Double or Single Negative: Immigrant Women and Labor Force Participation in Israel

Transcription

1 Double or Single Negative: Immigrant Women an Labor Fore Partiipation in Israel Dr. Uzi Rebhun Senior Leturer Division of Jewish Demography an Statistis The A. Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jerusalem 91905, Israel Tel: (W) ; (H) ; Fax JEL oes: J16, J21, J61 This stuy was supporte by a grant from the Julian Simon Researh Fun, Shool of Business Aministration, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The stuy was arrie out uring the author s sabbatial year, as a visiting sholar, at the Center for Demography an Eology (CDE), The University of Wisonsin-Maison. An earlier version of this paper was presente at the CDE seminar, January 25, I gratefully aknowlege the help of Benny Anerman in omputer programming an ata analysis. Responsibility for the ontents of this artile rests solely with the author. 1

2 Double or Single Negative: Immigrant Women an Labor Fore Partiipation in Israel Uzi Rebhun Abstrat This paper examines gener ifferenes in labor fore partiipation (LFP) among immigrants in Israel, an how these ifferenes vary aross origin groups. Analysis of the 1995 population ensus iniates that all else being equal immigrant women exert a negative effet on LFP. As time elapses, the probability of immigrant women to be employe improves but remains onsierably lower than that of immigrant an nativeborn men. Nevertheless, after a few years in the ountry immigrant women have lose the gap with native-born women. A etaile analysis reveals substantial stratifiation by ountry of birth. Thus, while for some immigrant groups the patterns of LFP reflet a ouble isavantage for women, other groups appear to have only the one isavantage of being females. I attah this stratifiation to ultural bakgroun an soial values of ountry of birth as well as to eonomi an religious onsierations not fully inexe by the ensus ata. 1. Introution Migration aross international bounaries is often viewe as reuing the immigrants eonomi status an well-being (Chiswik, 1979; Constant an Zimmermann, 2004; MAllister, 1995; Raijman an Semyonov, 1995). New arrivals enounter iffiulties in integrating into the new labor market, fining employment suitable to their professional qualifiations, an attaining aequate eonomi returns (Borjas, 1982; Chiswik, 1978; Hoffman-Nowonty, 1978; Lieberson, 1980; Park, 1952). These obstales are explaine by restrite aess to information (Chiswik an Sullivan, 1995; Kossouji an Ranney, 1984), low levels of human apital (Borjas, 1982; Raijman an Semyonov, 1995), limite aquaintane with the host soiety, inluing language profiieny (Chiswik an Miller, 1998; Greenlees an Saenz, 1999), an lak of personal ontats (Granovetter, 1995). Information asymmetry between employers at origin an estination regaring immigrants true proutivity further reue immigrants wages, with somewhat ifferent effets on high- an low-ability workers (Katz an Stark, 1984; 1987). As time in the new ountry elapses the eonomi ost of immigration is expete to iminish (Chiswik, 1978), exhibiting a U-shape urve of eonomi hange (Chiswik, Lee an Miller, 2003; Poston, 1994; Simon an Sullivan, 1988). The eonomi ost of international migration varies among groups (Asera an Chiswik, 2006; Anteol, 2000; Semyonov an Lerenthal, 1991). Country of origin is iniative of soioultural resoures an speifi strutural an eologial fators that may either hiner or enhane soioeonomi ahievement in the reeiving soiety (Lieberson an Waters, 1988; Stier an Tiena, 1992; Willis an Yeoh, 2000). Entrepreneurial ativities or self-employment, inluing those within ethni nihes, are important eterminants of eonomi integration an mobility (Evans, 1989). Variations in eonomi attainment among ifferent foreign-born groups also erive from the treatment 2

3 an sympathy the groups reeive from the host soiety (Boy, 1984; Poston, 1994). Others have suggeste that the proesses of migration, inluing eonomi isloation an areer isruption (MAllister, 1995), timing of entry into the loal labor market (Liberson, 1980), an age at time of immigration as aults or as hilren (Eler, 1990; Kossouji, 1989) influene labor-market inorporation more than ethniity per se. Area of settlement also plays an important role in affeting oupational an earning patterns by exposing the immigrants to istintive labor-market onitions an opportunities (Greenlees an Saenz, 1999; Lieberson an Waters, 1988; Waxman, 2001). Within eah immigrant group, ifferenes are foun between men an women (Boy, 1984; Haberfel, 1993; Sullivan, 1984). Gener ifferenes are often more substantial among immigrants than among the loal population at large (Boy, 1984). The ouble isavantage of being both female an foreign-born was isovere after ontrolling for various potentially onfouning fators. The gener imension of immigrants eonomi integration is attribute to the sex-segregate oupational struture that limits women s job opportunities an wages as a whole (Philzaklea, 1983) an the evalue status assoiate with asribe affinities inluing national origin an ethniity (Epstein, 1973; Hoffman-Nowotny, 1978). Family burens, regularly impose on women, are aggravate uner onitions of immigration an separation from family an relatives, thereby limiting the time an energy available for aquiring the language of the reeiving ountry an, onsequently, eonomi attainment patterns (Dumon, 1981; Hoffman-Nowotny, 1978). Interest in the ouble isavantage has been mainly oriente towar eonomi aspets of lass of work, i.e., of being an employee or being self-employe (Boy, 1984), oupational status an mobility (Boy, 1984; Pekin, 1981; Chiswik et al., 2003), wage (Asera an Chiswik, 2006; Haberfel, 1993; Kossouji an Ranney, 1984) an remittanes sent home (Semyonov an Gorozeisky, 2005). To my knowlege, only a hanful of stuies have fouse on gener gaps in labor-fore partiipation (LFP) or employment status among reent immigrants (Baker an Benjamin, 1997; Boy, 1984; Kats, 1982) or observe ifferenes aross origin groups within a single ountry (Anteol, 2000; Raijman an Semyonov, 1997). The finings of this researh reveal onsierable variations among immigrant groups an estination ountries. Consequently, other explanations have been propose, refleting single an triple isavantage of immigrant women. This sarity of researh is all the more striking sine LFP is a preonition for other aspets of eonomi harateristis, i.e., lass of work, oupation, an wage. Partiipation as suh involves more fators iretly assoiate with the migration proess, inluing the ulture of plae of origin an plae of estination, motives for immigration, the immigrants legal status, immigration poliy of the host soiety, availability of ethni or nativity peers, an immigrants family omposition. The present stuy seeks to exten urrent unerstaning of the working experiene of immigrants by examining LFP among foreign-born men an women in Israel. The analytial moel inorporates iniviuals human apital, family struture, area of resiene, an immigration harateristis. Aggregate moels for the total immigrant population, as well as etaile omposition by ountry of origin, are evelope. More speifially, I aress the following four questions: 1) Do the harateristis of LFP verify the ouble negative effet, aoring to whih immigrant women are isavantage relative to both native-born women an 3

