Country Gender Profile: The Kingdom of Tonga

Transcription

1 Country Gender Profile: The Kingdom of Tonga February 2010 JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY IMG Inc. PPD JR

2 Table of Contents The Kingdom of Tonga Summary... iii List of Abbreviations... vi 1. Basic profiles Socio-Economic Profile Health Profile Education Profile General Situation of Women and Government Policy on Gender General Situation of Women in the Kingdom of Tonga Government Policy on Gender National Machinery for the Advancement of Women Current Situation of Women by Sector Education Health Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Economic Activities Disaster Management and Environment Gender Issues and the Importance of Their Consideration when Planning Future Country Interventions (1) Gender-specific socio-cultural analysis for better gender-focused development programs/projects (2) Gender mainstreaming and women s empowerment in economic development (3) Need for in-depth research on domestic violence (DV) (4) Support for government level gender mainstreaming On-going Gender Projects Gender Information Sources i

3 6-1 List of Organizations related to Gender List of reports and references related Gender Definitions References ii

4 Summary Summary of Country Gender Profile in the Kingdom of Tonga (2010) Current Situation of Women in the Kingdom of Tonga 1) In Tonga, women have traditionally held a high social status. However, in recent centuries, there has been a sociological shift with modernization and the adoption of Christian values that has resulted in the society becoming more patriarchal. As a result, Tongan women today face various inequalities in legislative matters and work settings. 2) Domestic violence is believed to be seriously underreported with awareness of this issue being extremely low, especially in rural areas, and there being no legislation prohibiting such violence. 3) In most cases, men are the decision maker in all-important matters, in both the public (including political) and private spheres with women being poorly represented in the politics with only one female representative in the Legislative Assembly. Gender Policy of Gender 1) The government s awareness of gender issues is low with the current National Strategic Planning Framework, which came into operation in July 2009, not acknowledging gender as one of the country s development issues. 2) In 2001, the National Policy on Gender and Development was formulated, and subsequently in 2002, a Three Year Implementation Plan for Gender and Development 2003/4-2005/6 was prepared. However, little budget was allocated for the Plan, so it has not been implemented. There are no laws relating to gender specifically, such as a prohibition on sexual discrimination. 3) In September 2009, the government failed to ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). It is considered that the government is avoiding passing the convention as it would require them to amend the land ownership system, which almost completely restricts women s rights to own land. National Machinery 1) The National Machinery, the Women s Affairs Division of the Ministry of Education, Women s Affairs and Culture, is not able to function sufficiently due to the lack of human and financial resources. 2) The Women s Affairs Division is seeking to revise the National Policy on Gender and Development (2001) and the Three Year Implementation Plan for Gender and Development (2002). 3) As gender is not specifically mentioned in the National Strategic Planning Framework, it is unlikely that other ministries or government offices will incorporate and emphasize gender issues in their activity plans. Situation of Women/Gender in Education 1) Education is compulsory and free of charge for all Tongans from age 6 to 14; 6 years of primary and 3 years of junior secondary education. The literacy rate is impressive at 99.2% for males and 99.3% for iii

5 females as of ) The net enrolment rate for girls in primary education is slightly lower than for boys, but the rates for both genders are higher than 90%. The net enrolment rate for girls in secondary education is higher than for boys, and the drop-out rate is lower for girls than for boys. 3) As there is no accredited university in Tonga, most students wishing to obtain a university degree must go overseas. 4) The gross enrolment rate for women (7%) in tertiary education is higher than that of men (4%). However, the majority of female graduates choose to marry and remain at home. This is considered to be due to the mindset of the majority of the population that women should stay home and make good wives/mothers. Situation of Women/Gender in Health 1) State health services are provided free of charge and the basic health needs of the population are for the most part met. The maternal mortality ratio (MMR), which has been stable for the last 20 years, is 36.5 per 100,000 live births. The contraceptive use is at about 27% (2008) and the total fertility rate (TFR) is 3.8 (2006). The Ministry of Health seeks to promote more family planning to reduce the TFR to less than 3.0. HIV/AIDS is not a serious problem in Tonga at this time. 2) There is little absolute poverty in Tonga, and as a result, no chronic malnutrition has been observed. Instead, new problems have been occurring in the health sector, specifically obesity, and non-communicable diseases (NCD), such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, have been increasing nationwide. The current health system does not have the capacity to provide quality care for these modern health problems. Situation of Women/Gender in Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries 1) Although the primary sector accounts for only 20% of GDP, rural people still largely rely on subsistence agriculture and fishing for their existence. 2) In rural areas, agro-forestry is widely practiced with root crops (the people s traditional staple food) being widely cultivated. Women go into the bush and work with the men in performing heavy agricultural work. Most women do not engage in paid work in agriculture and are only involved in household food production. In coastal areas, women hunt along the coast and in the lagoons, catching small fish and gathering various kinds of shellfish. Most of the women s production is consumed at home with the women selling any surplus in the local market. 3) Most of the women s contributions towards the agriculture and fisheries industries are not reflected in the official statistics as they are part of the informal economy. Situation of Women/Gender in Economic Activities 1) In the past 30 years, the number of females in formal employment has increased almost fourfold. However, there has been little progress in the type of occupations that women are engaged in. Most women were and still are employed in unskilled menial work or subordinate positions (and thus being low-paid). It is considered that women s job opportunities are limited because of the cultural values that iv

