CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Transcription

1 CHAPTE INTRODUCTION

2 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION "Empowering Women" is a multifaceted social process advocated by International Organizations like United Nations and its constituent commissions on women. United Nations Developmental Programme, International Labour Organization on one hand and the world conferences on women at Mexico (1975) Nairobi (1985) and Beijing (1995) on the other hand during the last two decades. The phrase "Empowering Women" denote social, economic, cultural and political empowerment of women vis-avis men. In other words empowering women implies abolition of all kinds of male bias against women or gender discrimination against women or gender inequalities in different walks of life. In simple women empowerment as a social goal implies the existence of total inequality between female and male members. This problem of gender inequality is ubiquitous. It differs only in degree and it manifesto itself in different varying forms, across different societies in the contemporary world. 1.1: Statement of the Problem : The women 'Question' is variously described in the literature as women exploitation, women oppression, discrimination against women and gender inequality. These expressions denote essentially two things namely (a) the existence of women exploitation through their oppression and unequal treatment - and b) since they are treated unequally by men by using different socio - cultural and politico economic institutions and value judgment by men or patriarchal institutions women exploitation and oppression continues. This is the central problem of the women question or liberation movement. In brief the women problem has socio-cultural, economic and political dimensions. As is said already, the women exploitation and deprivation is a global problem. However its degree and manifestation differ from time to time within a country and between countries over a period of time.

3 The inside/ outside dichotomy (Lynn Bennet 1988) faced by women or the 'double work burden' i.e. the responsibility of doing household work and also bearing the burden of wage employment and exclusion of the monitory value of the household work done by women from national income accounting are indicators of unequal treatment accorded to men, society and the state in general (P.A. Samuelson 1980). Human Development Report (1994). The patriarchal social spectrum on one hand and modem capitalism on the other hand go together and lead to the institutionalization of socio- economic segregation of women from the mainstream of the society and the economy. Such a segregation is relatively more and widespread in the contemporary developing countries. This difference may be attributable to factors like wide spread educational and employment opportimities for women and gradual weakening of the patriarchal, socio-cultural institutions in industrial market economies. However, such changes are yet to gain momentum in many parts of the developing world including India. In case of women in a developing country on society context socio-cultural bias against women cause their marginalisation in economic growth; a weak economic status measured in terms of concentration of women in household work, family enterprises, absence of property rights, low access to inputs for human resource development, lack of control over family income etc. are the factors responsible for high incidence of poverty on women. Thus women in large number in many developing countries are considered as valunerable section of the society. The high concentration or incidence of poverty (economic or materialistic) is called feminisation of poverty ( UNDP, HRD, 1994). Poverty whether absolute or relative, is a major social problem everywhere. Poverty not only leads to human sufferings but also negation of human rights in terms of different form of inequalities, deprivations, subjugation and discrimination between men and women. But there is a difference in terms of its several incidence on account of patriarchal family or social system deeply seated in all societies. Thus the ugly faces of poverty on women are diverse, acute and sometime detrimental even to their existence. Amartya. K.Sen (2001) speaks of seven types of gender

4 inequality, namely mortality inequality, netality inequality, basic facility inequality, special opportunity inequality, professional inequality, ownership inequality, household inequality. The Indian rural women are afflicted by all these forms of gender inequalities except probably professional inequality. In rural India, there is substantial degree of feminisation of poverty on account of an increase in the net population growth rate among the landless agricultural labour households (including SC/ST and other backward classes women), low level of human skills, lack of availability of wage employment opportunities and inadequacy of institutional support to create wage as well as self employment opportunities. This list includes economic factors responsible for feminsation of poverty which are much stronger in operation and which function along with socio-cultural barriers and discrimination against women in economic participation. There is considerable decline in rural poverty on account of general development process attempted under planning since 1951 and also rural poverty alleviation programmes attempted since the fourth five year plan period. This is true, currently the rural poverty is estimated to be 28% of the total rural population in India. The statistics relating to poverty reduction at household level do not reflect feminisation of poverty and gender inequalities within the households to study these two dimensions of the women deprivation ; one has to deal with intra-house-hold distribution and utilization of food, other consumer goods, control over income access to health, education, housing etc.,. This requires a cross section study of specific or different households from gender prospective. There is a sizable increase in women labour participation rates in rural India since which denote the willingness of rural women to take up wage employment or income generating activities outside the household and also partly reflect the inevitability for rural women particularly landless category to take up productive jobs outside the household sector. This is a welcome trend because it helps rural women to put their labour into income generating productive activities. However, the rural women are

