Dimensions of rural urban migration

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1 CHAPTER-6 Dimensions of rural urban migration In the preceding chapter, trends in various streams of migration have been discussed. This chapter examines the various socio-economic and demographic aspects of rural-urban migration. Apart from discussions on the consequences of rural-urban migration, the chapter also provides detailed analysis of ruralurban migration by regions and gender. The emphasis is on to study variations in the magnitudes and pattern of rural-urban migration of workforce across regions. 6.1 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF RURAL- URBAN MIGRATION People migrate from rural to urban areas for various reasons. Economic factor is one of them. Lack of better employment opportunity in rural areas compels the rural workers to migrate to the urban areas. Table 6.1 shows that total lakhs persons migrated from rural to urban areas in the State during the last one decade ( ). Male migrants constitute only percent of total migrants, while female migrants shares percent of total rural to urban migrants. This shows that in case of female migrants, marriage is one of the important factors in the rural-urban migration. The table also shows that nonworkers comprise about 70 percent of total rural-urban migrants. This implies 125

2 that a majority of people migrate from rural to urban area due to non-economic reasons. The percentage of such migrants is much higher for female (75.55%) than male (37.75%). The workers are classified in to main and marginal workers. Main workers consist of percent of the total migrants. The percentage is much higher for male migrants (54.70%) than female migrants (9.92%). Table : 6.1 Rural-urban Worker and Non-worker Migrants in Uttar Pradesh (As per 2001 Census in percent) Category Person Male Female Total Migrants Main Workers Total Marginal Workers Marginal Workers seeking/available for work Total Non-workers Non-workers seeking/available for Work Marginal workers constitute percent of total rural to urban migrants. The proportion of marginal workers in the total migration is much higher for female migrants than male migrants. Marginal workers, who seek employment or are available for work, comprise 1.54 percent of total rural to urban migrants. The percentage of such marginal workers is higher for male than female migrants. If share of marginal workers seeking employment/available for work in the total marginal workers is estimated, we find that percent of total marginal workers are available for work. The percentage is much higher for male marginal workers (36.29%) than female marginal workers (9.08%). This implies that although, percentage share of 126

3 marginal workers in the total migrants is higher for female migrants, the percentage of those migrant workers who seek employment or available for work to the total marginal workers is higher for male migrants. Non-worker migrants are also available for work. The percentage of such migrants is higher for male than male migrants. Table 6.2 presents the distribution of rural- urban migration of main and marginal workers by age group. It is observed that the percentage of main migrant workers increases with the increase in age group up to age group and thereafter the percentage declines. The age group years constitutes the highest percentage share of main migrant workers, followed by the age group years and age group years. The age group 0-14 years (child workers) has less than one percent of total main migrant workers. Similarly, the percentage share of age group years in the total main migrant workers is also found relatively lower than the other age groups. If we look at the gender pattern of main workers, we observe that between the age group years, the percentage share of male main migrant workers is higher than the female workers, while between the age group years, the percentage share of female workers is higher than male workers. Further, the percentage share of male migrant workers is higher than their female counterparts in the age group years. Thus, the percentage distribution of main migrant workers by age group varies across gender. 127

4 Table 6.2 also shows the distribution of marginal workers by age and sex. It is found that age group years has the highest share in the total rural to urban migration of marginal workers. It is followed by age group years and years. The percentage is found lowest in the age group 0-14 years. Gender differences in the distribution of marginal workers by age groups are also observed. For instance, between the age group 0-29 years, the percentage share of male marginal workers in the total migration of male marginal workers is higher than the corresponding percentage share of female marginal workers. Contrary to this, the percentage share of age group years and above in the total migration of marginal workers is found higher for female marginal workers than the male marginal workers. Table : 6.2 Rural to Urban Migration of Workers by Age Group in Uttar Pradesh (As per 2001 Census in percent) Age Group Main Workers Marginal Workers Person Male Female Person Male Female All Age (Nos.) 1,029, , , ,901 76, , Age not Stated Table 6.3 presents the percentage distribution of rural to urban migrants by reasons of migration. The table demonstrates that 5.44 percent of total rural to urban migrants move for the purpose of getting work or employment in the 128