6 Tongans, males and females, have concerning gender roles. Although women occupy almost 30% of the employment in the public sector, few are at the decision-making level. 2) There is no official system for supporting female workers with the exception of maternity leave for public servants. Moreover, in Tonga, women cannot legally own land with leasing land as well being very difficult in a women s name. This is a significant obstacle when women attempt to pursue business opportunities. 3) In the informal sector, particular kinds of handicrafts are in high demand by expatriates and urban Tongan women. In rural areas, where males have few opportunities to earn money, the females contribution to the household income through handicraft production and marketing is greatly significant. Situation of Women/Gender in Disaster Management and Environment 1) Gender issues are not specifically incorporated into either disaster management or environmental policy. 2) When a disaster strikes, men and women are treated the same with the government and NGOs conducting projects/programs on disaster preparedness without gender being specifically emphasized. 3) In the area of environmental protection, women show more interests than men. Women have been shown to be more active in awareness-raising meetings and waste management activities. v

7 List of Abbreviations ADB AusAID BMI CEDAW DV GAD GDP GNI HIV/AIDS IMR MMR MoAFFF MoLSNRE NCD NEMO NGO NZAID PTSD TFR UNFPA WHO Asian Development Bank Australian Agency for International Development Body Mass Index Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women Domestic Violence Gender And Development Gross Domestic Product Gross National Income Human-Immunodeficiency Virus/ Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome Infant Mortality Rate Maternal Mortality Rate Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Forests and Fisheries Ministry of Lands, Survey, Natural Resources and Environment Non-communicable Disease National Emergency Management Office Non Governmental Organization New Zealand Agency for International Development Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Total Fertility Rate United Nations Population Fund World Health Organization Exchange Rate 1 Pa Anga TOP JPY February 2010 This study was conducted between November 2009 and February 2010 by IMG Inc, based on a review of secondary data and a field survey in Tonga. This report was produced as a reference material for JICA to implement its projects in the country. The views and recommendations presented here do not necessarily reflect the official views and opinions of JICA. vi

8 1. Basic profiles 1-1 Socio-Economic Profile Social indicators International development indicators Socio-economic profile Human development index Gender-related development Gender empowerment (Value/Rank)* index (Value/Rank)* measurement (Value)* 0.768/99 (2007) 0.765/78 (2007) (2009) 0.787/63 (2002) 0.809/46 (2004) NA Demographic indicators Total 1 % of urban population 2 Annual (millions) % of female % of female Population population population growth rate 2 0.5% Economic indicators (2006) 49.2% (2006) 23.2% (2006) NA (1996) 49.3% (1996) NA NA Life expectancy 1 Households number by head of households (HH) 2 ( ) 0.4% ( ) Female Male Female Total Male-headed -headed 17,462 13,855 3, (2008) 73.0 (2008) (2006) (2006) (2006) NA NA 16,194 (1996) NA NA Ref. 1) Total fertility rate 3 1 2) 3.8 (2006) 3.8 (2000) GNP/Capita Growth rate of GDP implicit Gini index* 2 Aid/GNP 1 (US$) 1 real GDP 1 deflator* $2, % 6.0% NA 12.0% 6) 2000 $1, % 1.4% NA 11.9% Public sector expenditure on sectors Health Education Social welfare Defense Gender Others % 10.73% 4.25% 2.22% NA NA % 12.90% 4.63% 2.84% NA NA /GDP /GDP /GDP /GDP /GDP /GDP % 2.85% 1.54% 0.59% NA NA % 3.70% 1.32% 0.81% NA NA Industry/GDP Agriculture Industry Service Others % 13% 60% % 16% 56% - Labour indicators Total No. 1 Unemployment rate 1 Minimum wage 2 (thousand) Total Female Female labour Male Female unemployed/ unemployed/ force/total total labour total female labour force (%) force (%) labour force (%) % 5.2% 7.4% No minimum wage law in % 13.3% 9.9% Tonga (As of 2009). Employment rate Agriculture Non-agriculture Industry Service Total (%) 31.8% (2003) 30.6% (2003) 37.6% (2003) % of female population 5.9% (2003) 74.0% (2003) 43.6% (2003) 2 3) 3 4) 1 5) 2 2) 7) 6) 1 8) 2 9) 8) Approaches to gender issues Ratification and signature of international laws Year Revised Pacific Platform of Action for Gender Equality Commonwealth Plan of Action for Gender Equality Millennium Development Goals 2005 Beijing Platform for Action of Women ) 1

9 Socio-economic profile Ref. Women in decision-making (% of female population) Government Seats in parliament 1 3% (2008) Legislators, senior officials, and managers 1 27% ( ) 1 1) 2 11) Private sector Ministerial Position Professional and 43% technical workers 1 ( ) Policy of gender Year 12) National Policy on Gender and Development 2001 Laws of gender Year 9) Penal Code NA Public organization of gender Name of the national machinery Note: Refer to the definitions for the words attached with * Women s Affairs Division, Ministry of Education, Women s Affairs and Culture 2

