China s Confucius Institute and Its Civilizing Mission in the Mekong Region 1

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1 234 Panel 5 China s Confucius Institute and Its Civilizing Mission in the Mekong Region 1 Nguyen Van Chinh Introduction The rise of China and its impact on the world in general and its neighbors in particular have drawn great attention from academia and policy-makers. Most work on China s role in the Mekong basin tends to concentrate on investment, trade, economic aid and immigration flows. Yet together with its increasing economic influence, China has also sought to spread its culture, in the service of its national interests. In the view of Koh (2011:202), China is attempting to obtain a seat at the top table and to be respected by the world. To realize this goal, the Communist Party of China (CPC) believes that it needs not only hard power (economic and military strength) but also soft power (diplomacy, aid and culture). Academic work by Chinese scholars highlights the importance of soft power for the sake of its {China s} diplomatic strategy (Yu Xintian 2007; He Qinglian 2009). In the view of He Qinglian, Chinese language schools, overseas Chinese associations, and Chinese language media have long been the three precious treasures of the overseas united front for the Chinese government. He has emphasized the importance of Confucius Institutes (CI) as an instrument to bring Chinese communist cultural values to the world. Foreign aid and comprehensive, mutuallypenetrating economic relations are the core of China s soft power resources this, unlike the soft power recognized by the international community, is actually the hard power of economic strength being peddled by China as soft power ; and it is, under the promise of incentives, Chinese Communist cultural values and ideas cloaked in Confucius Institutes, aimed at getting the world to accept a Chinese culture whose flavor has long ago gone bad (He Qinglian, 2009). Joseph Nye, an American scholar who fathered the theory of soft power, has agreed, up to a point, that CI play a significant role in China s soft power projection. He has stated that although China is far from equal in America s soft power, it would be foolish to ignore the gains it is making (Nye, 2005). The role of CI has engendered considerable debate. Some support the idea that CI are an important part of China s overseas propaganda (Economist, Oct 22 nd 2009; Chey 2008). Others consider CI both as an arm of Chinese soft power abroad and as a potential vehicle for intelligence gathering (McDownwel, 2010). Other researchers believe that the establishment of CI globally does not necessarily strengthen Chinese soft power because China still struggles to cope with more fundamental issues such domestic poverty and social disorder. Furthermore, the popular culture of China is feeble to influence the world (Ren Zhe 2010). Taking these debates into account, this paper explores the establishment of CI in the Mekong basin countries in general and in Thailand in particular. The establishment of Confucius Institutes in the Mekong region In around 2005, China began to negotiate with countries of the Mekong basin to set up CI. On 11 January 2006, the China Office of Education for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (Hanban) in Beijing signed an agreement with the Ministry of Education (MoE) of Thailand establishing a framework of cooperation for Chinese language teaching, and permitting the establishment of CI and Confucius Classrooms in universities, secondary schools and primary schools in Thailand. Under the agreement, the CI would receive funding, programs, curricula and volunteer teachers from China, in order to conduct teaching and to organize cultural exchange activities (MoE 2006). The rationale for the agreement has been stated in Thailand as being the result of China s rapid economic expansion in the country, and as supporting the improvement of Thai-Chinese relations and mutual understanding since Thailand needs specialist human resources on China, particularly in the Chinese language and Chinese Studies (Kriengsak 2008). The connection between the strategy of Chinese cultural expansion and the demand for human resources in Thailand led to the swift establishment of CI in Thailand, and to Chinese as a foreign language