4 native an foreign-born men? 2) Do suh ifferentials hol true for ifferent urations of work, i.e., part of the year or the entire fisal year? 3) How o the gener ifferenes in LFP evolve over time? an 4) Does the ombine effet of being both an immigrant an a woman operate similarly among all foreign-born groups? The remainer of this artile is struture as follows: Setion 2 reviews the literature on gener ifferenes in the eonomi integration of reent immigrants an evelops some working hypotheses. Setion 3 isusses immigration to Israel. Setion 4 presents the ata an measurements use in this paper an esribes the harateristis of the population. Setion 5 fouses on the results of multivariate analyses. Finally, Setion 6 summarizes the finings an isusses researh an poliy impliations. 2. Theoretial Perspetive The literature on the eonomis of immigration unersores various fators that affet the employment patterns an LFP of immigrants in their host ountry. Not only gener is an important eterminant but other variables, both iniviual an ontextual, sometimes operate ifferently among immigrant men an women. These explanatory fators may be lustere into four major blos: emographi an human apital harateristis, family struture, area of resiene, an ultural ontext of ountry of origin. In the first blo, age an shooling are the most frequently mentione eterminants of immigrants employment status. Being in prime working-age years, as against the young an ol extremes of the working-age interval, inreases the likelihoo of having a job (Greenlees an Saenz, 1999; Waxman, 2001). The orresponene of age to LFP is substantially important for immigrant men, as with the population at large, while the influene of age among immigrant women is weaker, refleting the importane of lifeyle responsibilities (Kats, 1982). Shooling is also positively assoiate with LFP (Evans, 1984; Raijman an Semyonov, 1995; Stier an Tiena, 1992). Here, however, the orresponene is stronger among immigrant women than among their male ounterparts (Kats, 1982). This is explaine by ifferent opportunities for immigrant men an women at a given level of shooling an also, presumably, by the greater flexibility of men in aepting jobs for whih they are overqualifie. Duration in the ountry an age at immigration are iniret iniators of human resoures suh as language profiieny, ajustment of professional skills to loal labor-market harateristis, an personal ontats, an thus orrespon strongly (positive an negative, respetively) to immigrants employment (De Dunn an Paul, 2002; Evans, 1984; Shoeni, 1998; Waxman, 2001). Everything else being equal, women who were eonomially ative in their ountries of origin fae greater iffiulties in rejoining the labor market than immigrant men o; signifiant ifferenes persist even after a tenure of twenty years (Raijman an Semyonov, 1997). When immigration is a family at involving two aults, the likelihoo of the wife s partiipation in the labor market is expete to inrease upon arrival either beause the husban s prospets of employment are poor (Long, 1980) or in orer to finane the investment in his loal-ontext human apital (Baker an Benjamin, 1997). During this initial perio, immigrant women out-earn immigrant men. Over time, however, the labor supplie by immigrant women elines unless they eie to invest in their own human apital. The traitionally stronger responsibility of women for househol uties, whih inrease in the absene of extene family, together with the presene of a husban an 4

5 young hilren at home, limits the integration of migrant women into the labor fore (Evans, 1984; Gurak an Kritz, 2000). By the same token, single or one-marrie mothers, as well as those in unstable family units, must fin work in orer to provie for themselves an their hilren (Kossouji an Ranney, 1984; Semyonov, 1980). Immigrant wives are most likely to enter the labor market if eonomi ompensation for their time is suffiiently high; in this ase, they attain high levels of oupational prestige an wages (Kossouji an Ranney, 1984). These observations have been hallenge; stuies on immigrant women from Puerto Rio (Tiena an Glass, 1985), Mexio (Greenlees an Saenz, 1999), an the Dominian Republi (Gurak an Kritz, 2000) onten that the presene of a husban or other ault at home atually enourages women s LFP. Among other explanations, it was suggeste that the soial an eonomi ontext of area of settlement (e.g., New York) provies people with low-paying jobs better opportunities to reeive publi assistane an perhaps to avane their own euation an future market skills (Gurak an Kritz, 2000: 416). Further, immigrant husbans, like ounterparts in the population at large, may inrease the likelihoo of wives employment by proviing better information on labor-market opportunities an sharing hil are responsibilities (Presser, 1989). Another important eterminant assoiate with househol omposition an family eision-making istinguishes between primary movers an tie movers (Miner, 1978); the latter group is likely to be in an unfavorable eonomi position being both unemploye an typially omprise of a isproportionately high perentage of women. Area of resiene is another iniator of aess to labor market an eonomi opportunities (Bean an Tiena, 1987; Hanson an Pratt, 1995). Be it ifferent parts of the ountry, large ities versus small ities, or urban areas versus rural areas, the area of resiene has speifi strutural nees for labor an offers ifferent types of jobs that may either enhane or hiner the LFP of reent immigrants (Greenlees an Saenz, 1999; Wong an Hirshman, 1983). This is espeially salient uner onitions of spatial isequilibrium in jobs typially available to immigrants, an more so if they iffer aross gener lines. Previous stuies that have aresse this fator, either by iret eonomi measures suh as unemployment rate or inome relate to iniviuals living in a given area (Greenlees an Saenz, 1999), or more generally istinguishing between several rigily efine geographi units (Wong an Hirshman, 1983), were able to inrease the explaine variation in LFP. A omplementary geo-soial fator is the spatial onentration of immigrants. From the labor-market assimilation perspetive (Portes an Bah, 1985), proximity to an ethni enlave of immigrant groups provies work opportunities in a familiar environment of language an professional skills an hene inreases labor-fore ativity. These immigrant enterprises, known for their wages an lak of soial welfare, are often aime only at augmenting househol inome an thus employ large numbers of female workers (Massey et al., 1994). Suh workplaes attrat women in the main beause they are loate in immigrant resiential enlaves, i.e., lose to home. More generally, immigrant enlaves strengthen soial networks an mutual assistane suh as hil are an are likely to be positively assoiate with women s eisions to beome part of the labor fore. Differential labor-fore responses also involve ultural fators (Anteol, 2000). Soial norms an values, assoiate with the inustrial evelopment an moernity of ountry of origin, enote family priorities an the role of women at work versus at home. 5

