Middle East Today. Series Editors. Fawaz A. Gerges Department of International Relations London School of Economics London, United Kingdom

Transcription

1 Middle East Today Series Editors Fawaz A. Gerges Department of International Relations London School of Economics London, United Kingdom Nader Hashemi Center for Middle East Studies University of Denver Highlands Ranch, Colorado, USA

2 The Iranian Revolution of 1979, the Iran-Iraq War, the Gulf War, and the US invasion and occupation of Iraq have dramatically altered the geopolitical landscape of the contemporary Middle East. The Arab Spring uprisings have complicated this picture. This series puts forward a critical body of first-rate scholarship that reflects the current political and social realities of the region, focusing on original research about contentious politics and social movements; political institutions; the role played by nongovernmental organizations such as Hamas, Hezbollah, and the Muslim Brotherhood; and the Israeli-Palestine conflict. Other themes of interest include Iran and Turkey as emerging pre-eminent powers in the region, the former an 'Islamic Republic' and the latter an emerging democracy currently governed by a party with Islamic roots; the Gulf monarchies, their petrol economies and regional ambitions; potential problems of nuclear proliferation in the region; and the challenges confronting the United States, Europe, and the United Nations in the greater Middle East. The focus of the series is on general topics such as social turmoil, war and revolution, international relations, occupation, radicalism, democracy, human rights, and Islam as a political force in the context of the modern Middle East. More information about this series at

3 Mehmet Akıf Kumral Rethinking Turkey Iraq Relations The Dilemma of Partial Cooperation

4 Mehmet Akıf Kumral Middle East Technical University Ankara Gaziosmanpaşa University Tokat, Turkey Middle East Today ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Library of Congress Control Number: The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Cover illustration: Zoonar GmbH / Alamy Stock Photo Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Nature America Inc. New York

5 To my beloved parents, Zakire and Dursun Kumral, for their devotions and insights

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7 PREF ACE This book explores the relatively understudied phenomenon of partial cooperation by looking at episodic transformation of the dyadic relations between Turkey and Iraq. The research topic grew out of professional and intellectual concern over partial nature, and even perennial lack, of political cooperation in Turkish Iraqi relations. Turkey Iraq relations have still been mired by implications of partial or non-cooperation, despite the mutual payoff structure established by both material (border trade, oil water exchange) and non-material (socio-cultural interaction) factors. First and foremost, the book targets to tackle with this lingering puzzle. Unlike formal game-theoretic accounts, which conceive partial cooperation/defection as a state of normal, either systemic equilibrium or natural homeostasis, this study problematizes and hence aims to denaturalize the deep dilemma of partial cooperation particularly by examining contextual discursive evolution of Turkey Iraq relations. Based on historical and historiographical evidence, this study seeks to demonstrate the interplay between making and writing of Turkey s partial cooperation with Iraq. For these aims, the book focuses on four critical episodes and analyzes episodic transformation of partial/non-cooperation in Ankara Baghdad (and Ankara Erbil) relations. These episodes were selected with respect to their historical significance in representing distinctive characteristics of four chronological periods: inter-war ( ), early Cold War ( ), post-cold War ( ), and post-9/11 ( ) years. The first episode takes the Saadabad Pact of 1937 at its center to explain the formation of partial cooperation within the historical context of inter-war period. In the second episode, the Baghdad Pact of 1955 is taken as a vii

8 viii PREFACE central event to understand reformulation of partial cooperation during the early Cold War years. After the Cold War, Turkey Iraq relations have suffered from deformation of cooperation largely due to the wars of 1991 (UN-led Gulf War) and 2003 (US-led Invasion). Therefore, these two wars are examined as watershed events shaping contextual dynamics of non-cooperation episodes. Each case is studied under three (preevent, event, and post-event) sections. These sections critically analyze contextual discursive reasons and consequences of partial cooperation in Turkey Iraq relationship. In the post-script, the author delves into the ongoing episode of partial cooperation in Ankara Baghdad and Ankara Erbil relations. This part explores discursive dilemmas faced by Turkish foreign policy and opinion makers as they deliberated over the war against the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS). It looks at paradoxical picture of partial cooperation that was reconstituted particularly after the ISIS takeover of Turkey s Mosul Consulate in June So far, the reasons and consequences of long-term contextual discursive transformations in Turkey s cooperation with Iraq have not been analyzed critically. This book is an attempt to fill this gap. It includes seven chapters. The Introduction is followed by six chapters covering four case studies, the Conclusion, and the Post-Script. With regard to empirics, the book deals with a novel subject matter that is contextual discursive transformation of partial cooperation between Turkey and Iraq, which still continues to confound our minds in various ways. By tackling with this puzzling issue from a foreign policy communication perspective, this study sets itself apart from other scholarly research addressing the subject matter. In each episode of the book, the author critically analyzes cooperation as both a context (an inter-text) and a discourse (a text). In each empirical chapter the author explores reasons and consequences of deep dilemmas, which usually emanate from incoherence or incongruence between Turkey s ontological (utilitarian vs. normative) conception of contextual reasons (circumstantial premises) and Turkey s rhetorical deployment of rationality premises (prudential concerns vs. moral values) while deliberating over (non)cooperation with Iraq. At this point, the book offers a typological technique for the critical analysis of ontological modes and rhetorical models shaping foreign policy discourses. More specifically, it demonstrates the analytical leverage of producing hypothetical typologies to understand and explain deep dilemmas in (non)cooperation discourses. The author argues that the innovative methodological out-