10 1-2 Health Profile Prevalence of health services Infant mortality rate* (per 1,000) Under-five mortality rate* (per 1,000) Prevalence rate associated with tuberculosis (per 100,000) Prevalence and death rates associated with infectious diseases of vaccinated (1 year old) Health Indicators Ref. No. of Hospital beds No. of physicians per per 1,000 persons 1 1,000 persons 2 1 4) 2.9 (2004) 0.34 ( ) 2 1) NA 0.35 ( ) 2008 Total 9.1 Female NA NA 5) 2006 Total 24 Female Total 34.0 Female NA NA NA Total NA Female NA NA NA NA BCG DPT1* Polio Measles 99% (2007) 99% (2007) 99% (2007) 99% (2007) Reproductive health Contraceptive prevalence Rate of births attended by Anemia prevalence among rate* 1 trained personnel* 2 pregnant women 1 14) 27% (2008) 98.0 % (2004) NA 2 15) NA 95.3% (2000) NA Maternal mortality ratio* 1 Total fertility rate* 2 Average age of first (per 100,000 live birth) marriage 3 1 5) 36.5 (2007) 3.8 (2006) 25.5 (2004) 2 4) 15) NA 3.8 (2000) 25.5 (2000) Nutrition Children under weight for Oral re-hydration therapy use Iodine deficiency age (and aged under 5)* rate* NA NA NA NA NA NA Community health service Access to safe water Access to improved sanitation* Total Urban Rural Total Urban % 100% 100% 96% 98% 96% 4) % 100% 100% 96% 98% 96% HIV/AIDS HIV prevalence % of population aged Total Male Female with comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS Pregnant Male Female women Only 14 cases of HIV infection have been reported over the NA NA last 16 years and two person known to be living with HIV infection.(as of January 2006). NA NA Note: Refer to the definitions for the words attached with * 4) 13) 16) 3

11 1-3 Education Profile Education Indicators Education systems Primary 6 years Secondary Adult literacy rate* (+15) Primary education 5 year (lower) 2 year (upper) Ref. Tertiary NA 17) Total 99.2% (2007) Male 99.2% (2007) Female 99.3% (2007) 18) Net enrolment rate* Total 95.8% 88.0% Male 97.4% 89.9% Female 94.1% 85.9% Survival rate to 2005 Total 90.8% Male 89.9% Female 91.8% last grade % NA NA Drop-out rate 2005 Total 9.1% Male 10.0% Female 8.1% % NA NA Secondary education Net enrolment 2006 rate* % 67.6% 74.5% Progression rate NA Total NA Male NA Female NA NA NA NA NA Drop-out rate Total 7.2% Male 6.2% Female 5.1% % 4.8% 3.6% Tertiary education Gross enrolment rate* Total 6% 3% Male 4% 3% Female 7% 4% Progression rate NA Total NA Male NA Female NA NA NA NA NA Drop-out rate NA Total NA Male NA Female NA NA NA NA NA Tertiary level enrolment by Education Arts Social science Engineering Medicine Others field of study by gender and Technology NA NA NA NA NA NA Note: Refer to the definitions for the words attached with * Reference: 1) Human Development Report, UNDP, 2004, 2007/2008, ) Tonga 2006 Census of Population and Housing, Volume 2; Analytical Report, Tongan Statistics Department and the SPC Statistics and Demography Programme, ) Statistics and Indicators of Women and Men, United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) 4) WHO Statistical information System (WHOSIS), World Health Organization 5) Tonga: Health Situation and Trend, World Health Organization, ) World Development Indicator Database, World Bank, ) Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific, Asian Development Bank, ) Statistical Abstract 2006 for the Kingdom of Tonga 9) 2008 Human Rights Reports: Tonga, U.S. Department of State, ) Obstacle to Growth: gender,, discrimination and development in Tonga, Vijaya Nagarajan, ) Parliament of Tonga: members (n.d.) 12) Three Year Implementation Plan for Gender and Development 2003/4-2005/6, Women Development Center, ) Info by Country: Tonga, UNICEF 14) Interview with Assistant Chief Nurse, Ministry of Health (24 November 2009) 15) GenderStats, World Bank 16) Country Health Information Profiles, World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific, ) Tonga-Education system, IAU, World Higher Education Database 18) UIS Statistics in Brief, UNESCO Institute for Statistics 19) UNdata, United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) 20) Education, Tonga Department of Statistics 19) 1 19) 2 20) 18) 4