6 As several stuies have shown (Raijman an Semyonov, 1997; Reimers, 1985), substantial interation takes plae between geo-ultural bakgroun an soioemographi harateristis in relation to labor-fore ativity in the new ountry. Immigrant women from less evelope ountries experiene greater eline than o their women ounterparts from avane inustrial eonomies, although the ifferentials narrow as time in the host ountry inreases. Not only ulture per se is important; so is the magnitue of the ultural istane between origin an estination (Evans, 1984). Thus, while many stuies onsier the ultural fator a resiual effet, 1 others insert speifi areas or ountries of origin into the empirial moel as a more iret measure of the relationships between ulture an employment harateristis (Raijman an Semyonov, 1997). Anteol (2000) went even further; by using gener gaps in LFP rates aross home-ountry groups in the Unite States, he reveale the paramount importane of the ultural variable after ontrolling for personal harateristis. Fousing on one host ountry (e.g., the Unite States) also ontrols for institutional ifferenes, sine in this ase all resients operate uner roughly the same overall labor market regime (Anteol, 2000: 413). This, however, oes not rule out the potential for ontextual explanations of loal soial an eonomi onitions in ifferent parts of the ontinent (Gurak an Kritz, 2000). Guie by the literature on immigrants LFP in general, an that on gener ifferenes in partiular, I propose three omplementary hypotheses in regar to the target population of this stuy, immigrants in Israel: (1) Women are less likely than men to partiipate atively in the labor fore, either year-roun or in partial attahment to the workfore; these relationships haraterize the entire Israeli soiety but are more salient among immigrant than among native-born women; (2) over time, immigrant women will experiene improvement in LFP but their ouble isavantage will not totally isappear; (3) the effet on LFP of being an immigrant woman varies by ountry of origin; immigrants from less evelope ountries in Asia an Afria will experiene the greatest isavantage while several immigrant groups, espeially from Eastern Europe with its long traition of gener parity at work, will show an even stronger teneny towar employment than their native-born ounterparts. 3. Immigrants in Israel Jewish immigration is a major soure of population growth in Israel. Approximately onethir of the ountry s Jewish inhabitants are foreign-born (CBS, 2004). Immigration to Israel is haraterize by a wave-like pattern, with perios of large numbers of arrivals followe by smaller numbers, an so forth. Sine the formative mass immigration that shortly followe the establishment of the state in 1948, the waves have been signifiantly smaller an, overall, have been elining in size. The magnitue of the most reent influx from the former Soviet Union in the early 1990s approximate the historial high levels but in a ontext of a emographially larger an eonomially stronger reipient Israeli population (DellaPergola, 2004). The heterogeneous profile of the immigrant population is equally important. It inlues people from some 150 ountries of origin in Asia, Afria, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, North Ameria, South Ameria, an Oeania. Often, Israel s immigrants an their native-born esenants are ihotomously ifferentiate by origin: Asian- Afrian versus European-Amerian. The two groups iffer slightly in size, approximately 6

7 40% of the immigrants being from Asia an Afria an 60% originating from Europe an Ameria. The Asian-Afrian group is soioeonomially inferior to its European- Amerian ounterpart in parameters suh as shooling, oupation, inome, politial power, an resiential areas (Haberfel, 1993). Over time, the gaps between the groups have evolve somewhat inonsistently, their ontration or expansion epening largely on the speifi soial or eonomi iniator teste (Cohen et al., 2004; Frielaner et al., 2002; Shmelz et al., 1991). The ingathering of Jews from aroun the worl to their own ountry is a ore ieal of nation-builing in Israel. Aoringly, the formal immigration poliy, first expresse in the Delaration of Inepenene (1948) an later anhore in the Law of Return (1950), prolaims the right of every Jew to settle in the ountry an to obtain itizenship upon arrival. To enourage immigration an ensure suessful absorption, the state provies immigrants with meaningful finanial assistane whih inlues travel expenses, housing subsiies, tax exemptions on ars an applianes, an free language an job training. It is available to all immigrants uring their first few months after arrival. Most of the immigrants, those from Asia, Afria, an Eastern Europe, ame to Israel ue to push fators suh as soial alienation an politial repression an so may be alle refugee migrants. Others, a muh smaller number, from North Ameria an Western Europe, were motivate by religious an nationalisti inentives (thus beoming ieologial migrants). None are onventional eonomi migrants. Refugee migrants have more skills speifi to the origin an fewer skills that are estination speifi or internationally transferable (Chiswik an Wenz, 2005); ieologial migrants are more positively self-selete to the eonomi opportunities of their new loality. These ifferenes by type of migration are expete to affet immeiate as well as long-term eonomi ajustment. 4. Data, Variables, an Desription Data The ata utilize in this stuy were ulle from the 1995 Israel Census of Housing an Population (the 20% emographi version file). The sample was restrite to men age an to women age 25 60; the upper limit reflets the manatory retirement age for eah gener group, respetively. Sine the question on employment referre to the last year,, the sample exlue immigrants who arrive in the ountry uring the year of the ensus. Three native-born groups were inlue for omparison: Israel-born persons whose ethni bakgroun, base on father s plae of birth, oul be ientifie (Asia-Afria, Europe-Ameria, an Israel). The immigrants were aggregate into forty-eight iniviual ountries or areas of origin, eah of whih meets the riterion of having a minimum of 250 sample ases. The origin groups over people from Western Europe, Eastern Europe, North Ameria, Latin Ameria, Asia, Afria, an Oeania. Group sizes range from 250 persons from Lebanon to 15,002 from Moroo. By applying these riteria, I generate a sample of 96,850 immigrants an 97,474 native-born Israelis. The attribution of people to origin groups was etermine solely by their answer to the ountry-of-birth question. The geo-politial transformations in Eastern Europe in the early 1990s seem to have reate some onfusion, as a few reporte terms still refer to general units suh as the former Soviet Union or Czehoslovakia. When these met the 7