5 mostly concentrated in many low paid or low wage manual labour occupation which are unstable in nature. There is the problem of ensuring income adequacy and regularity in the earning by women. So the poor rural women are also confronted with under employment and seasonal unemployment. The rural women by and large may be grouped into two categories. One is women belonging small and marginal farmers household and the other belonging to the landless agricultural labour households. The incidence of poverty on these two distinct group of rural women is considerably different. In other words the incidence of poverty on women belonging to landless agricultural labour category is relatively very high. These poor women are confronted with absolute poverty being landless, houseless, illiterate and disabled by all kinds of 'ill being'. Most of these women belong to SC/ST groups and socially disadvantageous groups. Where as the women belonging to small and marginal farmers work mostly on their family farms and their contribution is embodied in the family income. In other words their contribution to the wealth and income of the family is 'hidden or invisible'. These women are slightly better placed in terms of food security, housing, minimum health but not well placed in terms of access to education, gender equality individual freedom etc.. These farming women like their counter parts of the landless agricultural households are illiterate or semi-literate, property less and in general do not participate in household socio-economic decision making process. Then the women belonging to marginal and small farmers household may be termed as facing relative poverty (Amartya.K.Sen , 194, UNDP, HRD , 1996 and Lynn Bennet-1991). Therefore feminisation of poverty is a common problem of rural women in India. But its incidence differ marginally or sometimes considerably. The incidence of poverty on women across the above said two economic groups should be seen from socio-cultural perspective in Indian context which will give us insights about the degree of rigidities and or flexibility regarding women labour mobility in economic terms and women social mobilisation in terms of polorised group set for embarking on 'a new class struggle' that is the landless women faced with absolute

6 poverty who belong to SC/ST and other socially disadvantageous group are not confronted with severe socio-cultural taboos or constrains regarding occupation selection mobility or market place interaction with male member of the society etc. These types of freedom are not enjoyed by women belonging to the small and marginal farmer families among the Hindus which are considered to be intermediate caste in India. The same is true for Muslim women living in rural areas, however, poor they are. In general most important Rural Development Programmes or Poverty Alleviation Programmes or Land Reforms, IRDP (Integrated Rural Development Programmes), Basic Minimum Need Programme, National Rural Wage Employment Programme (like the erstwhile) NREP, Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, Prime Minister Rozgar Yojana and the present Prime Minister Swama Jayanti Rozgar Yojana have not substantially benefited rural women particularly to enhance their real income and standard of living. From only sixth five year plan (1985) onwards, 30% reservation for women among the total beneficiaries under the rural poverty alleviation programme were provided. This provision undoubtly has the good intension of providing a social justice to rural women but,since the dimension of the problem of feministion of poverty is very huge, it was felt by academicians planners, non-governmental organizations and government alike that the general rural development programmes were insufficient in this regard. Therefore from the early 1990's certain gender specific rural women development programmes are devised and implemented. They are Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas, Indira Mahila Yojana, Mahila Samakya Program (equality through education), Rashtriya Mahila Kosh etc., was implemented. These programmes have the goal of creating self employment among women both on individual and 'group initative' entrepreneurship basis. These programmes also aim at socially and politically mobilizing women for achieving other goals of women empowerment. Since the DWCRA could not gain wide support both from Govenmient burocracy and Non Government Organsiations it was discontinued. In its place an ambitious programme called SHGs to achieve the same goal is devised and implemented from 1989/99 in the middle of 9"^ plan.