9 PREFACE ix look of the book could inspire new scholarly applications to other foreign policy phenomena appearing in different international cases. All in all, the book argues that partial/non-cooperation discourses in Turkey s Iraq policy were primarily shaped by pre-event regional dyadic/ local contextual reasons. In the making of pacts, Ankara s discursive ambiguity did not pay well in providing more favorable environment for improving cooperation with Baghdad. Conversely, Turkey s ontological rhetorical ambivalence (utilitarian ontology ideational rhetoric) led to less cooperative political outcomes in bilateral relations. In these episodes, Turkey mainly faced short- and mid-term dyadic costs. Consequentially, discourses of partial cooperation ended up with undesired regime changes in Iraq. In the war cases, the shadow of future dyadic conditions emerged as the basic contextual reason for Ankara to sever ties from Baghdad. But Turkish governments framings of their war positions remained uncertain between entering in and staying out. Liminal discursive reasonings did exacerbate, rather than alleviate, domestic and dyadic political military costs. Non-cooperation discourses primarily brought more costly political outcomes. Turkey was confronted with the challenge of the Kurdish problem and the threat of PKK (Kurdistan Workers Party) on both sides of the border. These episodes were marked by unintended but enduring consequences for Turkish Iraqi relations. By analyzing Turkey Iraq partial/non-cooperation, the book seeks to make primarily empirical and methodological contribution to various fields of research, such as International Relations (IR), Foreign Policy Analysis (FPA), Middle East Studies (MES), and Turkish Foreign Policy (TFP). It shows that the conceptual lines between foreign policy discourses and actions were not as sharp as they had often been assumed. Blurring of these lines enables scholars and practitioners to understand the implications of pragmatic speech acts particularly in Turkey s relations with Iraq. In the future, talking about (what is done with) Iraq would most likely be a paradoxical phenomenon for Turkish foreign policy makers and analysts. Hence, keeping a critical eye on discursive contextual resonance, ontological rhetorical coherence, and theoretical practical consistency might help to denaturalize the dilemma of Turkey s partial cooperation with Iraq. Both scholars and students of international relations would find the book as a practical guide to bridge the say-do gap that sets actors political discourses apart from their actions. While guiding this way, the book takes a pragmatic perspective to overcome conception of sharp dichotomy

10 x PREFACE in actors practical ontology and their political rhetoric. It attempts to revisit the (de)ontic significance of rhetoric in the realms of foreign policy and international relations. Particularly, it looks at the instances of speech acts, where words actually become actions, rhetoric and ontology of foreign policy mutually constitute (and hence inevitably imply) one another. Put it more precisely, the author aims to explore constitutive, rather than causal, relationship between foreign policy discursive practices and foreign policy outcomes. In fact, one cannot fully grasp a foreign policy outcome without analyzing its communicative dimension. Communication lies at the heart of foreign policy planning and implementation. Therefore, analysts of international relations and foreign policy should be concerned about communicative aspects of their subject matter. Overall, the book does not carry a (grand) theory generating purpose. Instead, it distills important (mid-range) theoretical insights from several research traditions to tailor an integrated (macro micro) methodological framework for the analysis of discourse in IR FPA MES TFP. By taking a communicative practice perspective to foreign policy, the book develops a new understanding for making sense of deep foreign policy dilemmas, which reflect inherently (para)doxical nature of foreign policy making in Turkey and elsewhere. These political paradoxes repetitively reappear at key historical junctures. They have not been reconciled or transcended even by a mastermind like Ahmet Davutoğlu, whose Strategic Depth vision has formed a blueprint for Turkish foreign policy architecture. That is to say, deep dilemmas should be conceived as specific contextual discursive configurations. Since deep dilemmas are part and parcel of human narratives shaping our political lives, they need to be studied both episodically and cross-episodically. This book has also emerged out of a human narrative shared by many people. These individuals deserve appreciation since they took part in this story. All of my dedicated teachers have helped me to dream about this project in various ways. Distinguished scholars have kept my imaginations always alive. Among them, I am particularly grateful to Meliha Benli Altunışık for providing guidance on my dissertation. Her constructivist stance has been a source of inspiration for this publication. I especially thank Özlem Tür, the editor-in-chief of Ortadoğu Etütleri, for providing permission for re-use of my article (Kumral 2013). Her constructive approach has made the post-doctoral period more promising and encour-