2 FLUX AND FLOWS OF PEOPLE, POWER AND PRACTICES: ISSUES RELATING TO SOCIAL JUSTICE 235 being permitted to be taught at all levels of the education system. A five-year strategic plan ( ) for promoting the study of Chinese was approved by the Thai cabinet in May While Thai governments have welcomed the CI, efforts to establish this educational institution in other countries of the Mekong region have not been as favorable. Most CI in other Mekong countries were opened during , later than in Thailand. The other Mekong countries have only one small-scale CI or Classroom, and the activities of these are relatively quiet compared to the CI in Thailand. The reasons for this are not entirely clear. Possibilities include that CI may not have been welcomed by the local hosts, or that the countries were not seen as important enough to have more CI. Available information appears to indicate that attempts to establish CI in Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam encountered difficulties. After initial negotiations, the Hanban reached an agreement in February 2008 with the Myanmar government on building a CI in Yangon within a small high school, the Fuxing Language and Computer School. The school was established in September It is an affiliated school under the Fujian Overseas Chinese Association. In 2009 it had more than 700 students and 20 teachers (Hanban, 2009). In Cambodia, a CI was established at the Royal Academy of Cambodia in Phnom Penh in The opening ceremony on 22 December 2009 was organized jointly with China s Jiujiang University in Jiangxi province. As reported by Chinese media, the first class had 50 students, most of them from various ministries of the Cambodian government (Xinhuanet, 2010). On 23 March 2010 the National University of Laos held an official opening ceremony for an affiliated CI, established through joint efforts with Guangxi University of Nationalities. Hanban reported that about 200 local trainees attended the first class and instruction was carried out by six volunteer teachers sent from Guangxi (China CI, 2011). Vietnam is the only country that has not welcomed the introduction of CI within its national education system. In 2009, the Prime Minister of Vietnam announced official permission for establishing a pilot CI. 2 However, this announcement appeared to be a diplomatic declaration rather than a firm decision, as the location and timeframe for the establishment of the CI were not mentioned. Prior to the 2009 announcement, on 4 April 2008, the University of Guangxi and the University of Hanoi signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on the establishment of a CI at the University of Hanoi. This was to be a component of the Guangxi Vietnam Economic Education Package worth USD 780 million (Hanu 2008). However, the CI component of the agreement has yet to be implemented. That is why in a visit to Vietnam in December 2011, China s Vice President Xi Jinping continued to hope that the two sides would further enhance cooperation in education and culture, and quickly facilitate the establishment of Confucius Institute branches in Vietnam (Xinhuanet, 21 Dec. 2011). Regarding the non-existence of CI in Vietnam, a Chinese scholar and a member of government delegations who had visited Hanoi several times, in part to discuss the setting up of CI, said he was not surprised. He believed it was a reflection of Vietnam s foreign policy and stated: If Vietnam does not require us to come, what do we come for? The presence of CI brings the Vietnamese great advantages because the Chinese government provides them with textbooks, teachers, scholarships, and many other useful cultural exchange programs without any charge. Otherwise, you have to learn Chinese without any support like that. 3 In opposition to the above point of view, a senior Vietnamese educationalist explained his thinking as follows: It is not the government s policy but the people s perception. China just insists to work with the Vietnamese government while ignoring feedback from the grass-root levels. In the current situation, if a Confucius Institute were built, Vietnamese citizens would blame their government for being dependent on China. In the view of Vietnamese people, Confucius Institutes are nothing but a political organ or have a close association with politics [...]. This makes people allergic to the Confucius Institute, feel bad about it, and therefore causes detrimental effects to the authorities. It is thought that when a Confucius Institute is established in Vietnam, it is synonymous with the Vietnamese government s confirmation of subordination to China. (Ha Giang, 2009).

