and wheat crops on a large scale.

21 137 Wage Rates The wage rates m agriculture over the years have been experiencing the rising trend and specially for paddy transplantation and sugarcane operations. It may be due to the fact that these operations are labour intensive operations and needs to be completed between 20 to 25 days. The migrant agricultural labourers reported that the wages in their place of origin varied from Rs. 25 to 30 per day for hours work. The wage rates in the studied area for various agricultural operations during agricultural seasons are discussed in table 4.8. Table: 4.8 Wage rates of migrant agricultural labourers (in Rupees) S.No. Wage Rates Agricultural Region A Region B RegionC operations Dalanpur Navel Kansala Hamayupur Bond Ghuskani 1 Wheat Harvesting (per acre) 2 Wheat Threshing (daily wage) Paddy Transplantation (per acre) 4 Paddy Harvesting cum Threshing (per acre) 5. Sugar cane sowing (per day) Sugar cane cutting & prepanng (per day) 7 Sugarcane hoeing (per acre)

22 138 Data regarding the wage rate of agricultural labourers for different agricultural operations reveals that on an average Rs. 415 per acre for wheat harvesting in region A, Rs. 460 per acre in region B and Rs. Rice 610 per acre were paid to the migrant labourers in region C. Daily wage paid per head for wheat threshing was Rs. 65 in region A, Rs. 75 in region Band Rs in region C. Wages paid to the migrant agricultural labourers for paddy transplantation per acre were rupees 450 in region A and Rs. 725 in region B. Wage rate for paddy harvesting cum threshing per acre was Rs. 540 in region A and Rs in region B. Migrant agricultural labourers were paid rupees per head per day for sugar cane sowing in region A. Migrant labour was not employed in region B for sugar cane sowing, cutting and preparing. Due to unfavourable climatic conditions sugar cane and paddy operations were not held in region C. Wages paid to the respondents were Rs. 250 per acre in region A and Rs. 335 per acre in region B for sugar cane hoeing. In region C, wheat harvesting was more remunerative in terms of wages. Except sugar cane sowing, cutting and preparing region B was more remunerative in terms of wages. Migrant labourers were observed in region C only in wheat harvesting and threshing season. Wage rates

23 139 for all agricultural operations were observed high in region B than region A. Village-wise analysis of data regarding wages of migrant agricultural labourers shows that the wage paid to the respondents for wheat harvesting was highest Rs. 620 per acre in village Ghuskani of region C followed by Rs. 600 in village Bond of region C and Rs. 470 in village Kansala and Rs. 450 in village Hamayupur of region B. Wages paid to the respondents of village Navel and Dalanpur were Rs. 405 and 420 for wheat harvesting in region A respectively. The minimum wages for wheat harvesting in villages of region A, was due to maximum use of harvesters combines in wheat harvesting. Use of machines also effected the wages of respondents in wheat threshing in both the villages of region A. Maximum wages paid to the respondents for wheat threshing was Rs. 85 per day per head in village Hamayupur of region B. The farmers of village Ghuskani of region C, village Dalanpur and village Navel of region A, were paying Rs. 65 per day per head for wheat threshing to the migrant agricultural labourers. Wheat threshing was more remunerative for the respondents in village Hamayupur of region B and village Bond of region C. The wages paid to the respondents for paddy transplantation were Rs. 750 per acre in village

24 140 Kansala and Rs. 700 in village Hamayupur of region B and Rs. 450 per acre in village Dalanpur and village Navel each of region A. The wages paid to the respondents for paddy harvesting cum threshing were Rs. 450 per acre in both the villages Dalanpur or Navel of region A and Rs. 775 per acre in village Kansala and Rs. 750 per acre in village Hamayupur of region B. Sugar cane operations emerged a new operation for migrant agricultural labourers as well as local labours in recent times. The wage rates over the years have been experiencing the rising trend in sugar cane sowing and other sugar cane operations. The wage rate for sugar cane sowing was Rs. 60 per head per day in village Dalanpur and Rs. 75 per head per day in village Navel of region A. Respondents of region A were paid Rs. 50 per head per day for sugar cane cutting and preparing in village Dalanpur and Rs. 60 per head per day in village Navel. These two operations, sugar cane cutting and preparing, sowing were not held by the farmers of region B and region C. Sugar cane hoeing seemed to be much remunerative for the respondents of region B, where they were paid Rs. 320 per acre in village Kansala and Rs. 350 per acre in village Hamayupur. The wage for sugar cane hoeing was Rs. 250 per acre for the respondents in village Dalanpur and village Navel of region A.