12 2. General Situation of Women and Government Policy on Gender 2-1 General Situation of Women in the Kingdom of Tonga General Situation of Women in the Kingdom of Tonga 1) In Tonga, women have traditionally held a high social status. However, in recent centuries, there has been a sociological shift with modernization and the adoption of Christian values that has resulted in the society becoming more patriarchal. As a result, Tongan women today face various inequalities in legislative matters and work settings. 2) Domestic violence is believed to be seriously underreported with awareness of this issue being extremely low, especially in rural areas, and there being no legislation prohibiting such violence. 3) In most cases, men are the decision maker in all-important matters, in both the public (including political) and private spheres with women being poorly represented in the politics with only one female representative in the Legislative Assembly. [General situation] The Kingdom of Tonga is made up of a group of small islands (archipelago), in Oceania, in the South Pacific Ocean; with a population of 101,000 (2006), of which 23% reside in urban areas. Paradoxical, in the meaning of a contradictory existence, would be a good word to use to portray gender issues in Tonga. Traditionally, women held a high status in the social system (see [Issues originating from religions and traditional customs] below). However, in recent centuries, there has been a sociological shift. Modernization and an adoption of Christian values have resulted in society becoming more patriarchal. While women are, in general still respectfully treated, their status has reduced and their roles as a result have changed, becoming predominantly more constrained to the home and seen increasingly as solely wives and mothers. Since the late 1950s, there has been intensified pressure on individual household units to earn more money to support domestic requirements, as a result of the growth in the cash based economy; an ever increasing number of women have had the opportunity to gain education with the number of those working outside the domestic environment also increasing. However, legislation, social attitude (especially male) and norms have been unable to keep up with all these changes. Women now face various inequalities in legislative matters and work settings, such as denial of land ownership for women (see 3-4 Economic Activities) and a non-existence of legislation to protect, amongst other rights, women s employment and inheritance rights. As traditionally there has been a great regard for women by all the populace, even though gender inequality exists, the majority of Tongans including many women, do not regard gender issues as a 5

13 problem in the country. Although the fundamental issue is that men s rights are written down and therefore legitimate (to be upheld and defended), while women s privileges are not officially recorded in any way 1, meaning that women s rights are not protected by law. As the socio-economic circumstances have changed, their high status due to traditional practices has been reduced and undermined, leaving them without any official authority or rights, while men s position has been reinforced and strengthened. [Sexual harassment and violence against women] Both sexual harassment and domestic violence are believed to be seriously underreported due to the sensitive and private nature of the problems and people s desire to maintain the notion that Tongan society respects women. Research is lacking for both problems, which makes an analysis based on present data virtually impossible. However, one estimate 2 indicates that one in five women cohabiting with a partner or a husband are the victims of domestic violence. Out of six homicide cases in , four were women murdered by their husbands. Domestic violence has received little publicity in the past, but since 2008 there have been reports of cases in the media. There are various interpretations about why media attention has increased. Some surmise that domestic violence has been increasing 4, while others deduce that domestic violence was already an eventuality 5, only that prior to 2008 public awareness was so low that it did not catch media attention 6. Domestic violence awareness is still extremely low, especially in rural areas and there is no legislation against it. [Women s low representation in key decision making positions in the government] The Legislative Assembly is currently made up of 31 seats divided up into three groups 7 ; the one group is cabinet ministers taking 14 seats all appointed by the King (mostly male), one group is eight seats all reserved for Nobles 8 and the remaining nine seats are for commoners representatives, for which women have to compete with men, if they want representation. As of November 2009, there was only one woman in the Assembly, who was an appointed minister 9. In the 2008 election no commoners representative seats were won by women and in the past three decades to this point, only 4 women have held a seat in parliament. Common conception is that only men should engage in the politics, and until 2006, no female minister had been appointed; since then there has been no more than one female minister at any one time. 1 Expression used by a prominent women s leader of the country, Ms. Fuiva Kavaliku (27 November 2009), as well as by an AusAID s senior program officer, Ms. Telusa Hepisipa Fotu (26 November 2009) 2 Discussions with Ms. Ofa Guttenbeil-Likiliki, Representative, Women and Children Crisis Centre (an NGO working for victims of gender-based violence). 3 As of 24 th November Information provided by Women and Children Crisis Centre. 4 View expressed by Tonga Family Health Association and Tongan National Women s Congress. 5 View expressed by AusAID Tonga. 6 View expressed by Women and Children Crisis Center. 7 Parliament of Tonga: members (n.d.) 8 Nobles can only be men; women cannot inherit the title. 9 She is the Minister of Information and Communication. 6