3 236 Panel 5 There is a popular conception in Vietnam that teaching Chinese is not simply providing language skills. It is believed that the language conveys Chinese history, culture and ways of thinking to Vietnamese society. To a certain extent, the promotion of teaching and learning Chinese is considered a sensitive political issue due to the historic relations between the two countries.. We may recall that in 1979 during the border war between Vietnam and China, Chinese language teaching was abandoned at all levels of Vietnam s educational system. Since the relationship between the two countries was formally normalized in 1991, Chinese was again introduced to students as a foreign language option at high schools and universities. However, most Vietnamese students nowadays prefer to study Western languages rather than Chinese. 4 Regardless, it is widely known that Vietnam is the only country in the Mekong region which is completely affected by Confucian culture, and Sino-Nom script was used widely in the country for centuries before the Latin system was introduced. This makes Vietnam very different to other Mekong countries, where Buddhism is considered the national religion. Country Number of CI Location & Year of establishment Cambodia 01 Royal Academy of Cambodia; December 22 nd, 2009 Laos 01 National University of Laos; March 23 rd 2010 Chinese Partner Jiujiang University in Jiangxi Province Guangxi University of Nationalities Myanmar 01 Fuxing Language and n/a Computer Middle School, Rangoon, February 2008 Thailand 23 Whole country, set up from Universities in China 2006 to 2008 Vietnam 01 In the making but not yet None open Table 1: Distribution of Confucius Institutes and Classrooms in the Mekong basin countries Address Russian Federation Blvd., Phnom Penh 3, Cambodia Dongdok Campus, Muang Saythani, Vientiane, Laos No.110, Sin Oh Dan Street, Latha Township, Yangon, Myanmar Distributed in the whole country Planned to place in Hanoi Confucius Institutes in Thailand 1. From a historical perspective, the teaching and learning of Chinese in Thailand has experienced many ups and downs within the fluctuating politicaleconomic relationship between the two countries. In fact, Chinese was not permitted to be taught as a foreign language in the public education system of Thailand before the 1970s. This was chiefly due to fears over the penetration of Chinese communism into Thailand. From the early 1920s, overseas Thai- Chinese communities were considered a potential channel for spreading Communist and Maoist ideology. According to Pierre Rousset (2009), the Communist movement began to have a presence in Thai society between 1920 and 1930, originating in Thai-Chinese communities and among Chinese traders and workers. The precursors of the Communist Party of Thailand (CPT) included the Communist Youth of Siam (CYS, established in 1927) and the Thai branch of the Chinese Communist Party or the Chinese Communist Party of Thailand (CCPT). Throughout its existence the CPT was supported by the Communist Party of China (CPC). The CPT entered a crisis point in the 1980s when Chinese diplomacy shifted to the West. On July 1, 1975, Thailand and China formally established diplomatic relations. This opened the door for Chinese to be taught as a foreign language in the Thai national education system. From Chinese policy-makers point of view, the promotion of Chinese language teaching is motivated by the following objectives: (1) To maintain and strengthen the relationship between Chinese communities overseas and in the fatherland, (2) To spread Chinese culture to the world, in order to open new markets for China s products and promote economic cooperation with foreign countries, (3) To serve China s foreign policy strategy which aims to project a good image and promote better understanding of China abroad, and (4) To expand the Chinese education network globally, which is creating jobs for a large number of Chinese-language teachers. The cooperation with Thailand on the diffusion of Chinese language and culture is part of these strategic objectives. 5

4 FLUX AND FLOWS OF PEOPLE, POWER AND PRACTICES: ISSUES RELATING TO SOCIAL JUSTICE 237 In 1992, the Thai government officially sanctioned the teaching of Chinese as a foreign language at all levels of the education system. This resolution helped elevate the status of the Chinese language to a similar level as that of English, French, German and Japanese. Ten years later, in 2002, out of a total of more than 40,000 public and private schools in Thailand, 728 offered courses in Chinese. A total of 79,195 students were participating at the primary level and 126,939 students were participating at the secondary level. The total number of instructors of Chinese was 1,270. In the academic year , 73 vocational or higher education institutions offered Chinese subjects as major, minor and selective courses, with the participation of 16,221 undergraduate and 23 graduate students (Patchanee & Suree 2010). Chinese as a foreign language is now taught at every level and in every region of