The Mechanics of Scientific Writing

Transcription

1 The Mechanics of Scientific Writing W.S. Warner, Ph.D. Day 1 Analysis and Structure Day 2 IMRAD and Argue Day 3 Tables, Figures, Citation, Punctuation Day 4 Clarity and Cohesion Day 5 Concision, Precision, Review

2 Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler. Albert Einstein Concision Think of the reader Unnecessary duplication Meaningless words Avoid the negative

3 Concision expressing much in a few words The point I want to make here is that we can see that American policy in regard to foreign countries at the State Department in Washington and the White house have put together and made it public to the world has given material and moral support to too many foreign factions in other countries that have controlled power and have then had to give up power to other factions that have defeated them. Our foreign policy has backed too many losers. Losers? Replace slang with precise words.

4 Less is more 1. Compress into the fewest clear words. 2. Don t state what reader can easily assume. In my personal opinion, we must listen to and think over in a punctilious manner each and every suggestion that is offered to us. Opinion can only be personal; cut personal. The statement is implicitly opinion; cut In my opinion. Listen to and think over means consider. Punctilious manner means carefully. Each and every is redundant; cut and every. A suggestion is something offered to someone; cut that is offered to us. We must consider each suggestion carefully.

5 Simplify structure Strengthen the verb The proposal did not make an estimate of costs. Avoid is, are, was and were The project leader is responsible for monitoring and balancing the budget. The project leader monitors and balances the budget. There was another video that explained agro-ecology. It can generate excess words It is important that hikers remain inside park boundaries. Hikers must remain inside park boundaries.

6 Redundant Pairs full and complete true and accurate hopes and desires hope and trust each and every any and all various and sundry basic and fundamental and so on and so forth first and foremost willing and able So think what you re writing!

7 Redundant Modifiers One word implies another: completely finished various different each individual basic fundamentals true facts short summary exact same future plans planning ahead consensus of opinion safe haven first introduced initial preparation end result final outcome the reason why the reason is because new innovation most unique Added bonus Free gift! preposition is redundant: revolve around return back penetrate into split apart progress forward continue on. It s free? The reason why we should not try to anticipate in advance those final outcomes is because past history tells us that it has been the ultimate outcome of little events that has unexpectedly surprised us. We should not try to anticipate outcomes because history tells us that the effect of little events has most surprised us.

8 Redundant Categories large size of a bright color faster speed cheapest price heavy weight round shape uncertain condition at this point in time confused state strange type unusual in nature The educational process and athletic activities are the responsibility of the county governmental systems. regulation, education, administration system Education and athletics are the responsibility of the county.

9 Meaningless Words Meaningful a worthless adjective His was a meaningful contribution. His contribution counted heavily. Changed our minds? Interesting an unconvincing word An interesting point is Tell the point without preamble. Foreseeable The foreseeable future How much is foreseeable? Factor, feature add nothing, be direct The interview was an important factor A feature of the press conference

10 Meaningless Modifiers really kind of actually virtually basically generally definitely personally practically essentially for all intents and purposes For all intents and purposes, good writing generally depends on certain factors that are really more common sense in kind than any given grammatical aspect. Good writing depends more on common sense than grammar. any given thoughtful notion? any given emotional feeling?

11 Meaningless Expressions Owing to the fact that Since (because) In spite of the fact that Though (although) The fact The truth The truth is he was unaware. He was unaware. Science is based upon facts not myths. The truth is always evident with proof. The truth of the fact is that the speech is banal. The speech is banal.

12 Pompous Diction Contingent upon dependent on Utilization use Endeavor try Termination end Cognizant of aware of Facilitate help Is desirous wants Implement start, begin Envisage think, regard, see Apprise inform Eventuate happen Transpire happen Prior to before Subsequent to - after Pursuant to the recent promulgation issued June 23, 2012, because of temporal exigencies, it is incumbent upon us all to endeavor to make maximal utilization of electronic communication in lieu of unannounced personal visitation at management s center for improved written communication. As explained June 23, to save time, appointments instead of dropping in the editorial office.

13 Belaboring the Obvious Imagine a picture of someone engaged in the activity of trying to learn the rules for playing the game of chess. Imagine implies picture Trying to learn implies engaged in an activity Chess implies game Game implies playing The potential market is an area that is located geographically in Ghana. People who are poor often do not have money or secured income, or their expenses are greater than their income, or both. Imagine someone trying to learn the rules of chess.