14 Tongan Women National Congress, an NGO advocating women s rights, requested the government to consider a quota for women in the Assembly, but the government has not responded. There is no female judiciary and in the public sector as a whole (public administration and the defense agency), out of the 2,861 positions, 784 (27.4%) positions are filled by women (according to 2006 census data). [Issues originating from religions and traditional customs] In the traditional social system, unlike in the other Pacific cultures, women ate with men (not after men), drank the local alcohol, and went to sea, including long voyages in canoes. Younger brothers and maternal uncles had cultural obligations to provide food and other materials to woman (elder sister/niece). The compliance to this is wavering, with some men still providing 10. Women still eat with men, but they do not usually drink alcohol 11 and have ceased to go on sea voyages (voyages in canoes are not practiced anymore). There have been some fields where women have traditionally been excluded, such as the inheritance of a Noble title, but in general women have participated in most social events, as well as in performing general duties e.g. farming and fishing. Elder sisters outrank brothers in the family. Tongans are mostly (more than 97%) Christians and generally adhere to it closely; acceptance and adoption of Christianity started in the 19th century. This coupled with modernization and a simultaneous expansion of the economy being based on currency, have fundamentally changed the socio-cultural and socio-economic structure of the country. Christianity has promoted values based on a patriarchal approach, which has reduced women s previously high status within the family and general society. Since the 1950s, traditional lifestyle and values have been further eroded; people holding the money, now command respect. In culturally important occasions such as funerals, roles which are traditionally supposed to be played by an elder woman are now taken on by a more affluent woman or in some cases by a man. Another complicated gender-related issue is conjugal relationships; despite a sibling respect, with a brother having regard for his sisters, husbands tend not to respect their wives. Advocates for women s rights claim that this is a strong contributing factor for domestic violence incidents. Whether or not the woman is respected in the household, in most cases, the man is the decision maker for important family matters Discussion with Ms. Fuiva Kavaliku. Technical Advisor, National Women s Council and Interim President of Women and Children Centre. 11 Excessive alcohol consumption by men has become a social problem in the last decade, in both urban and rural areas. Discussions with Tonga Community Development Trust, Women and Children Crisis Centre. 12 Discussions with Mr. Mr. Faleata Leha, Programme Coordinator, Tonga Family Health Association, and Ms. Tuna Fielakepa, President, National Council of Women. 7

15 2-2 Government Policy on Gender Government Policy on Gender 1) The government s awareness of gender issues is low with the current National Strategic Planning Framework, which came into operation in July 2009, not acknowledging gender as one of the country s development issues. 2) In 2001, the National Policy on Gender and Development was formulated, and subsequently in 2002, a Three Year Implementation Plan for Gender and Development 2003/4-2005/6 was prepared. However, little budget was allocated for the Plan, so it has not been implemented. There are no laws relating to gender specifically, such as a prohibition on sexual discrimination. 3) In September 2009, the government failed to ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). It is considered that the government is avoiding passing the convention as it would require them to amend the land ownership system, which almost completely restricts women s rights to own land. [Government policy on women] Most government officials interviewed for this study claim that there are no gender issues in Tonga, citing that women are traditionally respected and well off in the country. Thereby, the current National Strategic Planning Framework, which came into operation in July 2009, does not acknowledge gender as a country s development issue. [Government plan for women] In 2001, National Policy on Gender and Development was formulated; the goal for the Policy was to promote equality between genders within the first quarter of the 21st century. Ten areas selected for policy emphasis and guidelines were: Gender and the Family, Gender and Religion, Gender and, Culture and Society, Gender and Health, Gender and Education, Gender and Politics, Gender and the Economy, Gender and, Regional, Outer Island and Rural Development, Gender and the Public Sector, 8

16 Gender and the Private Sector. In order to implement the Policy, subsequently in 2002, a Three Year Implementation Plan for Gender and Development 2003/4-2005/6 was prepared. However, due in part to governmental attitude, little budget was allocated for the Plan, so it could not be implemented. [Gender related laws and regulations] There are no affirmative action laws, maternity law 13, laws prohibiting sexual discriminations, or minimal wage law. The law controlling sexual offence (the penal code) defines rape as the unpermitted (without consent) penetration of the penis into the vagina, and as such any other type of sexual abuse is not regarded or recognized as rape but indecent assault 14. An employment bill has been discussed in the Legislative Assembly, but not yet been approved. Thus there is no legal protection for any employees, male or female. [International gender equality commitment] Tonga has committed itself to the following international/regional gender equality conventions /agreements: Beijing Platform for Action of Women (Sep 1995) Millennium Development Goals (Sep 2005) Commonwealth Plan of Action for Gender Equality Revised Pacific Platform of Action for Gender Equality However, in September 2009, the government failed to ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), on the ground that this would undermine the cultural and social heritage of Tonga. Critics and donors have mooted the notion that the government is avoiding passing the convention as it would require them to amend the land ownership system, which, currently, almost completely restricts woman s right to own land at all (see 3-4 Economic Activities: [Women and land ownership]). 13 As an exception, public servants are entitled to maternity leave through a policy (not a law). In private sector, the majority of the companies do not give maternity leave, with some exceptional cases in which around 10 days leave is provided. 14 Discussions with Ms. Ofa Guttenbeil-Likiliki. 9

17 2-3 National Machinery for the Advancement of Women Women s Affairs Division, Ministry of Education, Women s Affairs and Culture 1) The National Machinery, the Women s Affairs Division of the Ministry of Education, Women s Affairs and Culture, is not able to function sufficiently due to the lack of human and financial resources. 2) The Women s Affairs Division is seeking to revise the National Policy on Gender and Development (2001) and the Three Year Implementation Plan for Gender and Development (2002). 3) As gender is not specifically mentioned in the National Strategic Planning Framework, it is unlikely that other ministries or government offices will incorporate and emphasize gender issues in their activity plans. [Background] In 1993, the Cabinet created the Women s Affairs Unit within the Prime Minister s Office. Original emphasis was only on women, since then it has shifted to included gender and development (GAD) as well; thus the Unit was transformed into the Women Development Center in In 2006, the Center was moved out of the Prime Minister s Office and placed in the Ministry of Education, Women s Affairs and Culture and now being called the Women s Affairs Division. [National machinery] Name of National Machinery Women s Affairs Division, Ministry of Education, Women s Affairs and Culture No. of personnel 4 (including the Deputy Director who is the Head of Division) Budget TOP 200,000 per annum (US$ 110, ) Objectives Development of women in Tonga 16, by promoting universal and free participation, and partnership of women and men in all spheres of life 17 Roles Gender policy advice and development, and collaboration with stakeholders, including women s organizations 15 As of November Women s Affairs Division (2009) 17 Women Development Center (2002) 10