7 The ninth plan ( ) documents lays emphasis on the participation of people in the planning process, and the promotion of self-help groups. Empowerment of women is one of the nine prime objectives of the ninth plan. The objective of the self-help group is to promote strong and independent women groups who exert control over their own development and that of the commimity. The women would be equipped with managerial and technical skills through enhanced participation in economic activities. The programme also envisages an enhancement in the capacities of women through the development of training modules and material that can adopt to the local context. Through these means SHGs attempt to build capacity among the rural women to undertake economic, socio-cultural and political activities and to promote self-respect among its members according to Smith Mishra Panda (2001). Capacity to under take economic activities will include ownership and control of productive resources and creation of alternative employment of local levels. Capacity to lindertake socio-cultural activities will encompass abilities to participate in non-family group meetings, to interact effectively in public sphere, to ensure mobility and visibility, to de -colonize gender relations and to create mutual dependence, capacity to undertake political activity will include ability to transform institutions (family, education, religion) to transform structures (legal, political, economic and social), to fight injustice, to organize struggle and to create alternative power structure at local level. Capacity to enhance self-respect will include ability to assert independent rights to make choice, to challenge and eliminate sub-ordination, to develop self-confidence and assertiveness in attaining the status of decision-making power in household. SWASHAKTI project, earlier known as rural women's development and empowerment project was sanctioned on as a centrally sponsored project for a period of five years with an estimated outlay of Rs crores. The over all objective of the project was to strengthen the processes and create an environment for empowerment of rural women. The project covered parts of seven states and 35 districts with a target of establishing 7,400 to 12,000 SHGs having 15 to 20 members each. Kamataka state is one among the seven states

8 covered under Swashakti Project. The districts covered under Swashakti in Kamataka are Kolar, Chitradurga, Bellary and Tumkur. Kamataka Women's Development Corporation was selected as the program-implementing agency in Kamataka. The Streeshakti project is also under operation in the district since 2000/01.The Deputy Commissioner is in charge of the project, implemented through the Department of Woman and Child Development.At taluk level,the taluk Panchayat officials will be incharge of the project implementation and anganwadi worker will be the animator (responsible for the formation of groups at village ) The literature review is attempted in chapter HYPOTHESIS: 1. The varying degree of socio-cultural economic segregation and differentiation between and within different social groups of rural women creates different levels of barriers for empowering rural women. 2. Economic barriers like absence of property ownership, lack of occupational and social mobility, lack of literacy and education and labour market discrimination seem to be more stronger than socio-cultural biases working against women in the contemporary rural society of the economy of India. 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: The present study assumes significance in view of its potential to bring into limelight the constrains and benefits of empowering women as a integrated process of development and social change since this study for the first time intense to attempt an estimate of the monitory value of the non-market services rendered by women within household on the one hand and on the other hand analyze comparatively some selective general rural development programme IRDP and TRYSEM Vis-a-vis Indira Mahila Yojana, Swashakti (self empowerment a central programmes) and streeshakti (women empowerment a programme by Kamataka Sate Government) and Mahila Samakya etc.. In this sense a grass-root empirical study of this present study shall be able to throw light

9 upon difficulties and problem originating at the networking of different women groups as well as implementation of rural women empowerment programmes. Further the present study views the women development programmes as essential pre-conditions to create an institution building and managing framework at the grass root level. Thus the study would be highly promising to help policy making process and augmenting information or knowledge relating to the social mobilisation of women to achieve a task of gender empowerment in a developing country like India. Since the study has a backward districts as its case study region, we hope that it would unfold many complex issues in social mobilisation of women i.e. to bring out rural women from their traditional household and participate in social economic and political development. 1.4: OBJECTIVES: Based on the statement of the problem and literature review the objectives of the present study are as follow: 1. To study and critically review the general rural development programmes and gender specific development programmes with a view to evaluate their impact upon women empowerment in general with reference to India and Kamataka state. 2. To estimate the value of non-market output produced at the household level by different socio-economic groups of women in the case study area: To study the impact of wage employment schemes on rural women with a view to focus on their improvement in economic freedom, standard of living, reduction in poverty. 3. To study the role, objectives, function of SHGs promoted by both Government agencies and no-governmental organization with a view to analyze their out put income and employment effect with special reference to Swashakti programme. 4. To identify and analyze the socio-cultural and political factors which promote and hinder the formation and functioning of SHGs among women in the case study region. 5. To study the nature, extent and modes of social mobilization of women through SHGs formation. Catalytic role of government and non government Organizations