14 Words that compress common phrases because, since, why the reason for for the reason that due to the fact that owing to the fact that in light of the fact that on the grounds that this is why although, even though despite the fact that regardless of the fact that notwithstanding the fact that if in the event that if it should transpire/happen that when on the occasion of in a situation in which under circumstances in which about as regards in reference to with regard to concerning the matter of

15 Words that compress common phrases must, should it is crucial that it is necessary that there is a need/necessity for it is important that it is incumbent upon cannot be avoided can is able to is in a position to has the capacity for has the ability to may, might, can, could it is possible that there is a chance that it could happen that the possibility exists before, after, as prior to in anticipation of subsequent to following on at the same time as simultaneously with

16 More Padding Who is The author, who is a microbiologist The author, a microbiologist Which was Poverty, which was NORAD s first priority Poverty, NORAD s first priority Case In many cases, the samples were Many samples were... Nature/Character Acts of a hostile nature Acts of a hostile character Hostile acts

17 Wordy Introduction Metadiscourse - writing about writing author will explain, argue, discuss, contrast, expand, summarize Examine metadiscourse followed by topic In this paper, I will discuss NGO s neglect of gender issues in Ethiopia. Revise to introduce topic: In Ethiopia, NGOs neglect gender issues. Often Unnecessary In the next section of this paper, it is my intention to deal with the problem of sampling. The first thing I want to say is that sampling is The next problem is sampling. Often buries the idea The last point I would like to make here is that in regard to men-women relationships, it is important to keep in mind that the greatest changes have probably occurred in the way men and women seem to be working next to one another. Men and women have changed their relationships most in the way they work together.

18 Keep the Topic Visible Combine Short Sentences Obama was very ambitious. This led him to wish to become President of the United States. His advisors told him this wish would come true. The other presidential candidate was Republican George McCain. The Republicans were in the White House at this time. Encouraged by his advisors, Obama campaigned on the issue of change. He did so successfully and became President rather than McCain. Encouraged by his advisors, Obama achieved his ambition and beat McCain to the then Republican White House by campaigning for change. Avoid Anonymous Claims observed, found, seen, noticed, noted, remarked, been said Communicating during a crisis has been found to enhance the company s reputation. Unless you have a reason to hedge, omit unspecified observation. Communicating during a crisis enhances the company s reputation.

19 Multiple Negatives ( 2) ( 3) = 6 Two negatives make a positive. It is not uncommon. = It is common. It is unlikely, that it won t work. = It is likely to work. Not unreasonably inefficient =? reasonably inefficient unreasonably efficient

20 Not the Negative These sentences are the same. Don t write in the negative. Write in the affirmative. Make negatives affirmatives: not many = few not the same = different not different = alike does not have = lacks not old enough = too young did not remember = forgot did not consider = ignored did not allow = prevented not possible = impossible Combine negatives with passives and nominalizations in complex sentences and your writing becomes opaque: Disengagement of the gears is not possible without unlocking mechanism release. Confusing: one negative is conditional of another. Change negatives to the affirmatives: nominalization into clauses passives into actives To disengage the gears, release the locking mechanism.

21 Less Negative More Positive Generally, the reader is dissatisfied when told only what is not Wishes to be told what is Principle: express negative in positive form. Negative words other than not are usually strong. You will be more concise. Not honest = dishonest Not important = minor, trifling Did not remember = forgot Did not pay attention = ignored Did not have much confidence = shy, wary, distrusted

22 Negative + Positive = Strong Negative and positive can strengthen a point. Not that I loved Caesar less, but I loved Rome more. Ask not what your country can do for you ask what you can do for your country. The issue is not correlation, rather, causation. Censors do not supplement freedom, they supplant it. The evidence is not opinion, but fact; not feeling, but thinking; not emotion, but logic.

23 Hedges and Emphatics Hedges make exceptions. Used too often, we sound uncertain. usually often sometimes almost virtually possibly perhaps apparently seemingly in some ways more or less Emphatics emphasize thoughts. Used to excess, we seem arrogant, defensive. it is generally agreed that it is quite true that the fact is obviously we can plainly see it is obvious that invariably as everyone knows It is clear that

24 Do Not Sacrifice Precision for Concision Non-debatable thesis: Pollution is bad for the environment. pollution implies that something is bad or negative All studies agree that pollution is a problem, they simply disagree on the impact it will have or the scope of the problem. No one could reasonably argue that pollution is good. Debatable thesis: At least twenty-five percent of the federal budget should be spent on limiting pollution. Some might agree: this is how we should spend the nation's money. Others might think that we should spend less money on pollution. Still others could argue that corporations, not the government, should be paying to limit pollution.