18 Minister of Education, Women's Affairs and Culture Director, Education, Women's Affairs and Culture Deputy Director, Women's Affairs Senior Executive Officer Assistant Secretary Executive Officer As of November 2009 [Main activities of Women s Affairs Division] Due to the lack of financial and human resources, the Women s Affairs Division could not apply the Three Year Implementation Plan for Gender and Development (2002), originally being scheduled for deployment from 2003/4 to 2005/6. The Women s Affairs Division is seeking, with the involvement of stakeholders, including people at a grass root levels, as well as the international donor community, to revise the National Policy on Gender and Development (2001). The Division also intends to revise the outdated Implementation Plan for Gender and Development, so that both the National Policy and Implementation Plan will fit into the objectives of the National Strategic Planning Framework and receive more attention within the government. [Activities of other ministries] The National Strategic Planning Framework requires each of the ministries and government offices to produce a corporate plan 18 on how they plan to achieve their primary outcome objectives. However, as gender is not specifically mentioned in the Framework, it is unlikely that other ministries and offices plan to emphasize gender. 18 A corporate plan is an action plan in line with which the ministry/government office will work in order to realize the concerned objective(s) in the National Strategic Planning Framework. 11

19 3. Current Situation of Women by Sector 3-1 Education Education 1) Education is compulsory and free of charge for all Tongans from age 6 to 14; 6 years of primary and 3 years of junior secondary education. The literacy rate is impressive at 99.2% for males and 99.3% for females as of ) The net enrolment rate for girls in primary education is slightly lower than for boys, but the rates for both genders are higher than 90%. 3) The net enrolment rate for girls in secondary education is higher than for boys, and the drop-out rate is lower for girls than for boys. 4) As there is no accredited university in Tonga, most students wishing to obtain a university degree must go overseas. 5) The gross enrolment rate for women (7%) in tertiary education is higher than that of men(4%). However, the majority of female graduates choose to marry and remain at home. This is considered to be due to the mindset of the majority of the population that women should stay home and make good wives/mothers. [Government policy and gender conscious educational development plan] Since the Education Act of 1974, the government has endeavored to execute its policy to provide free basic education for all the nations children 19. In 2007, a review of this Act began, and the consultation and reviewing process was still underway as of November Education is compulsory and free of charge for all Tongans from age 6 to 14; 6 years of primary and 3 years of junior secondary education. According to 2006 Census, the percentage of those who should be enrolled in school and not attending was very low, at 1% in both males and females. The Tonga literacy rate in its own language is impressive, at 99.2% for males and 99.3% for females, in No specific consideration is given to gender in education. Tonga provides education for all children, regardless of which gender. [Primary education] The net enrolment rate for girls in primary education is slightly lower (94.1%) than for boys (97.4%) (2005) 21. The drop-out rate from primary school was 8.1% for females and 10.0% for males in The primary education has become compulsory since 1876 (State University.com (n.d.)) 20 UIS Statistics in Brief, UNESCO Institute for Statistics 21 UNdata, United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) 22 Ibid. 12

20 In the population group of 15 years or older, those who have attained only a primary school education is 26% for females, and 25% for males (2006) 23. [Secondary education] he net enrolment rate for girls (67.4%) in secondary education is higher than for boys (54.0%) (2006) 24, and the drop-out rate is lower for girls (5.1%) than for boys (6.2%) (2004) 25. In secondary level education, girls are reported to perform better in the exams required to progress to the next grade 26. It is reported that many of the boys who failed in their exams, choose to quit school and help on their family farm 27. Many students drop out after failing the exam for Tonga School Certificate (secondary education certificate, end of Form 5). According to an officer of Ministry of Education, Women s Affairs and Culture, around 50% of the students pass the Certificate exam; the gender disparity data for this is unavailable. In the secondary education age group (13-19 years of age), female attendance is always higher than males, as shown in the Figure below: Figure 1 Population aged 6 and older, divided by gender, attending school, Tonga 2006 Source: Tongan Statistics Department and the SPC Statistics and Demography Programme (2008) 23 Tongan Statistics Department and the SPC Statistics and Demography Programme (2008) 24 UNdata, United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) 25 Education, Tonga Department of Statistics 26 Grade is called Form in secondary level. 27 The information in this paragraph was given by Mr. Malakai H. Kaufusi, the NZAID Development Programme Coordinator. 13