11 PREFACE xi aged me to start this challenging project sooner than later. In this tiring journey, my brother Abdullah Arif Kumral had always walked along me. His presence kept the project right on track. Lastly, I extend deep dedications to my beloved family, relatives, and friends for their total trust and sincere support to make my longstanding dream come true. Tokat, Turkey Mehmet Akıf Kumral

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13 CONTENTS 1 Introduction: Theoretical and Empirical Outline 1 2 Prelude to Cooperation: Saadabad Pact and Dyadic Costs 35 3 Epilogue of Cooperation: Baghdad Pact and Regional Ramifications 79 4 Prologue to Non-Cooperation: Gulf War and International Implications Finale of Non-Cooperation: US Invasion and Local Losses Conclusion: Cross-Episodic and Overarching Findings Post-Script: Perpetuation of Partial Cooperation 227 Index 245 xiii

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15 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AKP/AK PARTi Justice and Development Party ( Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi ) ANAP Motherland Party ( Anavatan Partisi ) AP Air Base CENTO Central Treaty Organization CHF/CHP Republican People s Party ( Cumhuriyet Halk Fırkası/Partisi ) CIG Central Iraqi Government DDKO Revolutionary Eastern Cultural Hearths ( Devrimci Doğu Kültür Ocakları ) DEASH al-dawla al-islamiya fil Iraq wa al-sham DECA Defense and Economic Cooperation Agreement DP Democrat Party ( Demokrat Parti ) DTP Democratic Society Party ( Demokratik Toplum Partisi ) DYP True Path Party ( Doğru Yol Partisi ) EU European Union FPA Foreign Policy Analysis FSA Free Syrian Army GAP Southeast Anatolian Project ( Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi ) GNA Grand National Assembly GoT Government of Turkey HDP People s Democratic Party ( Halkların Demokratik Partisi ) ICP Iraqi Communist Party IMF International Monetary Fund IR International Relations ISIS Islamic State in Iraq and Syria ITC Iraqi Turkmen Front ( Irak Türkmen Cephesi ) KDP Kurdistan Democratic Party KFS Kurdish Federated State xv

16 xvi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS KRG Kurdistan Regional Government LN League of Nations MEDO Middle East Defense Organization MES Middle East Studies MFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs MHP Nationalist Movement Party ( Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi ) MoU Memorandum of Understanding MP Member of Parliament NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NSC National Security Council ONW Operation Northern Watch OPC Operation Provide Comfort PKK Kurdistan Workers Party ( Partia Karkaren Kurdistan ) PM Prime Minister PUK Patriotic Union of Kurdistan PYD Democratic Union Party ( Partiya Yekîtiya Demokrat ) RCC Revolutionary Command Council SHP Social Democrat Populist Party ( Sosyal Demokrat Halkçı Parti ) TCF Progressive Republican Party ( Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet Fırkası ) TFP Turkish Foreign Policy TGNA Turkish Grand National Assembly TGS Turkish General Staff TİP Turkish Workers Party ( Türkiye İşçi Partisi ) UAR United Arab Republic UKDP United Kurdish Democratic Party UN United Nations UNSCR United Nations Security Council Resolution USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics WMD Weapons of Mass Destruction YPG People s Protection Units ( Yekîneyên Parastina Gel )

17 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 General comparison of some major books covering theoretical historical dimensions of Turkey Iraq relations 2 Table 1.2 Layout of episodes 7 Table 1.3 Analytical typologies of cooperation 25 Table 6.1 Synopsis of conclusions 224 xvii