25 141 Concludingly seems that an overall increase in the real wages in the studied area. It was observed that the changes in the wage rates for the different individual agricultural operation brings out the influence of local labourers, the machinery and number of migrant labourers available for a given agricultural operation. Wheat sowing, harvesting and threshing and sugar cane operations are the agricultural operations where migrant labourers fully compete with the local labourers and combine harvester particularly in region A. While interviewing the employers, it was observed that employers prefers to employ the local labourer since they work for longer durations and are perfect/skill and physically strong to undertake the agricultural operations. Secondly local labourers are bound to work at the farms of landowners/farmers because they borrowed money or taken loan by them. In region A and region B, paddy transplantation and harvesting left to the migrant labour. Though these operations are being labour intensive, the wage payment to the migrant agricultural labourer was more or less same as local labourer and more than wheat harvesting and threshing operations.

26 142 WAGE STRUCTURE Wage payments m agriculture show considerable diversity. Payment of wages in kind or cash and partly in kind or partly in cash is quite common. Supplemental payment in form of perquisites are also made to labourers. Wages for some agricultural operations like harvesting and threshing are paid in kind on the basis of out tum of work. Wage structure in agriculture is too considerably influenced by traditions and customs. Table-4.9 Mode of wage payment of migrant Agricultural labourers Sr. No. Mode of wage payment No. of respondents Region A Region B Region C Total 1 Cash 78(77.23) 59(67.04) 50(92.59) 187(76.96) 2 Kind -(-) -(-) - (-) -(-) 3. Mixed 23(22.77) 29(32.96) 4(7.41) 56(23.04) Total 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243(100) Data regarding wage structure of migrant agricultural labourers reveals that percent respondents out of the total respondents were

27 143 gettmg their wages m purely cash ana only lj.u4 percent respondents in the study area were getting wages in the form of mixed wages. No one respondent was found in the study area getting his wage in kind. Region-wise analysis reveals that percent respondents in region 'A', percent respondents in region 'B' and percent respondents in region 'C' were getting their wages in cash. On the other hand percent respondents in region 'A', percent respondents in region 'B' were getting wages in mixed form. Minimum 7.41 percent respondents in region 'C' were getting their wages in mixed form. Not a single respondent was found getting his wage in kind in all the three regions. Earnings/Income of the respondents One of the indices of economic status is income. There is a close relationship between type of occupation and level of remuneration that it carries and wage rates and total man-days of employment. Since the present study aims at probing into both the social and economic conditions of the migrant agricultural labourers, no particular method was found feasible to assess the respondents earnings. The respondent were asked to give the approximate monthly, seasonally or yearly figures in terms of cash, kind or mixed. All figures were converted

28 144 whereas necessary, to yearly earnings. Irrespective of the nature of the jobs and the mode of earnings, the amount has been represented yearly. The migrant agricultural labourers of rural areas especially the poor and down trodden have little idea of income and other such details. Any type of account keeping appears to be new to them. They have only rough idea of their earnings, requirements and hence expenditure. It was also observed that respondents deliberately understated or overstated the real earnings. The net earnmgs of the migrant agricultural labourers vanes according to the number of days worked and rate of wages. Four distinct patterns of migration of labourers in Haryana has been observed. One set of workers come during wheat harvesting and stay until paddy transplantation. The second set of workers is that the workers come during wheat harvesting and continue to stay until paddy harvesting and the third pattern of the workers come during paddy transplantation and stay until paddy harvesting. The fourth pattern was also observed in region C, where the fresh migrants, who stay for only wheat harvesting and goes back to their place of origin.

29 145 Table-4.10 Yearly Earnings of migrant agricultural labourers (Rs. per person) s. Agricultural Region A Region B Region C No. operations Village. Dalanpur Navel Kansala Hamayupur Bond Ghuskani 1 Wheat Harvesting Wheat Threshing Paddy Transplantation 4 Paddy Harvesting cum Threshing 5 Sugarcane operations Total Data regarding the yearly earnmgs of migrant labourers by agricultural operations reveals that the respondents in region A, on an average earned Rs per head, Rupees per head in region Band respondents in region 'C' earned on an average 6550 Rupees per head. This increase in earnings may be attributed to the increased demand for labour at the farms, more bargaining power of the migrant agricultural labourers, general price rise, longer stay by them in the state and low participation of family labour in agricultural operations.