25 Drug use is detrimental to society Too concise What is drug use?" Illegal drug use? Recreational drug use (which might include alcohol and cigarettes)? Uses of medication in general? In what ways are drugs detrimental? Causing deaths: from overdoses or from drug related violence? Changing the moral climate? Causing the economy to decline? What does the author mean by "society?" Only to Norway or to the global population? Any distinction between the effects on children and adults?

26 Precision Precise logic Precise words Precise structure

27 Precision: essence of style Administrator hates waste Engineer economizes materials Artisan prefers elegant work Athlete is never sloppy Words reflect Ideas very little quite rather pretty somewhat and so forth considerable the vast majority etc.

28 Precision Holds Attention specific not general definite not vague concrete not abstract A period of unfavorable weather set in. It rained every day. The results did not seem satisfactory. False data invalidated the test. Vague and general In proportion as the customs of the nation are cruel and barbarous, the regulations of its penal code will be severe. Vivid and particular In proportion as Americans defend corporal punishment will they torture by water-boarding and execute by hanging.

29 Abstract vs Concrete Abstract nouns = qualities and ideas justice, poverty, realism, dignity, truth Concrete nouns = experiences and objects prison, AK-47, E. coli, migraine, vertigo Abstract is often necessary, but prefer concrete alternatives The UN addressed the challenges of the future: problems concerning the environment and world peace. The UN addressed the challenges of the future: climate change, food security, and control of nuclear weapons.

30 Avoid the dull and imprecise thing area factor individual? A career in diplomacy offers many things. opportunities, hardships, foreign travel abstract concrete Trust an individual with technical experience. experienced technician An area of consideration is the individual factor of the thing itself.

31 Avoid Doubt Save doubt for real uncertainty Would Should Could May Might Can If every sentence admits doubt, your writing will lack authority Students can enhance their papers by revealing insight. Students enhance their papers by revealing insight. Precision might be ranked among the most important qualities of good writing. Precision is one of the most important qualities of good writing.

32 Avoid Clichés Fashionable in conversation, boring in writing No originality, ingenuity and impact add insult to injury green with envy face the music sad but true people - Which ones? everyday life omit or specify in today's society Today? Who is "society"? this day and age Which age: digital technology, globalization?

33 Jargon or Professionalism? Specialized language used among a profession Use it only when plain English will not do as well For years the indigenous body politic of South Africa attempted to negotiate legal enfranchisement without result. For years the native population of South Africa negotiated in vain for the right to vote. green footprint blue chips land grabbing high technology environmentally friendly Political labels liberal, conservative left, right

34 Avoid Pretention Language so ornate and wordy it obscures the topic When our progenitors reach their silver-haired and golden years, we frequently ensepulcher them in homes for senescent beings as if they were amongst the deceased. When our parents become old, we frequently bury them in oldage homes as if they were already dead. ameliorate commence component endeavor exit facilitate factor finalize impact on indicator mitigate parameter peruse prior to utilize viable improve begin part try leave help cause finish affect sign ease limit read before use workable

35 Avoid Euphemisms Needlessly evasive, nice-sounding words substituted for the harsh: Adult entertainment Negative savings Strategic withdrawal Revenue enhancers Chemical dependency Incendiary device Correctional facility Immature scholarship pornography debts retreat taxes drug addiction bomb prison plagiarism Economically deprived

36 Avoid Shortcuts And/or can be confusing Would a new strategy increase visibility and/or transparency? Would a new strategy increase visibility or transparency or both? Etc. and other things Avoid if etc. leaves reader in doubt The report included interviews, data, tables, etc. The focus-group samples were numbered sequentially, 1, 2, 3, etc. Do not use etc. if list is introduced by Such as For example

37 What s this/it? Visiting scientists watched as ground was broken for the new heating plant with wood-burning technology. This/It is the first visible evidence of UMB s plan for modernization and expansion. Visiting scientists watched as ground was broken for the new heating plant with wood-burning technology. The ceremony or technology? afforded first visible evidence of UMB s plan for modernization and expansion.

38 Thesaurus Offers synonyms Look up alternative(s) in dictionary hypothesis conjecture speculation assumption premise Select the appropriate

39 Criteria Concise try to be brief Clear never sacrifice clarity to be brief Precise never sacrifice precision Difference between good and bad writing is care and carelessness.