8 minimum threshol, I maintaine the responent s speifiation an i not merge them into inlusive ountry ategories. Variables The epenent variable is the iniviual s labor-fore status uring the ensus referene year. It alternately istinguishes between two or three groups of people. A breakown of the population into two groups istinguishes between people who i not work uring the past year an those who i work; a three-group istintion ivies the population into those who i not work, those who worke less than twelve months, an those who reporte working throughout the year. A small proportion of those who reporte not working, approximately 3%, were atually in the labor fore an looking for a job. The explanatory variables were lustere into four major blos: emographi an human-apital harateristis, family struture, area of resiene, an immigration fators. All ovariates but one were measure as ummy variables. The emographi an human-apital harateristis use in this analysis were age, gener, an shooling. Age was represente by the ohorts 25 34, 35 49, an 50+ (the omitte ategory). Gener was set to 1 if the person is female; males are the referene ategory. Shooling was eompose into five ummy variables of primary/intermeiate shooling (the omitte ategory), high-shool grauation without matriulation, matriulation, post-seonary iploma, an aaemi egree. Family struture was evaluate by two variables of marital status (Marrie=1) an the presene of hilren uner the age of 18 at home (hilren=1); the respetive omitte ategories are unmarrie (single, ivore, wiowe), an having oler hilren or no hilren at all. The area-of-resiene variable ivies the ountry into four major geographi units: Jerusalem, metropolitan Tel Aviv area, metropolitan Haifa, an the rest of the ountry. Jerusalem refers to the ity of Jerusalem. Eah metropolitan area is a large onurbation ompose of several ities with strong soioeonomi an ultural ties. Metropolitan Tel Aviv, ompose largely of greater Tel Aviv an the oastal plain from Haera to Asho, is the ountry s major eonomi an ultural enter (the omitte ategory). Metropolitan Haifa onsists of the area north of Haera, inluing the ity of Haifa an parts of the Galilee. The rest of the ountry is omprise of small towns, both urban an rural, mainly in the far north an far south. Immigration fators inlue age at time of immigration, tenure in Israel, an nativity onentration. Age at immigration istinguishes five interval groups: 0 14, 15 24, 25 34, 35 49, an 50+ as the omitte ategory. Tenure in Israel reflets the time from immigration to en of perio (i.e. 1994) an istinguishes among up to one year, 1 2 years, 3 5 years, 6 10 years, an 11+ years in Israel (omitte ategory). Nativity onentration is the perentage istribution of a given immigrant group among the four geographi areas efine above. All persons in a given immigrant group who live in a speifi area have the same onentration value. Both nominator an enominator refer to the entire population, i.e., people of all ages. Nativity onentration is treate as a ontinuous variable. Finally, native-born persons were istinguishe between seongeneration (the omitte ategory) an thir-generation in the ountry. 8

9 Desription Desriptive analysis of the ata reveals lower rates of LFP among immigrants than among native-born Israelis (Figure 1). These ifferenes are attribute more to the general teneny of immigrants to be less employe than native-born than to variations in the amount of work, be it part of the year (less than twelve months) or year-roun (all twelve months). The finings also suggest that men, immigrant an native-born alike, are more likely to be eonomially ative than women. Nevertheless, immigrants exhibit larger gener ifferenes than the native-born, implying that immigrant women are the most isavantage group. A lower partiipation rate for women than for men is foun in all immigrant groups (with the exeption of immigrants from Lithuania). Gener ifferenes are high among immigrants from Asian an Afrian ountries an ten to be less so for immigrants from Europe an North Ameria. This is still evient in the seon generation of native-born Israelis, with the gaps being onsierably iminishe among thir-generation Israelis. Soio-emographi harateristis vary aross geo-ultural groups (Table 1). The mean age of most immigrant groups is higher than that of native-born. The range of mean ages among the various immigrant groups is approximately fourteen years, with those born in Ethiopia being the youngest group an those from Yemen the olest. Variations in shooling are even more substantial, as the proportion of holers of aaemi egrees is small among Asians an Afrians, meium among immigrants from Western Europe an Latin Ameria, an high among immigrants from North Ameria an several former Soviet Union republis. This rough lassifiation hols true for both men an women an is largely reflete also among seon-generation Israelis. Within eah group, however, there are ifferenes along gener lines: most groups of Asian-Afrian origin have a higher proportion of men with aaemi egrees than of women, whereas immigrant women from the Unite States, Belarus, an the rest of Eastern Europe, among others, surpass their male ounterparts in shooling. Family omposition varies between immigrant groups, with an approximately 20% ifferene between the group with the lowest rate of marrie people an that with the highest rate. In all groups, men are more likely than women to be marrie. Inter-group omparison, by origin an gener, unersores substantial ifferenes of immigration harateristis. Immigrants from Asia an Afria, as well as from Eastern an Central European ountries suh as Polan, Czehoslovakia, Romania, an Germany, arrive in Israel at young ages, as hilren or aolesents. To a large extent, they belong to the massive waves of immigration that shortly followe the establishment of Israeli statehoo an in large part epopulate the Jewish ommunities in these ountries. The oler age of Soviet/former Soviet Jews at immigration is assoiate with the large reent influx from these ountries, ouple with the lower boun of the age interval of our target population. Immigrants from Western Europe an Ameria are a seletive population, motivate mainly by religious an ieologial inentives that are typial of young aults. Gener variation in age at immigration is small, but when women s mean age at immigration is higher than men s, this is always assoiate with immigration from Western Europe an Ameria. Origin groups with young age at immigration have longer tenure in Israel, an vie versa. Substantial ifferenes were foun in the geographi istribution of immigrant populations, as seen in the proportions living in metropolitan Tel Aviv. The ata o not 9

