REFERENCES. The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 M. Sundberg, Training for Model Citizenship, DOI /

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1 REFERENCES Argenti, N., & Schramm, K. (Eds.). (2010). Remembering violence: Athropological perspectives on intergenerational transmission. New York: Berghahn Books. Burchell, G., Gordon, C., & Miller, P. (Eds.). (1991). The Foucault effect: Studies in governmentality. With two lectures by and an interview with Michel Foucault. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Byanafashe, D., & Rutayisire, P. (Eds.). (2011). Histoire du Rwanda: Des origines à la fin du XXe siècle. Huye: National University of Rwanda and National Unity and Reconciliation Commission. Das, V., & Poole, D. (Eds.). (2004). Anthropology in the margins of the state. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press. Doom, R., & Gorus, J. (2000). The politics of identity and economics of conflict in the great lakes region. Brussels: VUB University Press. Fortes, M., & Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (Eds.). (1940) African political systems. London: Oxford University Press. Huggins, C., & Clover, J. (Eds.). (2005). From the ground up: Land rights, conflict and peace in Sub-Saharan Africa. Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies. Huyse, L., & Salter, M. (Eds.). (2008). Traditional justice and reconciliation after violent conflict: Learning from African experiences. Stockholm: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. Martin, L. H., Gutman, H., & Hutton, P. H. (Eds.). (1988). Technologies of the self: A seminar with Michel Foucault. London: Tavistock Publications. Parisis, A. (Ed.). (1960). Les finances communales et urbaines au Congo belge. Brussels: Académie Royale des Sciences d Outre-Mer. The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 M. Sundberg, Training for Model Citizenship, DOI /

2 266 REFERENCES Ranger, T., and O. Vaughan, eds. (1993). Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth- Century Africa: Essays in Honor of A. H. M. Kirk-Greene. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Richards, P. (Ed.). (2005). No peace, no war: An anthropology of contemporary armed conflicts. Oxford: James Currey. Sluka, J. A. (Ed.). (2000). Death squad: The anthropology of state terror. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Werbner, R., ed. (1998b). Memory and the Postcolony: African Anthropology and the Critique of Power. London: Zed Books.

3 INDEX A Abanyiginya, 38 African National Congress, 74 Arusha Peace Accords, 47, 68 Asian tiger states, 4, 247 authoritarian mode of government, 19, 20, 23, 64, 126, 180, 202, 258, B Bantu, 43, 68 Belgian imperial regime ethnic identities and, 42, genocide and, 2 Itorero institution and, 42 benign authoritarianism, 247 Bizimungu, Interim President Pasteur, 48 Burundi, 38, 46, 74, 92, 260 C ceremonialism functions of, 142 genocide commemorations and, 140 Itorero program and, 87 performance contracts and, 153 state power and, chaka - mchaka, 74 75, 143, 144 citizen forums, 178 civil war, 2, 190 Cold War, 241 colonial Rwanda Belgian imperial regime and, 42 ethnic groups and, 41 Hamites and, 42 historical narrative of, 67 missionary education and, 42 oppression and, 67 racial identities and, 42 coming together, , 199 Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, 47 community cooperatives coming together and, 195, 198 trust and, 198 women and, Community Policing Committees, 185 The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 M. Sundberg, Training for Model Citizenship, DOI /

4 268 INDEX community work administration of, 158 attitudes about, 170 civic engagement and, participation in, personal narratives of, , 170 community work meetings administration of, 155 decentralization and, 159 functions of, penetration and, Conceptual Master Plan. See Kigali Master Plan Congo war, 46 Council of Commissioners, 51 Cultural Heritage Policy, 65 D decenteredness, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), 2, 38, 46, 191 diaspora ethnic groups and, 68 exiled Rwandans and, 106 mobilization for, old caseload returnees and, 46 Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and, 44 Rwandese Alliance for National Unity (RANU) and, 45 DRC. See Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) E East African Community, 47 Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries, 47 Eight Points Program, 80 employment language skills and, 231 social networks and, ethnic groups attitudes about, discrimination and, 115 genocide and, 114 historical narrative and, 77 78, 124, 141 identities of, Itorero program and, 256 personal narratives of, in public discourse, , European imperialism, 103 ex - Interahamwe, 46 expropriation criticisms of, 226 economy and, homelessness and, 226 personal narratives of, 226 resistance to, 227 F FARG. See Fonds d assistance aux rescapes du genocide (FARG) fetishism, state, 25, 64, 84, 87 88, 94, 143, 256 Fonds d assistance aux rescapes du genocide (FARG), 111 Forces Democratiques de Liberation du Rwanda, 46 foreign aid controversies about, 242 dependency on, 235 economic objectives of, 248 liberal governments and, 243 local agencies, 231 misdirection of, 243 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) and, 244 state rule and, 259 suspensions of, 26