5 urban area. The percentage of such migrants is much higher for males (28.80%) than female (1.17%). This shows that less than two percent of female migrants move to the urban areas for the purpose of work or employment. Business does not have any perceptible share in the total migration of both males and females. Another important factor that affects the rural-urban migration is education. The table shows that the percentage share of rural to urban migration for education is less than one percent of the total rural-urban migration. The percentage of such migrants is lower for females than for males. Marriage constitutes the largest percentage share of female rural-urban migration within the State. About 70 percent of total women migration from rural to urban area is only due to marriage while the corresponding percentage for male migrants is much low at Table : 6.3 Reasons for Migration Rural-urban Migration in Uttar Pradesh (As per 2001 Census in percent) Category Person Male Female Work/Employment Business Education Marriage Moved after birth Moved with household Others The percentage of migration due to movement after birth is found negligible for female migrants and only 3.55 percent for male migrants. Moved with family is also an important reason for rural to urban migration. About percent male and 7.67 percent female migrants move to the urban areas 129

6 with their families. There may be some other reasons for migration from rural to urban areas. These reasons may comprise natural factors such as flood, droughts, social and religious conflicts or political disturbances, etc. The other reasons together comprise percent of male migration and 8.17 percent of female migration. Economic classification of workers is given in Table 6.4. The workers are classified into 13 occupational categories, as shown in the Table. On the basis of place of last residence, the workers are classified into three categories, namely, within the State but outside the place of enumeration, elsewhere in the district of enumeration and in other districts of the State. According to last residence within the State but outside the place of enumeration, cultivators constitute 5.32 percent of the total rural to urban migrant workers. The percentage of female cultivators is higher than the male cultivators. Agricultural labour comprises percent of female migrant workers and only 0.99 percent of male workers. Agriculture and allied activities together constitute about 10 percent of total rural to urban migrant workers in the State. This indicates that 90 percent of total rural to urban migrant workforce in the State are from other than agriculture and allied activities. The percentage of agriculture and allied activities in the total rural to urban migrant workers is much higher for female workers (33.95%) than male workers (5.11%). Household and non-household industries together comprise 22.85% of total rural to urban migration of workers. Other services, which include public 130

7 services such as education, health, administration, etc, constitute the highest share in the total rural to urban migration. Next to it is non-household industry, followed by wholesales and retail trades, transport, storage and communication and financial, real estates and business services. Construction is also important sector which attracts 6.20 percent of total rural to urban migrant workers. All the remaining economic activities do not have much share in the total rural to urban migration, as is indicated by the table. Table : 6.4 Rural -Urban Migration by Place of Last Residence and Industrial Category in Uttar Pradesh (As per 2001 Census in percent) Activity Within the State but outside the place of enumeration Elsewhere in the district of enumeration In other districts of the State Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female Cultivators Agricultural labour Plantation, Livestock, Forestry, Fishing Mining & Quarrying HH industry Non-HH industry Electricity Gas & water Supply Construction Whole sales & Retail trade Hotel & restaurants Transport, storage & Com Financial, real estates, rent & business activities Other services According to the criterion of last residence elsewhere in the district of enumeration, agriculture and allied activities constitute 8.46 percent of the total rural to urban migrant workers. However, the percentage is higher for female 131

8 than male workers. About 96 percent of total male migrant workers and about 75 percent of female migrant workers migrate from rural to the urban areas from the non-agricultural activities. Other services, which consist of various public services such as education, health, administration, etc, have the highest percentage share (24.30) in the total rural to urban migrant workers. It is followed by non-household industry (16.07%), wholesales and retail trades (13.79%), transport, storage and communication (8.79%) and financial, real estates and business services (8.44%). In case of male migrant workers, other services also have the highest percentage share in the total male migrant workers (25.62%). It is followed by non-household industry (18.12%), wholesales and retails trades (15.92%), transport, storage and communication (11.05%), and financial, real estates and business services (8.66%). Contrary to this, in case of female migrant workers, household industry occupies the second place in terms of percentage share in the total female migrant workers. It is followed by agricultural labour and non-household industry. This shows that the occupational distribution of migrant workers varies across gender. As per the criterion of last residence in other districts of the State, agriculture and allied activities comprise percent of the total rural to urban migrant workers. The percentage for the female workers is 34.36, while for male migrant worker, it is only 5.86 percent. This shows that relatively more female workers move out from agriculture and allied activities to get employment in the urban areas than male workers engaged in agriculture and 132