10 point to any lear pattern of strong or weak preferene of resiene in Tel Aviv, either by groups from a given ontinent or by gener. The literature (e.g., Shmelz et al. 1991; Gonen, 1995; Dashefsky et al., 1992) suggests that immigrants resiential hoies in Israel are etermine by the timing of arrival (espeially uring the formative years of the state), housing pries, instrumental onsierations (e.g., proximity to work), an the wish to live in a religiously an soially suitable ommunity. 5. Finings Gener influenes LFP via emographi an human-apital harateristis, family struture, ontext of resiene, an immigration fators. A multivariate strategy keeps these fators onstant an evaluates the net effet of eah fator, or the interation terms, on the preite variable. Table 2 presents the os ratios from binary logisti regression moels that preit working (part or full-year) versus not working. Separate equations were alulate for immigrants, native-born Israelis, an the total sample. Among immigrants, being a woman ereases the probability of employment. The os ratio suggests that, eteris paribus, immigrant women are only 40 perent as likely to be in the labor fore as immigrant men (Column 1). Even after interation terms of gener by marital status an gener by presene of hilren at home are introue, immigrant women remain less likely to be employe than men, albeit at a somewhat higher os ratio of 0.75 (Column 2). Among the native-born, women exert a negative effet on LFP with an os ratio of.53 (Column 3). Unlike immigrants, however, after the inlusion of interation terms, native-born women o not suffer more harship than men an are even slightly more suessful in joining the eonomially ative labor fore (Column 4). In other wors, overoming the obstales assoiate with family obligations eliminates gener inequality for native women but not for immigrant women. Aoringly, the interation term of gener (female) by birthplae (immigrant) in the total sample proue an os ratio of 0.89 (Column 6). Thus, immigrant women fae iffiulties in fining jobs an are at a ouble isavantage in the Israeli labor market. Other soio-emographi eterminants of LFP, namely age an euation, operate similarly among immigrants an the native-born. Of partiular interest is the role of family harateristis that involve househol responsibilities, whih traitionally vary by gener. Being marrie was foun to inrease LFP. The interation terms, however, show that this oes not apply to women, be they immigrant or native-born, among whom having a spouse is negatively assoiate with employment. The presene of hilren at home epresses the LFP of immigrant women but has no statistially signifiant effet on the employment of native-born women. This may reflet ifferenes in familial an soial ontexts, sine the native-born have easier aess to hilare assistane provie by relatives an friens. Likewise, given similar onitions of oupation type an amount of work, immigrants have lower inomes than the native-born beause of shorter longevity an less familiarity with the possibilities of reeiving wage supplements for suh expenses as ar maintenane, telephone, an annual vaation, whih are ustomary in Israel. Hene, the eonomi value of work outsie the home vis-a-vis the ost of hilare is smaller for immigrant women than for native-born women. The effets of the immigration fators show an overall higher probability of working as age at immigration elines. Conurrently, the likelihoo of LFP rises ommensurate with tenure in the ountry. The eonomi ajustment of immigrants in Israel is rapi; 10

11 after three years in the ountry they alreay have greater os of being eonomially ative than more veteran immigrants or the native-born (the omitte ategory). Many immigrants who have been in Israel for 3 5 years, an some who arrive 6 10 years ago, originate in the former Soviet Union an may reflet patterns of employment assoiate with their geo-ultural bakgroun. In-epth analysis of the effet of tenure on LFP reveals signifiant gener ifferenes (Table 3, Part A). All other fators being equal, the most reent immigrants those with tenure of less than one year in Israel, men an women alike are the least likely to be employe. Even at this early stage in the new ountry, the os of being employe are greater for men than for women. Thereafter, these gener ifferenes evelop along ifferent trajetories: after 1 2 years in Israel, we see no ifferene between the likelihoo of LFP of immigrant an native-born men (the omitte ategory); later on, immigrants have even higher os whereas the os of eonomi ativity among immigrant women, although they improve over time, remain substantially lower than those of native-born men. Nevertheless, immigrant women are able to lose the gap with native women. Thus, as far as the ouble effet is onerne, it is the effet of gener that remains signifiant for the employment of immigrant women. I eompose LFP into three ategories: those employe less than twelve months uring the year, those employe all twelve months, an the unemploye. The ata were applie to the total sample, immigrants an native-born ombine, by means of a multinomial logisti regression. The results (Table 4) are onsistent with those presente above when the analysis is onfine to a ihotomous istintion. At both levels of employment, part of the year an year-roun, being an immigrant woman ereases the probability of employment, with os ratios of.835 an.923, respetively. Stuy of the joint effet of gener an tenure (Table 3, Part B) shows that the likelihoo of year-roun employment among immigrant women inreases as time elapses (from an os ratio of.101 in the first year to.443 after eleven years or more). The probability of immigrant women s being employe, both part-of-year an year-roun, has onverge with that of native women. Is the effet of gener on LFP similar among all immigrant groups or may there be some stratifiation by ountry of origin? To explore this, I inserte eah of the forty-eight immigrant groups into a multivariate equation. Data were separately utilize for women an men; an only for the ihotomous istintion between being employe (part- or fullyear) versus not at all. Sine immigrants to Israel originate in a large number of ountries with ifferent levels of evelopment an moernization, I first ompare their LFP in referene to the total native-born population an then only to their native-born ethni peers: for immigrants from Asian an Afrian ountries, peers were etermine as native-israelis whose fathers were born in Asia or Afria, an for immigrants from Europe an Ameria (inluing South Afria) the native-born were those whose fathers were born in either Europe or Ameria. Due to spae limitations, Table 5 presents only the statistially signifiant os ratios of the interations between ountry of origin an tenure in Israel 2 but they are ontrolle for all other sets of inepenent fators inluing emographi an human-apital harateristis, family struture, area of resiene, an immigration variables. Among women, the interation terms of birthplae by tenure show that slightly less than half of the immigrant groups have a statistially signifiant effet on LFP relative to 11