the country, taking a second position to English. One explanation for the rapid success of Chinese language teaching and learning was the enthusiastic response of overseas Chinese communities in Thailand. The ethnic Chinese community in Thailand is among the largest overseas Chinese population in Southeast Asia, equivalent to that of Indonesia. Data provided by the Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission (OCAC) in 2005 indicated that the total population of ethnic Chinese in Thailand was 7,053,240, making up 15 percent of Thailand s population. The concept of being Chinese in Thailand however needs to be clarified carefully. Most people of Chinese descent who live in Thailand nowadays adopt Thai values, language and culture. They grow up under the Thai education system. Many are the result of intermarriages between Chinese and Thais. They are no longer citizens of China and Thai can be considered their secondary ethnic identity (Chan KB & CK Tong, 1993). The assimilation and integration process of the Chinese community into Thai society over many generations has meant that a portion of Chinese descendants are not able to speak their ancestral language and may perceive their Chinese origins as of less importance. This may also however perhaps account for why many Thai-Chinese people are keen to learn their ancestors language, in order to help them find their roots. Here is the voice of a young Thai-Chinese: I am a Chinese descendent born and bred in Thailand. When I was little, I really could not tell whether where I was a Thai or a Chinese. Thai is my mother tongue and I have always communicated with others in the Thai language. But in the point of my inmost heart I always feel a faint suspicion: Am I a Chinese or a Thai? My grandpa and grandma keep on telling me my ancestors were Chinese. I am determined to look for my roots. So I want to learn Chinese because Chinese is a very important tool to help me find my roots and fulfill my dreams. (People s Daily Online, 2004) 2. In 2005, Hanban signed an agreement with the MoE providing for the establishment of CI within the education system of Thailand. From 2005 to 2008, China founded 12 CI and 12 Confucius Classrooms at some of the most prestigious universities and schools of Thailand. Based on information gathered through interviews with leaders, faculty staff and students in various CI in Thailand, I provide below a brief description of CI activities in Thailand. An initial assessment on the role of CI in Thailand will be discussed. All CI in Thailand were established between 2006 and Most are affiliated to public universities and high schools. (The CI located in Betong municipality, southern Thailand is unique in that it is situated within a Thai municipal administration which has an academic collaboration with a Chinese university). It is interesting to note that virtually all of Thailand s most significant universities have a CI. These include Chulalongkorn University, Chiang Mai University, Mae Fah Luang University, Kasetsart University, Khon Kaen University, Mahasarakham University, Prince of Songkla University, Prince of Songkla University in Phuket, Burapha University and Mahasarakham University. Thammasat University does not have a CI but the Department of Chinese Studies at the Faculty of Liberal Arts and The Pridi Banomyong International College of this university are said to be among the leading Chinese teaching institutions of Thailand. 6 Suan Dusit Rajchabhat University at Suphanburi and Bansomdejchaopraya Rajchabhat University each have a CI. 7 As a common rule, each CI in Thailand is assigned to partner with a Chinese university. The Thai universities are the local hosts while the Chinese universities are under the direct administration of Hanban in Beijing. Partners in China include leading universities such as Peking University, Shanghai University, Xiamen University, Tianjin University, Guangxi University, and Yunnan University.

5 238 Panel 5 Under the direct guidance of Hanban, the organizational structure of all CI is similar. Each CI has a joint committee comprising five to seven members. The committee has two directors, one Thai and one Chinese, who are appointed by their universities. The committee assembles once a year and generally includes the president or vice-president of each university, who act as chairperson or deputychairperson. Chinese directors and employees are appointed, administered and paid by Hanban. The duration of a director s term is two years, and can be extended. The number of Chinese volunteer teachers working at each CI depends on context, and the volunteers are appointed by Hanban and work under the director s authority. After their mission term of one year teaching in Thailand, the volunteers return to their home universities. The Thai and Chinese universities are jointly responsible for CI operations. The host universities in Thailand provide working space, including offices, libraries, classrooms and meeting rooms. The hosts also provide the salaries of Thai staff and provide Chinese volunteer teachers with direct financial inputs such as assistance with water and electricity bills, sanitation and security services, lodging and lunch fees. In Mae Fah Luang University in northern Thailand, Chinese volunteer teachers are given a sub-income paid directly by the university. 