10 and also women participatory role other grassroots agencies like Mahila Mandals and Panchayat raj institutions is also studied. 6. To study the impact of and direction of change generated by the social mobilization of rural women through SHGs, and NGOs on the role of women in decision making within their households. This shall include socio-economic dimensions of women participation in household decision-making process. 7. To also bring about interrelationship between socio - economic and political empowerment of rural women which may be viewed as a unified and integrated process of gender empowerment. 1.5 : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY : The research methodology of proposed study shall have following stages of enquiry: Selection of variables and parameters Data source, collection and analysis Reference period of the study Selection of the case-study region Data Ananlysis The above stages of research enquiry may be briefly elaborated as under: 1.5.1: SELECTION OF VARIABLES AND PARAMETERS. The present study being an exercise in social, economic and political empowerment of rural women in a backward district of a progressive state like Karnataka, a large number of variable and parameters from respective dimension of women empowerment shall be selected by the Researcher. In terms of the stated objective of the study the family size religion, caste, literacy and education level, location of residence, distance between village and the main means of transport, socio-cultural beliefs, rituals, etc., will be identified and analysed with a view to focus on socio-cultural deprivation and the need for changing value judgment.

11 The variables like family income, breakup of personal income by gender wise wherever possible, assigning market prices will be selected to estimate the economic value of non-market services rendered by women within the rural household. Further to explain the degree of women control on their own personal earning incase of landless agricultural labour house hold on one hand and participation of women in family spending, saving investment, decision making process in case of women belonging to small and marginal farmer or their alienation or segregation from such a vital process is analysed to discern between the extent of women participation or non-participation in household economic decision making process. The type of wage employment activities level of daily wages and mode of payment - cash or kind, the total number of man-days of work available etc., are the chosen variables to be used for analyzing the extent of benefits derived by different groups of rural women from national wage employment programmes. The variables like the different types of productive marketing activities undertaken by the women of SHGs, the level of individual earnings and net profitability per day per month, this way how the income generated is disposed on either on current consumption and on saving and investment, the type of sponsoring agency : Non Government Organization and Public, the type and level of link achieved between SHGs and Non women member of SHGs with promoting agencies like Panchayat Raj histitution, Non Government organization, women development corporation (district office) regularity or irregularity of the economic activities undertaken by the women target groups voluntary or involuntary suspension of group activities etc., are also used, analyze the economic success or failure of different women SHGs. To analyze the proven social mobilisation of women interms of their participation in local grass root domestic development agencies like Nationalized Bank, co-operative credit societies, producer co-operative, Panchayat Raj Institutions, the women beneficiaries shall be enquired into the type of the demands placed by them to these agencies. The reaction of the development functionaries (Banks, Panchayat officials) the follow up action taken if any and also the continuation of submitting demand lists to the promoting agencies under 10