9 allied activities. The table also shows that the share of other services in the total migrant workers is highest among all occupational categories. It is followed by non-household industry, wholesales and retail trades, transport and communication, and financial real estates and business services. A comparison of male and female pattern of migration reveals that the percentage of non-farm activities in the total rural to urban migration of workers is much higher for male workers than the female workers, whereas, the agriculture related activities have more percentage share of female migrant workers than the male migrant workers. 6.2 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION In order to understand social pattern of migration in the State, we have estimated share of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes in the total rural to urban migrants. Incidences of poverty, unemployment, and illiteracy are relatively higher in these social groups as compared to others. The households from these groups are most likely to be the poor, and have a higher reliance on labour income than other households. This would imply that in the context of underemployment in rural areas, these households would be the most likely to exit from the situation they find themselves in rural areas to greater income earning opportunities in urban areas. These groups lack access to economic assets and labour is the only asset with them, whose utilization depends on the growth of agriculture and non-agricultural activities. In economically backward regions, demand for labour remains generally low and consequently poor 133

10 workers move out in search of employment. However, as discussed earlier, due to lack of economic resources, the poor people may not be able to move to far distanced places unless the contractors (middlemen) bear their traveling expenses Percentage Share of SC and ST in Total Rural to Urban Migrants As per the 2001 Census, SC constitutes 23.4 percent of total rural population of the State, while their share in the total urban population is only 12.5 percent. Table 6.5 shows that the share of SC migrants in the total rural-urban migrants within the State is percent which is relatively lower than their share in total rural population. Inter-district migration of SC population is much lower at 7.92 percentage of the total inter-district rural to urban migration in the State. Table : 6.5 Share of SC and ST Rural -Urban Migrants in the Total Rural- Urban Migration in Uttar Pradesh (As per 2001 Census in percent) Place of last SC ST Residence Person Male Female Person Male Female Within the State Elsewhere in district of enumeration In other districts of the State As far as intra-district rural to urban migration is concerned, the SC migrants constitute percent of total migrants. Gender pattern of rural-urban SC migrants indicates that the percentage share of SC female migrants in the total female migrants is higher than the share of 134

11 SC male migrants in the total male migrants. The percentage is found highest within the State, followed by elsewhere within the district enumeration. ST constitutes only 0.10 percent of total rural population of the State. Their share in the total rural-urban migration is quite insignificant as is indicated by the Table. Therefore, in the forthcoming discussion, we would only consider the SC migrants Rural -Urban Migration of SC Population by Duration of Stay Table 6.6 shows the distribution of rural-urban SC migrants by duration of stay. The duration is classified into six categories on the age of duration of stay and into three categories on the basis of place of last residence. First, the distribution of rural to urban migration by duration of stay is discussed within the State of enumeration. The table shows that the percentage of migrants with less than one year of duration is quite low. Further, it is found slightly higher for male than female migrants. The similar pattern is also observed for the percentage of migrants with duration of stay 1-4 years. For example, the percentage of male migrants with duration of stay 1-4 years is while the corresponding percentage for female migrants is only This shows that the short duration migration of males is higher than that of females. The percentage of migrants with medium-term duration (stay between 5-9 years) is also found higher for males than females. Contrary to this trend, the percentages of migrants with duration of stay years and 20+ years are higher for females than males. For instance, the 135

12 percentage of migrants with 20+ years for female is while it is only for male migrants. A perusal of the table reveals that about 65 percent of total rural-urban female migrants within the State have duration of stay more than 10 years, while the corresponding percentage for their male counterparts is only about 47. On an average, the percentage of short duration migration is higher for male and long duration of stay is higher for female migrants. Table : 6.6 Rural-urban SC Migrants by duration of Stay and Place of last Residence In Uttar Pradesh in 2001 Place of last Residence Within the State Elsewhere in district of enumeration In other districts of the State Within the State Elsewhere in district of enumeration In other districts of the State Within the State Elsewhere in district of enumeration In other districts of the State Total (Nos.) Less than 1 year (%) 1-4 years (%) Duration of Stay 5-9 years (%) years (%) 20+ years (%) Duration Not Stated (%) Person , , Male 160, , , , , , Female