8 In term of financing, the Confucius Institute is supported by both China and Thailand. Through the Hanban in Beijing, the Chinese government provides each institute with an initial amount of USD 100,000. Hanban is also responsible for providing textbooks, teaching materials and monthly salaries for the Chinese volunteer teachers. The case of the CI at Mae Fah Luang University is an exception. In this case, the Chinese government provided 60 million baht, or USD 2 million to build a Chinese language and cultural center for CI activities. 9 This CI has the largest number of undergraduate students, with 800 Thai students attending its training courses who are expected to receive a BA in Chinese Studies in conjunction with the Faculty of Liberal Arts. 10 Confucius Classrooms are set up in primary and secondary schools and are placed under the management of Hanban in Beijing and the Embassy of the People s Republic of China in the Kingdom of Thailand. Generally these classrooms do not have partner institutions in China. The Confucius Classroom in Bangkok s Traimit Wittayalai High School is an exception in that it is organized in the form of an institute. This was the first CI/Classroom to be established in Thailand. It was established in 2006 and was supported with USD 380,000 for facilities and equipment by local Thai-Chinese communities in Bangkok. The CI/Confucius Classroom in Traimit High School is considered a special success in Chinese language teaching and learning at the secondary level. Though all CI are under the direct guidance of Hanban in Beijing, each has the freedom to design its own programs which must be approved before implementation. Common activities include: Organizing short-term Chinese language training courses (from three to six months duration) for different groups, including public servants, teachers in universities and schools, and others who want to learn. The curriculum may include basic Chinese courses and courses for special purposes; Organizing lectures, academic seminars, exhibitions, competitions, performances and activities to promote Chinese art and culture. These include activities such as Chinese knowledge contests, tea ceremonies, classical music events, karaoke contests, films/movies, gardening, Chinese ikebana, traditional costumes, Chinese cuisine, painting and calligraphy, Kung-fu, and Chinese folk dancing; Organizing Chinese Language Proficiency tests (HSK) for citizens of Thailand; Providing library services; Providing consulting services about study in China or in Thailand and organizing short-term study tours in China; Providing Chinese textbooks and collaborating with Chinese university counterparts to develop teaching curricula and reading materials. Hanban places a strong emphasis on the importance of textbooks originating in China. Dr. Xu Lin, Director- General of Hanban and Chief Executive of Confucius Institute Headquarters has stated: In the next three years, we should focus on teaching textbooks and teachers. No matter whether it is for local teachers or teachers

6 FLUX AND FLOWS OF PEOPLE, POWER AND PRACTICES: ISSUES RELATING TO SOCIAL JUSTICE 239 dispatched by Hanban, a universal training standard is indispensable. We should also exert efforts in expanding coverage of Chinese textbooks in the foreign market. We have more than 40 million Chinese learners around the world, but less than 20 percent of them read our books. I think we have not done our best; the textbook coverage should reach 80 percent. This task is a difficult but glorious one. (Xu Lin, 2010) Available information provided by the CI at Chulalongkorn University indicates that volunteer teachers working in Thailand are directly recruited by Hanban in Beijing from universities in China. During the early years of CI in Thailand, only 310 volunteer teachers were sent to Thailand. By 2010 the number had increased to 1,214 (Confucius Institute Volunteer Center, ). This figure does not include staff working at the offices and libraries. As reported by Hanban, the number is not adequate for the increasing demand. One solution to cope with the shortage of Chinese teachers is to train local Thai teachers. Each year the CI Headquarters in Beijing selects about 50 Thai teachers from Thai universities to train as Hanban teachers. Some 200 Thai teachers have participated in three training courses organized by Hanban in recent years. Of these, about 70 candidates were selected to be given additional training in Chinese language skills and culture in order to be qualified to teach Chinese in their homeland. They are expected to serve not only as language teachers but also as organizers of cultural activities. They thus must learn about Chinese lifestyles, cuisine, culture, movies, etc. As claimed by Hanban, the Thai teachers will apply