5 INDEX 269 G gacaca (genocide-related crimes), 65, 76, 82, 85, 109, 110, 115, 189 genocide, 45 46, 92 attitudes about, 256, 258 coexistence and, 108 colonialism and, 68 the courts and, 5 demographic changes and, 2 effects of, 85 ethnic identities and, 116 investigations into, 47 justice system and, 112 personal narratives of, , 125 political leadership and, 203 in public discourse, 113 reconciliation and, 76 reconstruction and, 5, 49 recovery from, 3 4 victims of, 2 genocide commemorations, , genocide ideology, 49, 50, 189, 210 gentrification, 227 Gihanga, King, 38 Global Citizen Award, 241 good governance civil education committees and, 54 decentralization and, 159 hard work and, 238 Itorero program and, 131, 139, 194 liberal governments and, 161 Government of National Unity, 47 governmentality, 23 27, 257 governmentalization, 132, 177, 257 H Habyarimana, President, 15, 44, 45, 67, 120, 122, 240, 262 Hamites, 42, 43, 91 high modernism, Hutu ethnic neutrality and, 79 genocide and, 2, 141 identity of, 38 44, 78, 91 Itorero institution and, 41 national unity and, 49 perceptions of, 193 property ownership and, 229 status changes of, 43 44, 89 I ICTR. See International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) Igitaramo (cultural activity), 135 Ijwi Island, 38 imfura (moral person), 79, 90 imihigo. See performance contracts Ingando, 47, 49 contrasts with Itorero, 56, 119 definition of, 55 ethnic groups and, 90 militarism and, 71 origins of, 55 state securitization and, 192 target groups of, 56 Inkeragutabara (those who help or assist), 185, 187 Interahamwe (genocide militia), 45, 121 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), 2 Intore as warriors, 40 dance troupes and, 44 definition of, 63 ethnic groups and, 90 evolution of term, 14 15, 41 identity of, 16, 17, 64 militarism and, 40, 69 model citizens and, 63

6 270 INDEX Intore (cont.) perceptions of, 121 repression and, 94 Rwandan liberation and, state- and nation-building and, 15, state fetishism and, 94 IRDP. See Rwandan Institute for Dialogue and Research on Peace (IRDP) iterambere (development), 220 itorero dance troupes and, 44 definitions of, 29, 37 evolution of, 40 Rwandan education and, 41 Tutsi and, 41, 44 Itorero institution Belgian imperial regime and, 42 military and, 40 precolonial history and, 38, Itorero program administration of, 174 as instrument of state- and nationbuilding, 57 as invented tradition, 122 at community level, attitudes about, 116, 139, authoritarianism and, 257 capitalism and, 21 ceremonialism and, 142 civic duties and, 10 coercive practices and, 119 colonialism and, 67 coming together and, 194 community cooperatives and, 194 contradictory policies in, , 149 contrasts with Ingando, 56, 119 core themes of, 6 curriculum of, 6, 24, 37, 52, 100 decentralization and, 159 diaspora and, 50 discipline and, 73, 134, 148 effectiveness of, ethnic identities and, 256 expansion of, 259 gender equality and, 71 genocide and, 50, 65 goals of, 50 52, 193 good governance and, 257 government and, 10 graduates of, 15 hard work and, 238 hierarchical structure of, historical roots of, 64, impacts of, 257 implementation of, 54 interpretations of history and, 64 in Kigali, 8 in public discourse, 116 in schools, 52 in villages, 53 languages used in, 9, 52, 230 loyalty and, management of, 51 militarism and, 75 76, 81, 120, 256 mindset and, , 145, 178 model citizens and, 9, 63, 84, 132 modernization and, national history narrative and, 93, 137 national identity and, 86 national security and, 186 nationalism and, 50 participation in, perceptions of, 100, 120, 123 personal narratives of, , 121 political manipulation and, 126 public service and, 145 reconciliation and, 78 repression and, 117 Rwandan Patriotic Army and, 45 social distrust and, 208