13 We observe similar pattern of duration of stay in case of last duration elsewhere in the district of enumeration and last residence in other districts of State of enumeration. The gender pattern is similar. For example, the percentages of male migration with short and medium durations of stay are higher than the female migrants, while reverse is true for the long duration of stay. However, the variation is observed across places of last residence. For example, the percentage share of short duration of stay is found highest in case of last residence in other districts of the State and lowest in case of last residence elsewhere in the district of enumeration. Contrary to this, the percentage share of long duration of stay is found highest for last residence elsewhere in the district of enumeration and lowest in the other districts of the State Reasons for Rural - Urban Migration of SC Population Table 6.7 shows the percentage distribution of SC migrants by reasons for migrations. The reasons are classified into seven categories, as shown in the table. Three categories of duration, namely, within the State, elsewhere in the district of enumeration and in other districts of the State, are considered for the analysis. According to the last residence within the State, about 15 percent of total rural to urban SC migrants migrate for the purpose of getting work or employment in the urban area. The percentage of such migrants is much higher for males (47.60) than female (1.67%). It is significant to note that less than two percent of SC female migrants move to the urban areas for the work or employment. Business does not have any perceptible share in the total 137

14 migration in case of both male and female migrants. Another important factor that affects the rural-urban migration is education. The table demonstrates that the percentage share of rural-urban migration for education is less than two percent in the State. The percentage is lower for female than for male migrants. Marriage constitutes the largest percentage share of female rural-urban migration within the State. About 72 percent of total SC women migration is only due to marriage while the corresponding percentage for SC male migrants is only The percentage of migration due to movement after birth is found negligible in case of both male and female migrants. Moved with family is also an important reason for rural to urban migration. About percent male and percent female migrants move to the urban areas with their families. There may be some other reasons for rural-urban migration. These reasons may comprise natural factors, such as, flood, droughts, social and religious conflicts or political disturbances, etc. The other reasons comprise percent of male migration and 8.49 percent of female migration of SC migrants in the State. Table 6.7 Reasons for Rural -Urban Migration of SC Population in Uttar Pradesh by place of last residence (As per 2001 Census in percent) Reasons for Migration Within the State 138 Elsewhere in district of enumeration In other districts of the State P M F P M F P M F Work/employment Business Education Marriage Moved after birth Moved with household Others

15 As is evident from Table 6.7, in case of other two categories of last residences, viz., elsewhere in the district of enumeration and in other districts of the State, the pattern of reasons for migration is more or less similar to that of last residence within the State. However, the magnitudes of percentages of male and female migrants vary across the categories of reasons of migration. For example, the percentage of male migrants for the purpose of work/employment is much higher (53.45%) in other districts of the State than in the elsewhere in the district of enumeration (38.95%). Contrary to this, the percentage share of male migrants moved with family is found higher in elsewhere in the district of enumeration than in other districts of the State. In case of female migrants also, the difference is observed across the categories of the last residence. For example, the percentage share of female migrants migrated for the purpose of marriage is higher in the last residence elsewhere in the district of enumeration than in other districts of the State, while in case of migration of females due to moved with family is observed higher in other districts of the State than in elsewhere in the district of enumeration. 6.3 DEMOGRAPHIC ASPECTS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION In this section, rural-urban migration has been examined by various demographic aspects, such as migration by age, sex, material status, education level, etc. 139

16 6.3.1 Age Composition of Rural-Urban Migrants Age composition of migrants is shown in Figure 6.1. It is evident from the Figure that the number of migrant persons increase with the increase is age up to the age group years and then decline. The Figure also exhibits that age composition of migrants varies across gender. For instance, percentage shares of age group 0-9 years and years in the total migration are higher for male migrants than female migrants, while the percentage share of age group years is higher for female than male migrants. More than 52 percent of total female migrants are in the age group of years, while the corresponding percentage for male migrant is only The percentage shares of all remaining age groups are higher for male than for female migrants. The distribution of migrants by age group appears to be normal. Age Compostion of Rural to Urban Migration in Uttar Pradesh Person Male Female Percent Age not stated Age Group Figure

17 6.3.2 Marital Status of Rural-Urban Migrants About 31 percent of total rural-urban migrants have never married while about two-third are currently married. The percentages of widowed and divorced and separated are 2.16 and 0.11, respectively. Age-wise marital status indicates that all the migrants in the age group 0-9 years are unmarried while a majority of migrants in the age group years are also unmarried. Only 21 percent of migrants in the age group years are married. It is also found from the table that the percentages of currently married persons increase with the increase in age up to the age group and then decline. Contrary to this, percentages of widowed persons increase with the increase in age group. The percentage is found highest in the age group 80+ years. Table : 6.8 Rural to Urban Migrants by Place of Last Residence, Age, Marital Status in 2001 in Uttar Pradesh (Duration of Residence 0-9 Years) (Person) Age Group Never Married (in percent) Currently Married (in percent) Widowed (in percent) Divorced and Separated (in percent) All ages Age not Stated