Chinese ways of thinking, virtues and behaviors in their work. 3. Based on information gathered from various CI, key characteristics of the institutions include: First, CI and Classrooms are affiliated with either a public university or a high school. CI activities are not necessarily related to the training tasks and research of the educational institution. My discussions with professors and students at relevant universities suggested that many had only a vague knowledge of the CI at their institution. Hanban news bulletins regularly state that CI in Thailand have close collaboration with the university they are attached to. Yet my observations suggest that this relationship may not go very deep. Most CI conduct short-term training courses that are designed for society at large, not only students. Their major task is perhaps providing Thai citizens with Chinese Language Proficiency tests (HSK) and organizing cultural exhibitions, book fairs and other activities in and outside of the university. Nonetheless, the presence of CI at large public universities of Thailand is a noteworthy achievement. This is because: 3.1 The existence of CI within public universities provides an important signal of the friendship between Thailand and China, helps make Thai people feel closer to China, and satisfies the desires of those who want to learn more about China. CI are thus ambassadors for Chinese culture in Thailand. 3.2 Being situated inside universities of repute, the image and perception of CI and their teaching quality is boosted. The affiliation with local host universities saves expense and time as they are provided with facilities, offices, classrooms and reputation. 3.3 CI activities receive greater attention from not only the public but also the elite, including government officials and members of the extended Thai royal family. This elevates the image of CI in the public perception. Secondly, although most CI in Thailand are based in public universities, they are not properly managed by the Thai educational system. CI operate independently regardless of the fact that they are formally joint institutions, and that local host universities are responsible to appoint board representatives and to contribute funding. CI boards have limited power as they are placed directly under the administration of CI Headquarters in Beijing. Hanban supplies volunteer teachers, teaching materials and approves activity programs. CI must submit proposals for programs and activities to Hanban for approval. My informants tend to explain that process is to avoid any misunderstandings about the role of CI or any activities which could be interpreted as an act of aggression in culture. Thirdly, as pointed out earlier, most CI are located in large public universities and in locations with a high density of Thai-Chinese people. This is highly effective for spreading Chinese language and culture among the elite of society, with support from local Chinese communities.

7 240 Panel 5 Thailand is a Buddhist country with cultural values that are in many ways quite different from those of China s Confucian based-culture. Even though Thai- Chinese communities have integrated deeply into Thai society and the Thai language is a compulsory subject in all schools, the enduring presence of Chinese communities in Thailand has familiarized the society with Confucian values. Aspects of Confucian culture have gradually penetrated into local Thai communities over centuries. Acculturation between Thai and Chinese communities has taken place in which the descendants of Chinese immigrants have been assimilating into Thai society since the beginnings of Chinese settlement in Siam [ ] and practically all grandchildren of Chinese immigrants achieved complete assimilation to Thai society. (Skinner, 1957). Skinner s argument may have generated some controversy on the ethnic Chinese and their integration into Thai society (Chan & Tong 1993), but no one can deny that Thailand is home to probably the most integrated overseas Chinese community in Asia, and that Chinese culture has become part of modern Thai society. With a population of more than 7 million people who claim to be ethnic Chinese (OCAC 2005), overseas Chinese in Thailand play a very important role in the Kingdom. This helps explain why CI have been warmly welcomed in Thailand and why the most successful CI are located within areas where the local Thai-Chinese communities dominates such as around Traimit High School in the heart of Bangkok s Chinatown, Mae Fah Luang University in Chiang Rai and Khon Kaen University in Khon Kaen province. Thanks to strong support from Thai-Chinese communities who dominate commercial activities in Khon Kaen city, the CI at Khon Kaen University has become widely known. In 2007 it was recognized as one of the top twenty excellent CI in the world, and in 2010 its leader was awarded a prize for the Confucius Institute Individual Performance Excellence (Khon Kaen University 2010). The CI in Betong municipality is not affiliated with a public university but an administrative unit. This