12 changing socio-economic conditions are very useful variables. A study of the attitudes and perception of the male member of the households whose concern are correspondents are interviewed and documented. This is essential to identify and analyze various forms of male biases and labour market discrimination operating within the framework of rural society economy and polity. study region. This section will be improvised fiirther after undertaking a pilot study in the case DATA SOURCE, COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS : The present study make use of secondary as well as primary data. However, since it is a grass root level enquiry it heavily depends upon primary data sources. In our study the primary data will have to generated from (circulating) interviewing with appropriate questionnaire. Rural women of different kinds of households, project promoter and supervisory staff of the non goverrmient organisations and development functionaries of Panchayat Raj Institutions and other related rural development department of the local as well as state government and officials of the nationalist banks, promoting and financing the formation of SHGs as well as in-charger of implanting other women related rural development programs. Thus the researcher proposes to prepare these types of questionnaire for interviewing women in the house hold and for interviewing bankers and the staff of Non Government Organisations and for interviewing Government bureaucrats concerned: Since the study is more primary data related, women household centered in its approach, the cross section method of data analysis will be used extensively. Further the correlation and rank correlation and other related statistical techniques shall be used for analyzing both the secondary and primary data used in the study. After conducting a pilot study with a check list a detailed questiormaire as indicated above shall be prepared for field work. 11

13 The primary data shall be placed in a master table, subsequently presentable function table will be prepared keeping in view the standard procedure of the research finding. Efforts will also be made present the data by using graphs charts etc., will be used to enrich the illustration quality of the thesis REFERENCE PERIOD OF THE STUDY: It has two components a. Since a beginning in the direction of empowering rural women started since in eighth five year plan. This secondary data available will be used for the period b. As is repeatedly made clear this study being mostly primary data related, efforts will be made to collect data on women empowerment at the house hold level of 2 or 3 year period and opinion survey of the development functionaries of the banks, non government organization and Panchayat RJ Institution shall confine to only one latest year SELECTION OF THE CASE STUDY REGION: The Purposive Stratified Rendom sampling technique has been used in the case study of Kolar District^ The present study has made an attempt to evaluate the working of SHGs in Kolar district for some specific reasons. First and foremost, Kolar district is one of the drought prone districts and it is one among the four districts selected for World Bank and IF AD project, which aimed at holistic women empowerment called Swashakti. Secondly, sex ratio in Kolar district is adverse compared to the sate average of sex ratio. Thirdly, the district has large number of schedule case and schedule Tribe families in the entire state. Fovirthly, female literacy rate is very low compared to the state level female literacy rate. Finally, more number (50%) of families in Kolar district lives below poverty line. 12

14 Selection of Taluks: Out of 11 taluks in the district,.06 taluks have been selected for intensive case study. These taluks selections are based on the criteria of the existence of SHGs (Self-help- groups) under different project funded by different authorities. [Swashakti-funded by World Bank, IF AD and central government, streeshakti founded by state government, NGOs formed groups funded by both external fiinding agency (foreign) and internal funding agency purposely. Selection of Villages: Villages have been selected from the selected taluks based on the distance of she village from the taluk-head-quarters. Nearly 29 villages have been selected which are within 5km distance from taluk head quarters and 35 villages have been selected which are more than 6 km distance from taluk head quarters. Selection of SHGs: Selection of SHGs are made randomly from each village. 100 SHGs have been selected from 64 villages STATISTICAL MEASUREMENT: Data collected keeping number of socio-economic variables like age, religion, case, marital status, literacy level, family type and family size distance of the resident from the taluk head quarterous, have been categorized into five groups and based on the mean and standard deviation it again grouped as low (below mean- V2 standard deviation), Mediimi between (mean ± V2 standard deviation) and high above (mean + V2 standard deviation). Economic variables like non-market output, land holding, occupation, income, source of loan, spending pattern of income on consumption, health and education, repayment of loan, participation in market activities have collected both before and after formation of SHGs. These variables, which were on the fire point scale, have been assigned numbers in ascending order to calculate economic empowerment score. The assigned score of different economic empowerment have been added and average is foimd out to get economic empowerment scores. These economic empowerment scores of before and after formation of SHGs have been compared to see the effect on SHGs on 13