7 INDEX 271 soldier identity and, 74 songs and, 70, 83, 134, 135, 139 state- and nation-building and, 3, 57, 84 state power and, , 176 state servitude and, surveillance and, 100 target groups of, teaching methods of, values and, 64, 137 women and, 194 Itorero ry Igihugu. See Itorero Itorero Society, 45 Itorero Strategic Plans, 147 Itorero Taskforce, 1, 83, 112, 148 K Kabila, Laurent-Desire, 46 Kagame, Abbot Alexis, 38 Kagame, President Paul, 12, 45, 48, 87, 241 authoritative leadership of, 202 as businessman, 247 fetishization of, 89 Global Citizen Award and, 241 Itorero program and, 81, 89 state power and, 203 term of, 260 Kayibanda, President, 43 44, 67, 90, 103, 112, 142 Kigali as center of power, 101, 124 civic order in, 212 cleanliness and, 239 crime and violence in, 200 economy of, 224 expropriation and, 227 genocide and, 45 gentrification and, 227 modernization and, 220, 222, 227, 239 national security and, 186 poverty and, 228 property market and, 228 security forces and, state securitization and, 190 underdevelopment and, 239 unemployment and, 229 Kigali Master Plan expropriation and, imagining and, 233 Itorero program and, 234 modernization and, 3, 224 poverty and, 228 killing squads, 45 Kinyarwanda language geography of, 38 Itorero program and, 9 as mother tongue, 11 political terms and, 15 kwihutira (shedding Hutuness), 42 L language reform, 230 les animations (mass mobilization), 120, 121 leta (state), liberal governments bureaucracy and, 243 foreign aid and, good governance and, 243 illiberalism and, 242, 259, 260 state securitization and, 212, 213 support for Rwanda, Local Defense Force, 186 M March 23 Movement, 213 mass mobilization community work and, 120

8 272 INDEX mass mobilization (cont.) genocide commemorations and, 142, 161 Itorero program and, 131, 139 performance contracts and, 161, 162 Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and, 74 meritocracy, 219, 236, 239, 258 Millennium Development Goals, 220 mindset, , 145, 178 indoctrination and, 257 Itorero program and, 238 poverty and, 238 Ministry of Gender and Family Promotion, 56, 168 Ministry of Local Government, 51, 148 Ministry of Sports and Culture (MINISPOC), 44 Ministry of Trade and Industry, 234 Mobutu Sese Seko, 46, 120, 191 model citizens civic duties and, 183, 219 community work and, 161 competitiveness and, 236 definition of, 63 foreign aid and, genocide and, 256 Itorero program and, 9, 10, 17 18, 132, 134, loyalty oaths and, 146 national development and, 219 national security and, 183 nationalism and, 94 perceptions of, 124 performance contracts and, 135, 146 state fetishism and, 87 state power and, 2, 19, 130, 131 Tutsi and, 90 modernization attitudes about, 219, 222 economy and, 228 Itorero program and, 50, 82 Kigali and, 212 national history narrative and, 84 opportunism and, 228 performance contracts and, 21, 223 personal narratives of, 221 poverty and, 222, 228 reconstruction and, 5 trust and, 222 Mozambique Liberation Front, 74 Muhammed genocide and, 2 imihigo and, 23 Itorero and, 28 political leadership and, 203 politics and, 1 Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) and, 28 Museveni, Yoweri, 45, 74, 75, 257 N National Commission for the Fight Against Genocide, 54 55, 141 national development, 1, 219 National Electoral Commission, 54 national history narrative complexity of, 124, 127 eras of, 65 personal testimonials and, post-genocide government and, 69 state- and nation-building and, 93 symbols and, 93 National Itorero Commission, 54, 148 National Policy for Cultural Heritage, 236 national reconciliation, National Resistance Movement (Uganda), 74, 143, 257 national service, 21, 49, 56, 147, 162, 167

9 INDEX 273 national unity, 49, 77 National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC), 3, 47 neoliberalism citizenship and, 257 elements of, 25 model citizens and, 131 rationale of, 246 Rwanda and, 25, new caseload returnees, 46 Ntaryamira, President Cyprien, 45 NURC. See National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC) Nyiginya kingdom, 39 O old caseload returnees, 46, 55, 90, 101, 106, 121, 124, 201, 220 other, the, 91, 126 P paradox of participation, 160 Peace and Leadership Center, 56 performance contracts as form of government, 23 attitudes about, 149, 167, citizenship and, 160 civic engagement and, 161, coercive practices and, 160, 166 competitiveness and, 237 compliance with, components of, 22 contradictory policies in, decentralization and, 159 defined, 21 effectiveness of, 24, evolution of term, 21 formulation of, genocide ideology and, 189 goals of, 219 impact on society, 22 inequalities in, liberal governments and, 245 mass mobilization and, 161 national security and, national service and, 21 productivity and, 237 volunteers and, political leadership, 203 political rationality, 27 Postcolonial African states authoritarianism and, 20, 95 citizenship and, 91 democracy and, 261 historical memory and, 86, 87 nationalism and, 257 political rhetoric in, 123 social welfare and, 246 state- and nation-building and, 94, 256 state power and, 89 poverty attitudes about, 237 civic engagement and, 160 community work and, 156 expropriation and, 224 Itorero program and, 65, 194, 237 modernization and, 222 neoliberalism and, 245 social instability and, 213 stigma of, 239 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP), 244 precolonial Rwanda ethnic groups in, 39 kingdom of, 38 military and, national history of, 37 38