30 146 Village-wise analysis reveals that on an average a migrant agricultural labour earned Rs from all agricultural operations in village Dalanpur and Rs in village Navel of region A. The earnings of migrant agricultural labourers were 8825 Rupees per head in village Kansala and 7835 Rupees per head in village Hamayupur of region B. The respondents in village Bond earned Rs per head and Rs per head in village Ghuskani of district Bhiwani of region 'C' by wheat harvesting and threshing agricultural operations. Paddy and Sugarcane operations were not held by the farmers of region 'C'. It may be due to the unfavourable climatic and soil conditions for these agricultural operations. The respondents in village Dalanpur of region A, earned Rs per head by wheat harvesting, Rs. 455 per head by wheat threshing, Rs per head by paddy transplantation, Rs per head by paddy harvesting cum threshing and Rs. 880 per head by sugar cane operations including sugar cane sowing, cutting, preparing and hoeing. Respondents in village Navel of region A, were earning Rs per head by wheat harvesting, Rs. 395 per head by wheat threshing, Rs by paddy transplanting, Rs per head by paddy harvesting cum threshing and Rs. 920 per head by sugar cane operations. The early earnings of respondents in village Kansala of region A were Rs

31 147 per head by wheat harvesting, Rs. 525 per head by wheat threshing Rs. 2800, Rs and Rs per head by paddy transplanting, paddy harvesting cum threshing and by sugar cane operations respectively. The respondents in village Hamayupur of region B, earned Rs per head by wheat harvesting, Rs. 500 by wheat threshing, Rs. 2200, Rs and Rs per head by paddy transplanting, paddy harvesting cum threshing and sugar cane operations respectively. The yearly earnings of respondents in region C were from wheat harvesting and threshing operations. The respondents in village Bond of region C, earned Rs per head by wheat harvesting and Rs per head by wheat threshing. Rupees 5050 per head were earned by the respondents in village Ghuskani of region C by harvesting wheat and Rs per head by wheat threshing in village Ghuskani of region C (Table 4.1 0). The essence of above analysis is that paddy harvesting was more remunerative in terms of net earnings in region A and B. The other remunerative operation for the migrant agricultural labourers was paddy transplantation in region A and region B. Wheat harvesting and threshing operation was the only agricultural operation and source of employment and earnings for migrant agricultural labourers in region C. Respondents in region C, were earning more money by wheat harvesting

32 148 and threshing than the respondents of region A and B. Sugarcane operations were much gainful for the respondents in region A and region B. The respondents in region A and in region B were getting approximately 70% of their total earnings from paddy operations. The study brought out that on an average, each migrant labour spent about 35 percent of his total earnings during his stay in Haryana in a year. Generally, this expenditure was incurred on food when they were unemployed but in some cases, the migrants also purchases durable goods like transistors, wrist watches etc. Above all, these labourers incurred expenditure on clothes, shoes, blankets, medicines, festivals etc. Fixation of Minimum Wages One of the protective measures to Improve the income of agricultural labourers is the minimum wages Act, 1948 which inter alia applies to employment in agriculture. Under this, minimum wages for agricultural workers have been fixed through out Kerala, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Tripura and in specified areas in Assam, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madras. (Singh, R.R., 1986). Minimum wages have also been fixed by the Central Government in Central Agricultural Demonstration farms and

33 149 military farms under the Central Ministries of Food and Agriculture and Defence respectively. Table-4.11 Respondent's knowledge about Minimum wage rate declared by the Government Responses No. ofrespondents Region A Region B Region C Total Yes -(-) -(-) -(-) -(-) No 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243(100) Total 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243(100) Data regarding knowledge about minimum wages for agricultural labourers declared by the government suggests that hundred percent respondents in the studied area were ignorant about this fact. Region-wise analysis of the data follows the same results. Employment of Respondents (Man-days) The man-days employment of the agricultural labourer's depends upon requirement of labour in agriculture. The new technology has been instrumental in raising both employment and crop output in the state. Sheila Shalla (1995) argued that growth rates in employment and wage rates of rural labour from 1971 to 1991, measured in terms of person

34 150 days of work available were the highest in Haryana. Haryana has had the highest rates of growth of rural employment in agriculture, in nonagriculture and hence in all rural person days of work. NSS data further shows that the man-days rate of growth between and was 3.56 percent for rural employment, 2.45 percent for agricultural employment and 7.21 percent for non-agricultural employment (Bhalla, Shiella, 1995). Table-4.12 Average number of days work available to the migrant Agricultural labourers Sr. Man-days No. of respondents No. employment Region A Region B Region C Total 1 Less than 60 days 11(10.89) -(-) 42(77.78) 53(21.81) (17.82) 41(46.59) 12(22.22) 71(29.22) (58.42) 18(20.45) -(-) 77(31.68) (-) 20(22.73) -(-) 20(8.23) 5. Above (12.87) 09(10.23) -(-) 22(9.05) Total 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243(100) Analysis on the number of days, the respondents are employed in a year indicates that, of the total respondents, percent respondents