18 Marital status of male and female rural-urban migrants is also compared. Table 6.9 shows that there is a mark difference in the distribution of male and female migrants by the marital status. For example, as against percent of total male migrants married, the corresponding percentage for female migrants is much higher at This shows that the percentage of never married migrants is higher for male than female migrants. Table : 6.9 Rural to Urban Migrants by Sex, Age, Marital Status in 2001 in Uttar Pradesh (Duration of Residence 0-9 Years) Age Group Never married Male Migrants (in percent) Currently married Widowed Divorced and separated Never married Female Migrants (in percent) Currently married Widowed Divorced and separated All ages Age not Stated Source: Looking at the age-wise marital status of male and female migrants, we find that all the migrants in the age group 0-9 years are unmarried. Further, it is found that the percentage of currently married female migrants in the age group years is much higher (41.05%) than male migrants (2.86%). This implies that more girls marry at the 142

19 earlier age than boys in the State. Table 6.9 also demonstrates that as against percent of total male migrants never married in the age group years, only 2.34 percent of total female migrants never married in this age group. It is also observed that the percentages of currently married male migrants increase with the increase in the age group up to age group years and then decline, while in case of female migrants, the percentages increase with the increase in age group up to years and then decline. There is also significant difference in the age composition of widowed male and female migrants. For instance, as against percent of total male migrants widowed in the age group 80+ years, percent female migrants are widow in the same age group. This indicates that female migrants are having relatively more longevity than their male migrants Education Status of Rural-urban Migrants Education is one of the important determinants of mobility of people from one place to another. Educated persons have more probability to get employment in the emerging urban economy and therefore they have relatively more tendency to migrate from rural to urban areas. Table 6.10 shows the distribution of rural-urban migrants by their educational status. It is significant to note that about 55 percent of total rural to urban migrants are illiterate. The percentage of illiterate migrants is much higher for female (59.83%) than male migrants (27.44%), while 143

20 literacy rate is much higher among male migrants (72.56%) than female migrants (40.17%). About one fourth of the total migrants are having education below matriculate/secondary. The percentage of such migrants is higher for male migrants, as is evident from Table 6.3. We find gender difference in the education level of migrants. The education level of male migrants is far better than their female counterparts. For instance, as against percent male migrants having education level matriculate/secondary but below graduate, the percentage for female migrants is only Similarly, the percentage of male migrants having education level graduate and above other than technical degrees is 11.06, while the corresponding percentage for female migrants is only The percentage of migrants having technical degree/gp diploma is quite low, though the percentage is better for male than female migrants. In brief, we can conclude that the education level of migrants is quite low. Further, the percentage of educated migrants is much lower for female than male migrants. Table : 6.10 Education Status of Rural to Urban Migrant People in Uttar Pradesh (As per 2001 Census in percentage) Education Status Person Male Female Illiterate Literate Literate but below Matric / Secondary Matric /Secondary but below graduate Technical diploma Graduate & above other than tech. degree Technical degree or PG diploma

21 6.4 RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION OF WORKERS BY REGION AND GENDER Regional Dimension of Migration In this section, we study the regional and gender pattern of rural - urban migrant workers. As discussed in Chapter 4, there are four migration streams: Rural to Rural, Rural to Urban, Urban to Rural and Urban to Urban. Table 6.11 shows the regional variations in these migration streams. In Uttar Pradesh, about 80 percent of total migration of workers is rural to rural. Rural to urban migration of workers constitutes only about 10 percent of total migration. Total migration of workers from urban area is only 9.69 percent of the total. Urban to urban and urban to rural migration, respectively comprise 6.75 percent and 2.94 percent of total migration. If we look at the region-wise migration pattern, we find that most developed Western Region has the lowest percentage share of rural-rural migration in the total migration (66.13%), followed by Central region (71.0%); while Eastern Region has the highest percentage (90.94%) followed by Bundedlkhand Region (83.69%). Thus, a majority of workers in the State migrate from one rural area to another. Rural to urban migration is found highest (about 17%) in WR, followed by CR (16.38%) and lowest in ER (4.30%). This indicates that rural to urban migration is positively associated with the level of economic 145