15 income, output and employment. These economic variables have also been grouped (Categorized) into low, medium and high based on mean and standard deviation. Category criteria 1) Low = Below (mean- Vi standard deviation) 2) Medium = Between (mean ± V^ standard deviation) and 3) High = Above (mean + Vz standard deviation). These above categories have been used to find the relationship (cause and effect) of economic empowerment variables with socio-economic variables and self help group variables. Social empowerment score, political and gender empowerment scores. Likewise, social empowerment scores have been calculated, considering the social empowerment variables like participation level of rural women SHGs member in social activities, social organizations, community development works, protest against social evils, solving community problems, and also the hurdles faced by them. Except the variables like hurdles all other social empowerment variables have been assigned scores in an ascending order, which were on fix point continuum scale. The variables hurdle for participation has been assigned scores in a descending order. These scars are added and average is calculated to achieve at social empowerment score. These social empowerment score of both before and after forming SHGs have been compared to see the improvement in social participation after becoming SHG member. Based on the mean and standard deviation data on each variable has been grouped into low, medium and high level. Category criteria 1) Low = Below (mean-1/2 standard deviation) 2) Medium = Between (mean ± VT. standard deviation) 3) High = Above (mean + Vt standard deviation). And 14

16 Based on above these categories, inter relationship between social empowerment score and socio-economic variables, economic empowerment, political and gender empowerment score. SHG variables have been tried to evaluate by using two-way table. Political empowerment score: Participation of women in different political activities like contesting in elections, election related activities like meeting, procession, Panchayat activities, hurdles faced have been considered. Scores have been assigned to these variables, which were on five-point continuum scale. These scores have been added and average is derived to get political empowerment score both before and after formation of SHG to see effect of SHG on political participation of members. The data have also been grouped into low, medium, high level based on mean and standard deviation. Category Criteria 1) Low Below (mean- Y2 standard deviation) 2) Medium Between (mean ± Y2 standard deviation) 3) High Above (mean + I/2 standard deviation). These categories have been used to draw the cause and effect relationship of socio-economic variable, with political empowerment score, economic exponent, social empowerment and gender empowerment score, SHG variables (SHG strength). To determine gender empowerment scores, the average of economic empowerment score, social empowerment score, political empowerment score have been used and find out, both before and after formation of SHGs to see the effect of SHGs on gender empowerment. SHG strength Score: To determine the strength of self help groups the variables like working age of the group, group composition (caste combination), group norms, group resource development (training, seminars, discussions, exposures), group administration, financial assistance provided, supportive environment provided by group have been considered. 15

17 These data is categorized into low, medium and high based on mean and standard deviation as criteria. Category Criteria Low Below (mean- '/2 standard deviation) Medium Between (mean ± V2 standard deviation) High Above (mean + V2 standard deviation). Averages of these three categories of all the SHG variables give the SHG strength score. Relationship of the strength of SHG with the economic empowerment, social empowerment, political and gender empowerment have been tried to establish by using two-way tables. ROLE OF THE MEMBER IN SHG ACTIVITIES: To determine the level of the role played by member in SHG activities like following group norms, attending group meetings, undergoing training, participating in seminars and exposures, financial assistance obtained, participation in economic activity of the group, repayment of loan, penalty paid for absence have been considered and scores have been given from 1-5, and members are categorized into low, medium and high level of role played in SHG activities based on mean and standard deviation. Category Criteria Low = Below (mean- V2 standard deviation) Medium = Between (mean ± I/2 standard deviation) High = Above (mean + V2 standard deviation). Two-way tables have been used to find relationship. Two way tables have been used to find out the relationship of the level of Role played by SHG member in different SHG activities with socio-economic variables, economic empowerment, social empowerment, political and gender empowerment and also with elements of empowerment (decision making, skill development, risk orientation, innovativeness, self confidence, self reliance). 16

18 Statistical Methods Used: Correction Regression Chapterisation Chapter I Chapter II Chapter III Chapter IV Chapter V Chapter VI Chapter VII Brief list of the Chapterisation are as follows: Introduction Literature Review. Empowering Rural Women Through Self Help Groups In India Empowering Rural Women Through Self Help Groups In Kamataka. Empowering Rural Women Through Self Help Groups In Kolar. Findings and Policy Implications Bibliography 17