21 [Tertiary education] In Tonga, there is no accredited university that can issue a bachelor s degree 28. The University of South Pacific (based in Suva, Fiji) has a satellite school in Tonga where students can receive a university level education, but the students are required to go to Suva for the last year, with the exception of those in the Education Faculty, to obtain their degree. Thus, most students who are wishing to obtain a university degree go overseas, mainly to New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, and the United States of America. The gross enrolment rate for women (7%) in tertiary education is higher than for men (4%) (2002) 29 According to the 2006 Census, the proportion of the population with tertiary education is slightly higher for males (10.9%) than for females (9.7%). While there is no reliable data, sources state 30 that although some of the young women who graduate from higher education institutes, such as universities, pursue a further university education overseas, the majority chooses to get married and remain home (Tonga) in the domestic setting; as (1) there are not many employment opportunities in Tonga s small scale economy; (2) the mindset of the majority of the population is still that women should stay home and make good wives/mothers. [Vocational and technical education, higher education] There are a few, both public and private, vocational and technical schools in Tonga, providing education in subjects like teaching (primary and secondary school), nursing (including midwifery), electronics, IT and journalism. Most of them require either a Form 5 or a 6 graduation certificate to enter, and duration of an educational program is either two or three years. The percentage of the population who hold a vocational/professional qualification 31 is 8% in both males and females 32. Gender-segregated data for each educational subject area/program is unavailable. 28 There is one private university but the government does not recognize it. 29 UIS Statistics in Brief, UNESCO Institute for Statistics 30 Discussions with Ms. Ofa Guttenbeil-Likiliki and Ms. Fuiva Kavaliku. 31 Such as teacher s or nurse s certificate. 32 Tongan Statistics Department and the SPC Statistics and Demography Programme (2008) 14

22 3-2 Health Health 1) State health services are provided free of charge and the basic health needs of the population are for the most part met. 2) The maternal mortality ratio (MMR), which has been stable for the last 20 years, is 36.5 per 100,000 live births. 3) There is little absolute poverty in Tonga, and as a result, no chronic malnutrition has been observed. Instead, new problems have been occurring in the health sector, specifically obesity, and non-communicable diseases (NCD), such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, have been increasing nationwide. The current health system does not have the capacity to provide quality care for these modern health problems. 4) The contraceptive use is at about 27% (2008) and the total fertility rate (TFR) is 3.8 (2006). The Ministry of Health seeks to promote more family planning to reduce the TFR to less than ) HIV/AIDS is not a serious problem in Tonga at this time. [Government policy] State health services are provided free of charge and, apart from those live on remote islands, access to health care is adequate. Public health care covers the cost for most of both curative and preventive care 33, excluding the payment to the traditional healers. For the last two decades, the government has spent between 10-15% of its total budget on healthcare. Increases in the health budget have been difficult, as there have only been small advances in the government s income. A Reproductive Health Policy was to be launched 34 in December [Medical health 35 and gender] Life expectancy at birth has increased dramatically in the past several decades; it was 40 years of age in 1939, but in 2008 it has risen to 67.3 years for male and 73 years for female. The proportion of death caused by infectious diseases has fallen from 32% in the 1950 s to 6% in the 1990 s. The maternal mortality ratio (MMR), which has been stable for the last 20 years, was 36.5 per 100,000 live births in The infant mortality rate (IMR) is 9.1 deaths per 1,000 live births, which is the best performance in the Pacific countries. 98% of pregnant women attend antenatal clinics, 98.5% deliver 33 The private health sector is very small, there are only a few private clinics, which operate part-time (in the evening) by the doctors who work at public hospitals during the daytime. 34 At the time of research for this report, the Policy was yet to be published. 35 The information in this section is, unless specified otherwise, taken from WHO (2009a) and WHO (2009b). 15

23 in a health facility. According to the Ministry of Health, the rate of deliveries attended by trained health staff in 2008 were 97.4%, while official statistics for the rate is 98.0% (2004) 36. New problems have been occurring in the health sector. Non-communicable disease (NCD), such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases have been increasing nationwide. Obesity is widespread; the overall adult obesity rate (BMI 37 >30) was 60% in the 2004 survey, and obese is greater among female than male; in the overall age group, women s mean BMI was 34.5 while men s was Girls and young women in particular tend to gain weight during adolescence and pregnancy. The average weight of a Tongan woman increased by 21.1kg to 95.0kg over 30 years (that of a man increased by 17.4kg to 95.7kg). Consequently, women have higher rates of diabetes (female: 19.1%, men: 16.5%). Economic development, using cars instead of walking, improved access to processed (fatty) imported food, and westernization of eating habit are considered to be the main reasons for the trend, which has had a strong negative impact on people s health. One survey in revealed that around 80% of people with diabetes remain undiagnosed and untreated, with it speculated that the same trend occurs with cardiovascular disease. However in Tonga, the current health system does not have the capacity to provide quality care for these modern health problems. [Nutrition conditions] There is little absolute poverty in Tonga, as a result is no chronic under-nutrition and no important micronutrient deficiencies have been observed. Instead, over (or unbalanced) nutrition is problematic. A study 39 showed that an average Tongan male consumes double the quantity of food and amount of calories consumed by an average Australian male. As females have a higher rate of obesity than males, the same tendency could apply. Tongan females consume many more calories than the equivalent Australian females. [Family planning] According to the Ministry of Health, contraceptive use was about 27% in Various contraceptives are available from public health posts, as well as NGOs such as Tonga Family Health Association. The most adopted method for contraception is by injection. Condoms are only popular among the younger generation and the purpose of their use is not only for contraception, but primarily for safe sex reasons. 36 GenderStats, World Bank 37 Body Mass Index. 38 A research result cited in WHO (2009a) 39 A research result cited in WHO (2009a) 16