22 development. As WR is agriculturally most developed region of the State, the high productivity and income in the farm sector motivate the farmers to mechanize their farms and thus release the workforce for nonfarm activities. Moreover, as the rural household income increases, they invest more in education and skills formation of children and consequently, facilitate their migration from rural areas to urban areas. Table : 6.11 Region-wise Details of Migrant Workers in Uttar Pradesh in 2001 (Based on last residence elsewhere in India) Migrant Workers WR CR BK ER UP Rural to Rural (66.13) (71.0) (83.69) (90.94) (80.13) Rural to Urban (16.98) (16.38) (8.43) (4.30) (10.18) Total Rural Migrant workers (83.11) (87.38) (92.12) (95.25) (90.31) Urban to Urban (12.68) (9.79) (4.47) (2.60) (6.75)) Urban to rural (4.21) (2.84) (3.41) (2.15) (2.94) Total Urban Migrant workers (16.89) (12.62) (7.88)) (4.75) Total Migrant workers Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages to the total migrant workers (9.69) It is also interesting to note that percentage of urban-urban migration of workers to the total migration is also highest in WR (12.68%), followed by the CR (9.79%) and lowest in the ER (2.60%). Urban to rural migration is also having highest percentage in the WR, which is followed by BK region. We can concluded from the data presented in the table that rural to urban and urban to urban migration of workers as percentages of total migration are higher in economically 146

23 developed regions, while rural to rural migration as percentage of total migration is higher in economically backward regions of the State. This implies that level of economic development is one of the critical factors in the mobility of workforce from rural to urban areas Dimension of Migration by Gender Gender-wise migration streams are shown in Table It is evident from the Table that rural- rural migration of male workers constitutes only percent of the total male migration. Contrary to this, ruralrural migration of female workers is percent of the total female migration. The table also shows that rural - urban migration constitutes about 34 percent of total male migration, whereas the corresponding percentage for female is only 3.07 percent. Similarly, as against, percent share of urban - urban migration of male workers in the total male migration, the corresponding share of female workers is only 2.03 percent. The similar pattern is also observed from urban - rural migration. Thus, there exists significant difference in male and female migration across migration streams. In case of female workers, migration is mainly rural to rural as it constitutes more than 92 percent of total female migration, while in case of male migrant workers, more than one third of total migration is from rural to urban. Urban to urban migration is also higher for males than females. If we look at the regional pattern of migration in the State, we find that rural to rural migration is highest in the ER for both male and 147

24 female migrants. It is found lowest in the WR for male and female both. The table shows that percentage of rural to rural migration in total migration is higher for females than males in all the regions. Further, it is observed highest in the ER, followed by the BK and lowest in the WR. Percentage of rural to urban migration of male workers is highest in the CR, followed by the BK and lowest in the ER, while for female migrants, percentage is observed highest in the WR, followed by the CR and the BK. Urban to urban migration for male workers is observed highest (about 27%) in the WR, followed by the CR (23.82%) and lowest in the ER (5.10%). For female migrants, the urban to urban migration is also observed highest (4.69%) in the WR and lowest (0.80%) in the ER. It is also found that the percentage of urban to rural migration for male is highest in the ER (5.10%) and lowest in the CR (2.96), whereas for female migrants, the percentage is found highest in the WR (4.30%) and lowest in the ER (1.71%). Table : 6.12 Gender and Region-wise Percentage Share of Migrant Workers in Different Migration Streams in Uttar Pradesh in 2001 (Based on last residence elsewhere in India) Migration Stream Gender WR CR BK ER UP Rural to Rural Male Female Rural to urban Male Female Urban to Urban Male Female Urban to Rural Male Female

25 The following inferences are drawn from the analysis of results given in the table: 1. Rural to rural migration constitutes a very high percentage of total female migration in the State and the percentage varies significantly across regions. It appears to be positively associated with the level of economic development. 2. Percentage of rural to urban migration is much higher for male than females and its magnitude varies across regions. 3. The percentages of urban to urban and urban to rural migration of workers are relatively higher for males than females. 4. Economically developed WR has the highest percentage share of urban to urban migration of both male and female workers among all the regions Occupational Pattern of Rural to Urban Migrants by Region Percentage distribution of workers by economic activity is shown in Table The economic activity is classified into 13 categories, as shown in the table. At the State level, agriculture related workers (cultivators, Agricultural labourers and workers engaged in plantation, livestock, forestry, fishing etc.) constituted only percent of total rural to urban migrant workers. This indicates that percent of total rural to urban migrant workforce in the State are from other than agriculture and allied activities. Household and non-household industries 149