35 151 get employed in agricultural activities for less than 60 days, percent respondents were employed for 61 to 120 days, percent respondents for 121 to 180 days, 8.23 percent were engaged between 181 to 240 days and only 9.05 percent respondents were employed for more than 240 days in a year (Table 4.12). Region-wise analysis reveals that maximum percent respondents were employed for 121 to 180 days in region 'A' percenfrespondents were employed for 61 to 120 days, percent respondents and percent respondents were employed for 240 and above days and less than two months respectively. None respondent was found employing as agricultural labourer in the category of 181 to 240 days in region 'A'. In region 'A', both Kharif and Rabi season crops are grown. Therefore the cropping intensity is high. The use of HYV require timely completion of farm operations which necessitates employment of migrant labourers even if it is part of showing and harvesting operations * of crops. The three wheat, rice and Santhi crops are dominant crops in region 'A'. Wheat crop in the rabi season does not require much labour in this region since the operations are mechanized. However two other Santhi - It is a type of rice crop. Its sowing and harvesting period is only 60 days and is known as Santhi.

36 152 ' kharif crops 'Santhi' and Paddy are labour intensive crops. During transplanting, harvesting and threshing of these crops requires more labour. In region 'B' percent respondents were employing for 61 to 120 days percent respondents employed for 121 to 180 days, percent respondents for days and percent respondents were employed for above 240 days. Not a sing~e respondents was employed for less than 60 days. Wheat, rice and sugarcane are major crops of region 'B'. Besides, because of lack of substantial mechanization of harvesting of wheat also require more labour. But in harvesting operations particularly in wheat, the requirement of local labour is more than migrant labourers. This is because of local labour is more efficient in harvesting of wheat than migrant agricultural labourers. The region has a diversified economy. Thus, a farmer spends less time on his farm work and depends on labour for farm operations. Labour is used to a very less extent in part of region 'B', where dry land farming is practiced with Bajra and Jowar as a major crop and land holding is small in size. In region 'C', it was observed that local agricultural labourers and family members were mainly engaged in agricultural operations. Out of

37 153 total 54 respondents percent respondents have work for less than 60 days and percent respondents were employed for 61 to 120 days. More than 121 days, there was not any kind of employment for migrant agricultural labourers in region 'B'. Migrant agricultural labour is used to a very less extent in region 'B', where dry land farming is practiced with Bajra and gram. This is due to low rain and less irrigation facilities and availability of undulating land and deep underground water. Hours of Work The employment of agricultural labourers is seasonal and intermittent. Their hours of work are not regulated. They vary from season to season, place to place and crop to crop. They generally work from sunrise to sunset. Sometime, they have to work during cool hours of the morning and in the moonlit nights. In recent years, there has been a tendency to standardize the working hours at 8 to 10 hours a day. But it is very difficult to regulate their working hours. Even the I.L.O. has not been able to pass any convention to regulate their hours of work. Under the present conditions of fanning in India the regulation of working hours of agricultural migrant labourers is very difficult. But it is

38 154 very essential that they should be given some sort of protection against overwork and exploitation. Of the total sample as many as percent agricultural migrant labourers were observed to be working for 12 to 14 hours per day and percent respondents were working for 14 to 16 hours per day. Only percent respondents were working for hours per day in the studied area (Table 4.13). Table-4.13 Number of hours spent at work per day by migrant agricultural labourers Sr. No. Hours of work No. of respondents Region A Region B Region C Total 1. Upto 10 - (- ) - (-) - (-) - (-) to 12 12(11.88) 19(21.59) - (-) 31(12.76) to 14 49(48.51) 40(45.46) 15(27.78) 104(42.79) to 16 40(39.61) 29(32.95) 39(72.22) 108(44.45) Total 101(1 00) 88(100) 54(100) 243(100) Region-wise analysis shows that percent respondents were working at farms for 12 to 14 hours per day in region 'A' percent respondents were working for 14 to 16 hours per day at the farms of