exception was endorsed by Hanban because 45 percent of the city residents are overseas Chinese (Confucius Institute 2010). In return, CI and Classrooms have received great support by the local Chinese community. Cultural activities organized by CI such as the Chinese New Year festival 2011 drew great attention from the media and visitors. In Bangkok s Chinatown, Chinese associations provided USD 380,000 for the construction and development of a CI at Bangkok Traimit High School. These joint efforts have received a great deal of recognition and respect in Thailand and in China. (Traimit High School News 2010). Chinese Associations in Thailand such as the Teochew Association, the Hakka Association, the Thai Hainan Trade Association and the Fujian Association have contributed significantly towards the activities of CI. These affluent organizations play an important role in connecting business networks between Thai-Chinese communities and the China mainland (Zhuang & Wang 2010). It should be added that private language centers in Thailand also began to offer Chinese language training courses many years ago. Many have collaborative links with institutions or organizations in China. The Oriental Culture Academy (OCA) for instance, has offered Chinese training courses since 1993 and has cooperated with Hanban in holding Chinese proficiency tests (HSK) and in providing scholarships to send students to further their study in China. In the academic year 2008, this private institution attracted more than 21,000 students to its classes (Thawee Theerawongseri, 2009). Nowadays, the increasing flow of people who leave China for work, study or business abroad can also shed light on relations between Beijing and the overseas Chinese community, which has a long history. In a discussion of the invisible bond, Shao Dan (2009:33) argued: In defining Chinese nationality, the ancestral aura and power legitimizing bloodline is still influencing how the Chinese understand their nationality membership and political allegiance today. It is deemed that the establishment of CI at the heart of overseas Chinese communities helps not only the Chinese immigrants recollect their origins but promotes the bonds between them and China. Concluding remarks CI in Thailand account for 25 percent of the total number of CI in Asia. The boom of CI and Classrooms in Thailand is closely related to the rise of China and its strategic policy of exporting its culture to the world. While Thailand is open to the Chinese language and sees the ties with China as an opportunity for development, other countries in the

8 FLUX AND FLOWS OF PEOPLE, POWER AND PRACTICES: ISSUES RELATING TO SOCIAL JUSTICE 241 Mekong basin region seem to be more cautious about this generous gift from their giant neighbor. Thailand has 23 CI and Classrooms, compared to just one in each of the rest of Mekong region countries (the proposed CI in Vietnam has yet to be set up). In contrast to other foreign cultural institutions, such as the British Council or Centre Culturel Francais L Espace_ the CI chose to affiliate with public universities and high schools. Every year, Hanban sends about 1,500 volunteer staff to Thailand and other countries in the Mekong region with the mission of bringing the Chinese language and culture to the Thai and Mekong people. Local response to this new development is relatively diverse. My conversations with local people in Thailand and Vietnam indicate a variety of views on CI activities. Most Vietnamese people expressed history-based opinions that reflected concerns about the establishment of CI in the country. They were concerned over risks of dependency on China. By contrast, Thai people see positive as well as negative impacts. They give at least four reasons for why they or their children should study Chinese culture and language: 1) Learning and speaking the Chinese language distinguishes them from the crowd as English is nowadays too popular; 2) Mastering Chinese is a heartfelt aspiration of Thai-Chinese who are deeply integrated into Thai society and no longer speak their ancestral tongue. Studying Chinese is a good way to return to their origins and respect their ancestors; 3) The increasing presence of China in Thailand and other Mekong basin countries brings more employment opportunities for local people who are able to speak Chinese; 4) Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn is often mentioned as an example of a great learner who has spent many years studying Chinese and gaining a background in Chinese culture. The question can be raised as to why China invests such large effort into supporting many CI in Thailand, and why Thailand has shifted from previous policies of Thai-ization of Chinese immigrants to warmly welcoming Chinese language and culture. The initial findings of this study suggest that Thailand perhaps occupies an important position within China s diplomacy in the Mekong region and in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) generally. While this hypothesis needs further empirical data to prove, it is