26 together comprise 8.76 percent of total rural to urban migration. Other services, which include public services, such as, education, health, administration, etc, constitute the highest share in the total rural to urban migration. Next to it is electricity, gas and water supply which constitute about 16 percent of total rural to urban migrant workers. Transport, storage and communication has percent share in the total migrant workers. It is followed by wholesales and retail trades and financial, real estate, rent and business activities. Construction is also important sector that attracts about seven percent of total rural to urban migrant workers. All the remaining economic activities do not have much share in the total rural to urban migration, as is indicated by the table. Regional pattern of percentage distribution of rural to urban migration across broad categories of economic activities shows that there is significant difference in the pattern of rural to urban migration across regions. For instance, as against 9.75 percentage share of cultivators in the total rural to urban migration in the BK region, the corresponding percentage is only 4.03 in the WR. Similarly, agricultural labour constitutes percent of total rural to urban migration the BK region, while its share in the CR is only 2.69 percent. The percentage share of household industry in the total rural to urban migration is found highest in the ER and lowest in the CR. The percentage share of electricity, gas and water supply varies from 6.66 in the BK region to in the WR. The percentage share of construction in the total rural to urban migration is as 150

27 high as 8.54 in the CR and as low as 2.90 in the ER. Wholesales and retail trades comprise percent share in total rural to urban migration in the CR, while their share in the BK region is only 5.95 percent. Similarly, the differences across regions are also notices in case of other economic activities, as is evident from the table Table : 6.13 Occupational Classification of Rural to Urban Migrant Workers in 2001 (Based on last residence elsewhere in India) Economic Activity Rural to Urban Migration (in %) WR CR BK ER UP Cultivators Agricultural labour Plantation, Livestock, Forestry, Fishing Mining & Quarrying HH industry Non-HH industry Electricity Gas & water Supply Construction Whole sales & Retail trade Hotel & restaurants Transport, storage & Com Financial, real estates, rent & business activities Other services, incl. public services Total (in Lacs) Table 6.14 shows the gender-wise distribution of migrant workers across regions. A perusal of the table reveals that there exists a significant variation in the percentage share of various economic activities in the total rural to urban migration across gender. At the State level, we observe that in case of agriculture related activities, the percentage share of female migrant workers is much higher than that of their male counterparts. For instance, as against percent share of agricultural labour in the total female migrant workers, the percentage 151

28 share of male agricultural labour in the total male migrant workers is only Similarly, the share of cultivators in total migrant workers is much higher for females than males. In household industry also, the share of female migrant workers is higher than the male migrant workers. Contrary to this, the share of non-household industry in the total rural to urban migration is much higher for male than female migrants. The percentage shares of construction, wholesales and retail trades, transport, storage and communication, financial, real estates and business services, and other services, in the total rural to urban migration are much higher for male than female workers. Table : 6.14 Gender-wise Occupational Classification of Rural to Urban Migrant Workers (Based on last residence elsewhere in the district of enumeration) Economic Activity Male Migrants (in %) Female Migrants (in %) WR CR BK ER UP WR CR BK ER UP Cultivators Agricultural labour Plantation, Livestock, Forestry, Fishing Mining & Quarrying HH industry Non-HH industry Electricity Gas & water Supply Construction Whole sales & Retail trade Hotel & restaurants Transport, storage & Com Financial, real estates, rent & business activities Other services, incl. public services Total (in Lacs)

29 Region-wise percentage share of different economic activities in the total rural to urban migration also shows gender differences, as is evident from the data given in Table In case of male migrants, the percentage shares of cultivators, agricultural labours, Plantation, livestock, forestry, fishing, household industries, are found highest in the BK region, whereas the percentage shares of non-household industry, construction, and wholesales and retail trades are found highest in the developed WR. Further, in three economic activities, namely, mining and quarrying, electricity, gas and water supply, and other services, the share of male migrants is found highest in the ER. In Central Region, transport, storage and communication, and financial, real estates and business services have the highest percentage share. Thus, the percentage distribution of migrant male workers varies significantly across regions. We observe that in case of female migrant workers, cultivators, agricultural labour and workers engaged in mining and quarrying have the highest percentage shares in the total migrants in the BK region, while for plantation, livestock, forestry, fishing etc., and for nonhousehold industry, the WR has the highest share of female migrant workers. Construction, transport, storage and communication, financial, real estate, and business services and other services constitute highest percentage of female migrants in the CR, while for household industry, electricity, gas and water supply, wholesales and retail trades, and hotels 153