12 native-born women. After they amass enough tenure, immigrant women from several former Soviet republis an some Latin Amerian ountries have higher probabilities of employment than their native-born ounterparts. By ontrast, immigrant women from many Asian an Afrian ountries an the Unite States, espite very ifferent soioeonomi bakgrouns, are less likely to be employe than native-born women. Restriting the omparison to ethni peers slightly erease the number of immigrant groups that ha higher probabilities of being in the labor fore than the native-born; women in eight immigrant groups mainly from the former Soviet Union an Latin Ameria were more likely to be employe than were their native-born peers. These finings attest to substantial stratifiation by ountry of origin. For approximately half of the immigrant groups, there is no signifiant effet on LFP relative to native-born women. The ouble isavantage of being a woman an an immigrant is mainly attributable to what may be onsiere the two extremes of the evelopmental an moernization spetrum, Asia an Afria on the one sie an Western Europe an North Ameria on the other. Thus, while the patterns of labor-fore inorporation inee reflet a ouble isavantage for some, others suffer only the single isavantage of being women. The heterogeneous profile of the oubly isavantage immigrant groups, whih originate in very ifferent parts of the globe, is probably eviene of ultural bakgroun an ieology regaring gener roles as well as personal eonomi onsierations. For men, nine of the thirteen immigrant groups with statistially signifiant ifferentials ha higher os of being eonomially ative over time than native-born men. This number roppe slightly when the omparison was restrite to ethnially native peers. Among immigrant men, in ontrast to immigrant women, there are several groups from Asian an Afrian ountries with positive effets on LFP, but none from the former Soviet republis. 6. Disussion The main goal of this paper was to examine gener ifferenes in LFP among immigrants in Israel an to see how these ifferenes vary aross origin groups. I was motivate by the rare sholarly attention given to the joint effet of being both a woman an an immigrant on LFP, as well as the effet of the speifi birthplae. I propose three omplementary hypotheses: 1) women in general, an immigrant women in partiular, have iffiulty in entering the labor market; 2) with the passage of time, immigrant women experiene some improvement in LFP yet remain at a ouble isavantage ; 3) gener gaps in LFP are stratifie by birthplae. Finings from multivariate analyses of the 1995 Israel ensus largely support the first an thir hypotheses but refute the seon. After ontrolling for emographi an humanapital harateristis, family struture, area of resiene, an immigration fators, immigrant women exerte a negative effet on LFP. This onlusion is onsistent for ifferent urations of work, i.e., part or all of the fisal year. As time elapse, the probability of immigrant women s LFP improve but remaine onsierably lower than that of immigrant men. Nevertheless, immigrant women lose the gap with native-born women an after a few years in Israel both groups ha very similar probabilities of employment. 12

13 A etaile analysis by ountry of birth shows that immigrants are not ut of one loth. For slightly more than half of the immigrant groups, women i not exert signifiant ifferenes in LFP as ompare with native-born women. Among the remaining groups, immigrant women from Asia-Afria an the Unite States, ha more iffiulty fining jobs than native-born women i. By ontrast, immigrant women from many former Soviet republis an several Latin Amerian ountries ha higher probabilities of employment than their native-born ounterparts i. Refining the omparison to native-born ethni peers (Asia-Afria or Europe-Ameria) somewhat erease the number of groups that ha higher probabilities of employment. The stratifiation of LFP by birthplae an the hanges aoring to referene group (all native-born or ethni peers only), emphasize the importane of ultural bakgroun an soial values assoiate with ountry of birth. Immigrants from Asian an Afrian ountries originate in soieties with generally low rates of labor-fore partiipation by women an have ontinue to follow this pattern in Israel. Aoring to the Worl Bank (2004), all Asian an Afrian ountries isusse in this stuy, exept for Ethiopia, ha a substantially lower Labor Fore Gener Parity Inex (LFGPI) 3 than Israel s. Similarly, the strong inlination of immigrant women from former Soviet areas to be employe reflets the status of women in the Soviet eonomy as equal partiipants in the labor fore with Soviet men; hene their LFGPI surpasses Israel s. A somewhat surprising fining is the low probability of immigrant women from several inustrialize ountries, although they arrive from high-lfgpi soieties, to atively partiipate in the labor fore. This shoul be interprete by means of eonomi fators not fully inexe by the soioeonomi harateristis of the ensus. Refleting the euational an oupational profile of the Western Jewish Diaspora in general (Golstein, 1992; DellaPergola, 1993), an the positive seletivity of immigrants to Israel in partiular (Golsheier, 1974; Rebhun an Waxman, 2001), immigrants from Western Europe an the Unite States are onentrate in the upper ranks of the soioeonomi hierarhy. On average they are wealthy, presumably with eonomi savings an also remuneration from property or estate hel in their ountries of origin. This enables them to maintain a high stanar of living with only one breawinner or even none. Furthermore, the white-ollar professional jobs that they hel before immigration are often not female-type an, thus, are more iffiult to penetrate in a new ountry. Finally, women of suh origin are relutant to aept jobs inferior to those they ha hel in their ountries of origin. By ontrast, given the eonomi onitions of the former Soviet Union, immigrants inluing women are more willing to experiene loss of oupational status. In aition, a high proportion of immigrants from Western Europe an, espeially, from the Unite States are Orthoox Jews with strong religious orientation; typially, Orthoox househols have low perentages of women in the labor fore. The finings also reveal the nature of the isavantage of women that is assoiate with family harateristis. Being both a woman an marrie ereases employment for both immigrants an the native-born. However, the ombination of being a woman an having hilren at home negatively effets the eonomi ativity of immigrant women but not that of native-born women. In other wors, hilren o not neessarily generate a onflit between work an traitional family roles at a level that prevents women from entering the labor fore. These ifferenes between immigrant an native-born women 13