24 As the total fertility rate (TFR) is 3.8 (2006) 40, the Ministry of Health seeks to promote more family planning to reduce the TFR to less than 3.0. [HIV/AIDS] Very few HIV/AIDS cases have been reported; according to the Ministry of Health, there have been only 14 people diagnosed as infected with HIV. Two are still presumed to be alive. [Brain drain of the nurses] It is a concern in the Health Sector that qualified nurses continue to leave for other countries for better jobs and higher incomes. Their major choice of destination is: Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America. Thus, a decision has been made to increase the number of student admissions to the Queen Salote School of Nursing, the only nursing school in the country. 40 WHO Statistical information System (WHOSIS) 17

25 3-3 Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 1) Although the primary sector accounts for only 20% of GDP, rural people still largely rely on subsistence agriculture and fishing for their existence. 2) In rural areas, agro-forestry is widely practiced with root crops (the people s traditional staple food) being widely cultivated. Women go into the bush and work with the men in performing heavy agricultural work. Most women do not engage in paid work in agriculture and are only involved in household food production. 3) In coastal areas, women hunt along the coast and in the lagoons, catching small fish and gathering various kinds of shellfish. Most of the women s production is consumed at home with the women selling any surplus in the local market. 4) Most of the women s contributions towards the agriculture and fisheries industries are not reflected in the official statistics as they are part of the informal economy. [Agricultural policy and gender] According to the latest forecast by the Ministry of Finance and National Planning, Tonga s primary sector, composed of agriculture, forestry and fisheries accounts for 19.8% of GDP in 2009/ The primary sector has long been a major contributor to the economy, but now the tertiary sector accounts for more than 60% of GDP. However, in rural areas, people still largely rely on subsistence agriculture and fishing for their livelihoods. In 2008, a division named Food, Women and Youth in Community Development was created in the Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Forests and Fisheries (MoAFFF). The purpose of the division is to support the development of women and communities as a whole. [Ownership of farming land and agrarian reform] Land ownership is virtually denied to all women (see 3-4 Economic Activities: [Women and land ownership]). Women usually use land which is owned by male family members, such as husbands or sons. The government is reluctant to change the land ownership laws and/or upset the status-quo, as seen in its refusal to ratify CEDAW (see 2-2 Government Policy on Gender: [International gender equality commitment]). 41 The World Bank s latest figure for agriculture, fisheries and forestry is 28% of GDP (2007). 18

26 [Rural life and gender] While there is a small amount of cash crop agriculture 42, rural people still largely rely on subsistence agriculture and fishing for their existence. A recorded ideal that in Tongan society, men are/were responsible for hard physical labor in agriculture, while women take/took on lighter labor, such as home gardening for vegetables and craft making, is fallacy. In reality, women take active roles in the core parts of subsistence agriculture. In rural Tonga, agro-forestry is widely practiced, where root crops which are the people s traditional staple food are widely cultivated. Women go to the bush, and work with the men, performing heavy agricultural work. If they have surplus produce after securing their household needs, either man or woman goes to the local market to sell it. Some women prefer going to the market by themselves because of fears that men would spend the money earned on alcohol 43. According to the 2006 Census, the number of women in paid employed in agriculture/fisheries/quarrying was only 417, compared to that of men being 9,486. The category for skilled agricultural and fisheries jobs shows the same trend; women being 400, while men being 9,868. This shows that most women do not engage in paid work in agriculture and that they are only involved in household food production 44. Employment opportunities for women in commercial agriculture are scarce. The director of a squash exporting company, which is one of the biggest exporters in the agriculture sector in Tonga, explained that most paid jobs are temporary and require muscular labor which is, according to the director, not suitable for women. [Extension activities and training for women] Food, Women and Youth in Community Development division in MoAFFF promotes chicken rearing and having a vegetable garden for rural women so that they can reduce food purchases to a minimum. Due to budget limitations, the operation remains relatively small and is mainly conducted in the main island of Tongatapu. In the outer islands, a District Agriculture Committee for Women, composed of women representatives from villages as well as local government officers, were set up to support women s agricultural activities. NGOs have also been working for rural women in the outer islands by supporting village women s organizations and providing information on growing vegetables and how to cook the crops, as well as health related information. 42 No detailed data on cash crop agriculture is available. 43 Discussions with Ms. Oketi Feletau, Project Coordinator, Tonga Community Development Trust. 44 Although the women can and do go out to sell the surplus, if there is any, in the local market, the earning from this does not appear in the official data as it is in the informal economy. 19