30 and restaurants, it is the ER that has the highest percentage share of female migrants. Thus, the gender distribution of migrant workers across economic activities shows that rural to urban male migrants have relatively higher percentage share in non-agricultural activities while, female have relatively more percentage share in agricultural related activities. 6.5 MAIN CONSEQUENCES OF RURAL -URBAN MIGRATION Rural-urban migration has a number of socio-economic consequences. It has the consequences for both the place of origin as well as place of destination of migrants. The key consequences of rural-urban migration are discussed in the following points: Economic Consequences Neo-classical economic theory considers migration as a mechanism of adjustment in the supply of and demand for labour in the market. It helps to reduce unemployment; alleviate skills shortages, improve flexibility in the labour market and improve the competitiveness in the economy. Lewis-Fei-Renis model of economic development, which is based on a concept of dual economy, looks upon migration as an equilibrating mechanism in the labour market. However, many scholars do not find it satisfactory to analyse the consequences of migration in 154

31 the developing countries. For example, Dasgupta 54 (1981) points out that the most serious shortcoming of the model is its assumption of a high rate of expansion of the capital sector that is expected to remove the disguised unemployment from the agriculture. It is observed that the rate of industrial progress in the vast majority of the developing countries has been slow and as a consequence, rural to urban migration has transferred the rural unemployment and poverty to the urban areas. Rural-urban migration may also have adverse consequences for the place of origin. It proceeds to the extent of draining away the human resource capable to be used in the development activities. The loss of younger, more economically active, and better educated human resources through migration creates shortages of workers in agriculture. Exodus of rural workforce to urban areas is also considered as a major factor in creating urban unemployment. This happens because the flow of workforce from rural to urban area exceeds the quantum of employment available in the towns and cities. Rural-urban migration contributes significantly to the growth of the labour supply of the urban areas. Lubell 55 (1974) finds that the migration remains a flexible element in the urban labour supply more likely than natural population growth to respond to changes in employment conditions. 54 Dasgupta, B.(1981), Rural-Urban Migration and Rural Development, in J. Balan (ed) Why People Move, UNESCO Press, Paris. 55 Lubell H. (1974), Calcutta: its Urban development and Employment prospects, ILO, Geneva. 155

32 It is also argued that rural-urban migration might accentuate rather than reduce the intra-rural inequality because of selective nature of voluntary migration that attracts relatively richer households who accumulate further wealth through migration and increase income disparity in the rural areas. On the other hand, generally migration of poor workers involves the entire family and hence, their increased income does not affect the composition of rural income. Rural to urban also impacts the agriculture sector. It may change the cropping pattern, productivity level and technological level in the farm sector. Outflow of rural workforce creates shortages of agricultural labour and thus, encourages the mechanization of agriculture. Rural nonfarm activities are also affected by it. Other economic consequences of the migration are: increase in prices of urban land and houses, rise in demand for urban services and basic amenities, greater extent of rural-urban linkages, increase in consumption and investment expenditure at the place of origin due to remittances Social and Cultural Consequences Migration has several social and cultural consequences for both the place of origin and the place of destination. It may be considered as a process of social and cultural changes in both rural and urban societies. 156

33 Since the migrants have close ties with their families at the place of origin, they frequently visit their families in villages, and through these visits they transmit the urban culture to the villages. The migration helps in convergence of values, outlooks, ways of behaviour and other cultural aspects. It is an important mode of brining rural and urban cultures together. There are also some negative consequences of migration on culture. The impact of the new environment in the city slowly erodes the rural culture that the migrants carry with them from villages. The urban life usually brings about certain social changes in the migrants. Rural to urban migration seems to make a few quite tangible cultural additions to the receiving society: new words and expression for the language, new foods, new games or social observances, new congregations of faith, new skills of production, etc. Moreover, most of the migrants not only preserve their culture and languages but also try to spread the same. As a result, there occurs a situation of cultural pluralism in urban areas where different linguistic and regional inmigrant communities reside. Rural to urban migration also encourages the social mobility which refers to the shifting of people from one social or occupational level to another. It is also known as vertical mobility that involves changing from a lower to a higher or from a higher to a lower form of 157

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