14 may be attribute to hilare assistane from family an soial networks that are more easily available to people who have eep roots an longstaning personal ontats. Thus, although this stuy i not evaluate the matter empirially, I argue that in aition to iniviual an ultural harateristis, the reeiving soial ontext is important for immigrants partiipation in the labor fore. From a poliy stanpoint, possible ations to failitate immigrant women s employment shoul inlue the availability of a are system for young hilren that is ompatible with full-time work; flexibility in absene from work ue to hilren s illness uring immigrant women s first few years in the ountry; an informal soial ativities between reent immigrants an others in orer to strengthen personal ontats that, if neee, may substitute for the absene of extene family an relatives. From the moment the immigrant women enter the labor market, their seniority at the workplae will graually inrease an as will their familiarity with the eonomi system, hene the profitability of LFP. In Israel, as in many other evelope ountries, the gener gap in LFP has iminishe over time. This is the result of two opposing trens: inrease in women s LFP an erease in that of men (Klinuv, 2005). The eline in the perentage of men who are employe is explaine, among other things, by the isplaement of poorly shoole loal inhabitants by foreign workers. The owntren is furthere by the large number of Ultra- Orthoox Jews who, for religious reasons, are not gainfully employe. The LFP of immigrant women attests to the rapi assimilation of mainstream patterns of Israeli women by many origin groups an, thus, oes not interfere with the general tren of narrowing gener ifferenes. Sine the main soure of Israel s reent mass immigration was the former Soviet Union, where there was a strong inlination to work, the employment behavior of former Soviet immigrant women has aelerate soioeonomi proesses of gener equality at estination. Future researh shoul hallenge the oubleisavantage effet in Israel in two omplementary eonomi imensions, oupational mobility an wage, whih might reveal ifferent roles of both miro an maro eterminants. Notes 1 This argument is niely isusse in Gurak an Kritz, 2000, pp In this analysis, tenure in Israel is treate as a ontinuous variable. 3 The Labor Fore Gener Parity Inex is the ratio of the perentage of women who are eonomially ative to the perentage of men who are (2004 Worl Development Iniators, p. 31). 14

15 7. Referenes Asera, Aliia an Chiswik, Barry R. (2006). Divergent Patterns in Immigrant Earnings aross European Destinations. Immigration an the Transformation of Europe, Es. Craig Parsons an Timothy Smeeing, Cambrige: Cambrige University Press (forthoming). Anteol, Heather (2000). An Examination of Cross-Country Differenes in the Gener Gap in Labor-Fore Partiipation Rates. Labour Eonomis 7: Baker, Mihael, an Benjamin, Dwayne (1997). The Role of Family in Immigrants Labor-Market Ativity An Evaluation of Alternative Explanations. The Amerian Eonomi Review 87(4): Bean, Frank D., an Tiena, Marta (1987). The Hispani Population of the Unite States. New York: Russell Sage Founation. Borjas, George J. (1982). The Earnings of Male Hispani Immigrants in the Unite States. Inustrial an Labor Relations Review, 35(3): Boy, Monia (1984). At a Disavantage: The Oupational Attainments of Foreign Born Women In Canaa. International Migration Review 18(4): Central Bureau of Statistis. (2004). Statistial Abstrat of Israel, No. 55. Jerusalem: CBS. Chiswik, Barry R. (1979). The Eonomi Progress of Immigrants: Some Apparently Universal Patterns. Contemporary Eonomi Problems, E. W. Fellner. Washington: Amerian Enterprise Institute. Pp (1978). The Effet of Amerianization on the Earnings of Foreign-Born Men. Journal of Politial Eonomy 86(5): Chiswik, Barry A., Lee, Yew L., an Miller, Paul W. (2003). Patterns of Immigrant Oupational Attainment in a Longituinal Survey. International Migration 41(4): Chiswik, Barry R., an Miller, Paul W. (1998) English Language Flueny among Immigrants in the Unite States. Researh in Labor Eonomis, 17: Chiswik, Barry A., an Sullivan, Teresa A. (1995). The New Immigrants. State of the Union: Ameria in the 1990s (Volume Two: Soial Trens). E. Reynols Farley. New York: Russell Sage Founation, Pp Chiswik, Barry A., an Wenz, Mihael (2005). The Linguisti an Eonomi Ajustment of Soviet Jewish Immigrants in the Unite States, 1980 to Researh in Labor Eonomis (forthoming). Cohen, Yinon; Haberfel, Yithak; an Kristal, Tali. (2004). Ethniity an Mixe Ethniity: Euational Gaps among Israeli-Born Jews. Disussion paper No , Tel Aviv University: The Pinhas Sapir Center for Development. Constant, Amelie, an Zimmermann, Klaus F. (2004). How Do Labor Migrants Fare In How Labor Migrants Fare, Es. Klaus F. Zimmermann an Amelie Constant. Berlin: Springer, pp Dashefsky, Arnol; DeAmiis, Jan; Lazerwitz, Bernar; an Tabory, Ephraim. (1992). Amerians Abroa: A Comparative Stuy of Emigrants from the Unite States. New York an Lonon: Plenum Press. 15