10 274 INDEX Q quasi-nationalism, 191 R RANU. See Rwandese Alliance for National Unity (RANU) Reconciliation perceptions of, personal narratives of, Reconciliation Barometer, 113 regional stability, 213 RPF. See Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) Rucagu, Boniface, 112 Rwabugiri, King, 41 Rwanda censorship and silencing in, 4, 99, 101, , , , 256 ceremonialism in, 142 citizenship and, 91, civic education and, 54 civic order and, 215, 246 coercive practices and, 192, 262 competition in, 236 contradictory policies in, 5 crime and violence in, 4, 26, 190, , 210, 246, 259, 261 decentralized government of, democracy and, 45, 262 demographic changes and, 2 3, 220, 228 discrimination and, 240 economy of, 4 ethnic identities and, 78 79, 90, 116 genocide and, 2, 3, 45 47, 99 golden era of, 66 67, 103 historical memory and, 87 historical narrative and, 65, 93, 102 independence of, 2, 43 justice system of, 5, 47, language reform and, 230 languages used in, 229 meritocracy and, 219, 236, 258 migration and, 2 militarism and, 66, 69 71, 214, 262 national identity and, 86 neoliberalism and, 18, 25 people of, 1 political repression in, 4, 91, 202 political stability in, 4 regime of, 260 relationships with neighboring countries, 4, 46, 66 repression and, 99, 125, 262 soldier identity and, 241 state- and nation-building and, 3 state surveillance in, 100, 101, 204 state-authorized violence and, 191 UN peacekeeping force in, 2 unemployment and, 234 Rwanda Defense Force, 187, 200 Rwanda Demobilization and Reintegration Commission, 56 Rwanda National Police, 186 Rwandan Academy for Language and Culture, 65 Rwandan Institute for Dialogue and Research on Peace (IRDP), 78 Rwandan Patriotic Army, 45, 47, Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), 1, 11 12, 45, 190, 261 aggression by, authoritarianism and, 21, 48 crimes of, 110 ethnic neutrality and, 80 genocide and, 87 Itorero program and, 28, 82 Kagame, President Paul and, 219 liberal governments and, 212 performance contracts and,

11 INDEX 275 precolonial history and, 38 public opinion and, 104 repatriation and, 110 Rwandan identity and, 80 soldier identity and, 74 Rwandese Alliance for National Unity (RANU), 45 Rwigyema, Major General Fred, 45 S semi-authoritarian regimes, 22, 29 Sida. See Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) social networks development and, 231 economic advantages of, 231 state- and nation-building, 3, 15, 57, 64, 84, 94, state power attitudes about, 28, 165, 171, , 179 coercive practices and, cynicism and, 27 fears about, 202 good governance and, historical memory and, 125 model citizens and, 19, 165 national security and, 214 neoliberalism and, 245 penetration of, 41, 165, 169, 179 surveillance and, 208 state rule, 259 state securitization apparatus of, citizen vigilance and, 188 crime and violence and, decenteredness and, 210 insecurity and, liberal governments and, 211 objectives of, personal narratives of, , security forces and, surveillance and, 184, 211, 215 state surveillance, personal narratives of, women's exposure to, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida), 3 T Tanzania, 38, 46, 93 Tutsi as Hamites, 42, 43, 91 diaspora of, ethnic neutrality and, 79 genocide and, 2, 103, 141 identity of, 38 40, 42 44, 68, 78, 91 imfura and, 79 Itorero institution and, 41 model citizens and, 79 national unity and, 49, 80 nobility and, 90 pogroms and, 2 status changes of, 43 45, 68, 89 Tutsi bias, 79 Twa ethnic neutrality and, 79 identity of, 38, 39, 42, 78 Itorero institution and, 41 U ubudehe (poverty reduction), 65 ubwiyunge. See Reconciliation Uganda, 38, 257 umuganda (community work), 147 underdevelopment modernization and, 239 poverty and, 239 securitization and, 239

12 276 INDEX UN-Habitat Scroll of Honor Award, 212 United Nations Security Council, 4 unity & reconciliation, 76 urugerero. See national service V Vision 2020 attitudes about, 232, economic growth and, 4 hard work and, 235 imagining and, 233 Itorero program and, 8, national values and, 83 nationalism and, 235 performance contracts and, 150 political rationality and, 27 poverty and, 222, 223, 229 social change and, 232 unemployment and, 229 values and, 65 volunteering, 156, 162, 170 W women s cooperatives, women s councils, 168 Z Zaire. See Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) Zimbabwe, 191