39 155 landowners. Only percent respondents were working for 10 to 12 hours per day in region A. There was not found a single respond working less than 10 hours per day in the study area are as well as in region 'A', region B and also in region 'C' individually. The pattern of working hours of migrant agricultural labourers presents a similar picture for region 'B'. Region 'C' shows a different pattern of working hours of respondents. Almost three fourth (3/4) respondents of the total respondents in region 'C' were working for 14 to 16 hours and remaining percent respondents were working for 12 to 14 hours per day. None respondent was working for 10 to 12 and upto 10 hours per day in this region. Participation in Bargaining Bargaining, an essential segment of economic democracy, is a 'two party' procedure for arriving at a commonly agreed solution. As put by Dale Yoder, "Bargaining is essential in which employees act as a group in seeking to shape conditions and relationship their employment (Bhagoliwal T.N., 1976). The term bargaining is thus used to describe the procedure where by employers must reach at agreement about wage rates and basic conditions of labour with leaders of group or union

40 156 instead of individual worker. In other words, it is the process of discussion and negotiation between an employer and employee (Bhagoliwal, T.N., 1976). Data regarding participation of respondents in bargaining about wage rates shows that out of the total respondents percent respondents were not participating in bargaining about their wages and other terms and conditions for working at farms as agricultural labourers. Only 8.64 percent respondents of the studied area were taking part in the process of bargaining. But bargaining participation by migrant agriculture labourers was only in lean or slack seasons. Table-4.14 Participation of respondents in Bargaining about their wages Sr. No. Response No. of respondents Region A Region B Region C Total 1. Yes 7(6.93) 11(12.50) 3(5.56) 21(8.64) 2. No 94(93.07) 77(87.50) 51(94.44) 222(91.36) Total 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243( 1 00)

41 157 Table 4.14 reveals that only 6.93 percent respondents in region A, percent respondents in region B and 5.56 percent respondents in region C were participating in the process of bargaining about their wages. On the other hand majority of the respondents did not taking part in the process of bargaining about their wages and other terms and condition to work at farm percent respondents in region A, percent respondents in region B and maximum percent respondents in region C, were avoiding bargaining with land owners and farmers about their wages and other conditions. The participation of migrant agricultural labourers in the process of bargaining was due to engagement of local as well as non-agricultural workers in agricultural operations mainly during wheat harvesting season. Loan/Borrowing from employers A very noticeable feature of the economic life of the agricultural migrant labourers in India is that they are generally in debt for the greater part of their working lives. Most of them are born in debt, live in debt and die in debt. Among causes responsible for their low living standard, indebtedness must be given a very high place.

42 158 Table-4.15 Loan/Borrowings by l\figrant agricultural labourers from employers No. of Respondents Sr. No. Loan Raised Total Region A Region B Region C 1. Yes -(-) -(-) -(-) - (- ) 2. No 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243(100) Total 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243(100) Sr. No. Borrowing I Advance Region 'A' Region'B' Region 'C' Total 1 Yes 76(75.25) 34(38.64) 50(92.59) 150(61.73) 2 No 25(24.75) 54(61.36) 04(7.41) 93(38.27) Total 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243(1 00) The data presented in table 4.15 shows that hundred percent respondents of our study area have not raised loan from the employers, land lords and farmers. Region-wise distribution of respondents about loan taking shows the same picture, as a whole. In case of borrowing or advance percent respondents out of the total respondents had taken advance in shape of grains, Atta or money from the employer.

43 159 Region-wise analysis suggests that percent respondents in region A, percent in region B and percent respondents in region C have borrowed money from the employers and farmers percent migrant agricultural labourers did not borrowed money and any other commodity or advance in shape of money and commodity from the employers and other farmers in region A. Maximum percent respondents in region B, who did not borrow or take advance in any form from the employers. Minimum 7.41 percent respondents of region C did not borrowed or take advance in any shape the cash or kind from their employers. Savings Data regarding the sources of savings deposited by migrant agricultural labourers suggests that out of the total respondents percent respondents have deposited their savings to the employers percent respondents in study area were sending their savings by money order to their family members at their place of origin (Table 4.15).

44 160 Table Source of deposition of Savings of migrant agricultural labourers Sr. No. Source No. ofrespondents Region A RegionB Region C Total 1. Itself - (-) - (-) - (-) - (-) 2. Sending to their family 54(53.46) 37(42.04) 13(24.07) 104(42.80) 3. Employer 47(46.54) 51(57.96) 41(75.93) 139(57.20) 4. Bank - (-) - (-) - (-) - (-) 5. Any other - (-) - (-) - (- ) - (- ) Total 101(100) 88(100) 54(100) 243(100) Region-wise analysis of savings of migrant agricultural labourers shows that percent respondents of region A were sending their savings/earnings by money orders to their family members continuously after 6 or 7 days. By that time they do not collect their money from the farmers. Respondents of region B shows a different picture. Out of total respondents percent respondents were continuously sending their