16 De Dunn, Sujata, an Paul, Bimal Kanti (2002). Labour-market Partiipation of Asian Inian Immigrant Women in the Greater Kansas City Metropolitan Area, USA. International Journal of Population Geography 8(6): DellaPergola, Sergio (2004). Demography in Israel at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century. Jews in Israel: Contemporary Soial an Cultural Patterns. Uzi Rebhun an haim I. Waxman, Es. Hanover an Lonon: University Press of New Englan/Braneis University Press, Pp (1993). Jews in the European Community: Soio-emographi Trens an Challenges. Amerian Jewish Year Book 1993, Vol. 93, Pp Dumon, W. A. (1981). The Situation of Migrant Women Workers. International Migration 19(1/2): Eler, Glen H., Jr. (1990). Perspetives in the Life Course. Life Course Dynamis: Trajetories an Transitions, E. Glen H. Eler, Jr. Ithaa, NY an Lonon: Cornell University Press, Pp Epstein, Cynthia F. (1973). Positive Effets on the Multiple Negative: Explaining the Suess of Blak Professional Women. Amerian Journal of Soiology 78(4): Evans, M. D. R. (1989). Immigrant Entrepreneurship: Effets of Ethni Market Size an Isolate Labor Market Pool. Amerian Soiologial Review 54(6): (1984). Immigrant Women in Australia: Resoures, Family, an Work. International Migration Review 18(4): Frielaner, Dov; Okun, Barbara S.; Eisenbah, Zvi; an Elmakias, Lilah L. (2002). Immigration, Soial Change an Assimilation: Euational Attainment among Birth Cohorts of Jewish Ethni Groups in Israel, to Population Stuies 56(2): Golsheier, Calvin (1974). Amerian Aliyah: Soiologial an Demographi Perspetives. The Jew in Amerian Soiety. E. Marshall Sklare. New York: pp Golstein, Siney (1992). Profile of Amerian Jewry: Insights from the 1990 National Jewish Population Survey. Amerian Jewish Year Book 1992, Vol. 92, Pp Gonen, Amiram (1995). Settlement of the Immigrants: Geographi Patterns. Profile of an Immigration Wave: The Absorption Proess of Immigrants from the Former Soviet Union, Es. Moshe Siron an Elazar Leshem. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press. pp (in Hebrew). Granovetter, Mark (1995). Getting A Job: A Stuy of Contats an Careers (seon eition). Chiago an Lonon: The University of Chiago Press. Greenlees, Clye S., an Rogelio, Saenz (1999). Determinants of Employment of Reently Arrive Mexian Immigrant Wives. International Migration Review 33(2): Gurak, Douglas T., an Kritz, Mary M. (2000). Soial Context, Househol Composition an Employment Among Migrant an Nonmigrant Dominian Women. International Migration Review 30(2): Haberfel, Yithak (1993). Immigration an Ethni Origin: The Effet of Demographi Attributes on Earnings of Israeli Men an Women. International Migration Review 27(2):

17 Hanson, Susan, an Pratt, Geraline (1995). Gener, Work, an Plae. Lonon an New York: Routlege. Hoffman-Nowotny, Hans-Joahim (1978). Soiologial an Demographi Aspets of the Changing Status of Migrant Women in Europe. Demographi Aspets of the Changing Status of Women in Europe, E. Marry Niphuis-Nell. Boston an Lonon: Leien: Nijhoff. pp Katz, Eliakim, an Stark, Oe (1987). International Migration uner Asymmetri Information. The Eonomi Journal 97 (387): (1984). Migration an Asymmetri Information: Comment. The Amerian Eonomi Review 74(3): Kats, Rahel (1982). The Immigrant Women: Double Cost or Relative Improvement?. International Migration Review, 16(3): Klinuv, Ruth. (2005). Cite in: Women Work More, but what with Men? by Eynav Ben-Yehua, Ha Aretz Newspaper: The Marker (Eonomi Supplement), 2 September, P. 3 (in Hebrew). Kossouji, Sherrie A. (1989). Immigrant Worker Assimilations: Is It a Labor Market Phenomenon? Journal of Human Resoures 23(4): Kossouji, Sherrie A., an Ranney, Susan I. (1984). The Labor Market Experiene of Female Migrants: The Case of Temporary Mexian Migration to the U.S.. International Migration Review 18(4): Lieberson, Stanely (1980). A Piee of Pie: Blaks an White Immigrants sine Berkeley: University of California Press. Lieberson, Stanley, an Waters, Mary C. (1988). From Many Strans: Ethni an Raial Groups in Contemporary Ameria. New York: Russell Sage Founation. Long, James E. (1980). The Effet of Amerianization on Earnings: Some Eviene for Women. Journal of Politial Eonomy 88(3): Massey, Douglas D.; Arango, Joaquin; Hugo, Graeme; Kouaoui, Ali; Pellegrino, Aela; an Taylor, J. Ewar (1994). An Evaluation of International Migration Theory: The North Amerian Case. Population an Development Review 20(4): MAllister, Ian (1995). Oupational Mobility among Immigrants: The Impat of Migration on Eonomi Suess in Australia. International Migration Review 29(2): Miner, Jaob (1978). Family Migration Deisions. Journal of Politial Eonomy 86(5): Park, Robert (1952). Human Communities: The City an Human Eology. New York: The Free Press. Pekin, Huseyn (1981). Migrant Women in Host Countries: The Situation of Migrant Women Workers. International Migration 19(1/2): Philzaklea, Annie (1983). In the Front Line. In: One Way Tiket: Migration an Female Labour, Annie Philzaklea (e.). Lonon: Routlege an Kegan Paul, pp Portes, Alejanro, an Bah, Robert L. (1985). Latin Journey: Cuban an Mexian Immigrants in the Unite States. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Poston, Duley L., Jr. (1994). Patterns of Eonomi Attainment of Foreign-Born Male Workers in the Unite States. International Migration Review 28(3):