certain that China s cultural expansion is built upon its global strategy to conduct a charm offensive. NOTES This paper is the result of an API fellowship award by the Nippon Foundation for I would like to thank Prof. Sunait Chutintaranond, IAS Director at Chulalongkorn University; Prof. Chayan Vaddhanaphuti, RCSD Director at Chiang Mai University; Prof. Shimizu Hiromu, CSEAS Director at Kyoto University for their warm hospitality and support during my affiliation with their institutions. My deep gratitude goes to Prof. Fu Zengyou, Director of the Confucius Institute at Chulalongkorn University; Prof. Cen Rong Lin, Co-Director of the Confucius Institute at Mae Fah Luang University; Dr. Yu Qinwei, Director of the Confucius Institute at Chiang Mai University; and many more faculty staff working at various CI in Thailand. They spent hours meeting me and sharing with me their common interests. I am also very grateful to the National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) for supporting my research in Thailand; Dr. Thanya Sripana (Chulalongkorn University) and Dr. Thanet Aphornsuvan (Thammasat University) for their kind assistance and for sharing with me their wisdom. I do believe that without their assistance, this small piece of study could not have been realized, though I do understand that the study needs more work to meet the requirements of all readers, and I am alone responsible for that. On April 6 th 2009, the Vietnam Government Office officially issued document No. 1992/VPCP-QHQT to announce that Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung had agreed to permit a pilot project of the Confucius Institute to be built in Vietnam. The document however did not mention in detail how, when and where the institute was to be inaugurated. Source: page/portal/chinhphu/hethongvanban (Accessed 1 July 2012) Interviews with Dr. Yu Quinwei, Director of the Confucius Institute at Chiang Mai University, Thailand on 1 December A survey conducted by the Newspaper Nguoi Lao Dong [Labor] reported that Departments of Chinese Studies at various universities in the country found it difficult to find students to register for Chinese language as students could not find jobs after graduation. See: Nganh Ngoai Ngu Teo Dan [Foreign language studies narrows down] in: Nguoi Lao Dong, 17 May For further information on the global mission of China s Confucius Institutes, see the long interview in Guangming Net with Dr. Xu Lin, Director General of Hanban, posted at the following site: (Accessed 1 July 2012) As informed by this institution at its website ( The Chinese Studies International Program at Pridi Banomyong International

9 242 Panel College is unique because it has a close relationship with the School of International Studies at Peking University in China; students in the program are required to spend at least one semester abroad at Peking University; and the courses offered by the Chinese Studies International Program at Thammasat are equivalent to courses offered at Peking University, Most of the so-called Rajabhat Universities in Thailand were developed from the former Rajabhat Institutes, which belonged to the provincial teacher college system. Interviews with Prof. Cen Rong Lin, Co-Director of the Confucius Institute at the Mae Fah Luang University, August 15, Information carved on the stone stele unveiled as part of the opening ceremony of the Confucius Center in Mae Fah Luang University informs that the 60 million-baht center was a gift from the Government of the People s Republic of China, constructed by engineers and craftsmen from Yunnan province, based on plans by a Sichuanese architect. 10 According to Prof. Cen Rong Lin, CI Director at Mae Fah Luang University, the Chinese language training program at the CI of Mae Fah Luang University is of four years duration. Students who graduate from this program are awarded a Bachelor s degree. This is different from the training program offered by other CI, which aim to provide short courses of three to six months only (interviews with Prof. Cen Rong Lin, August 15, 2011). REFERENCES Chan Kwok Bun, Tong Chee Kiong Rethinking Assimilation & Ethnicity: The Chinese in Thailand. International Migration Review, Vol.2, Spring Chey, Jocelyn, Chinese Soft Power Diplomacy and The Confucius Institute podcast, Sydney Papers Vol. 20 No. 1, pp China Confucius Institute, 2011 An Introduction on the Confucius Institute at National University of Laos (Accessed 1 July 2012). Traimit High School News Brief Introduction on Confucius Classroom in Traimit High School. english.chinese.cn/confuciusinstitute/article/ /03/ content_ htm (Accessed 1 July 2012) Confucius Institute (Hanban), Introduction to the Confucius Institutes; node_10971.htm (Accessed 1 July 2012). Confucius Institute Volunteer Center, The 2010 Thai Volunteer Chinese Teachers Living & Working Conditions Fact-Finding Meeting Convenes in Bangkok; 2010-July-14. Economist, A message from Confucius. New ways of projecting soft power; Oct 22. (Accessed 1 July 2012) Hà Giang, tử tại Nên Việt hay Nam không [Should nên thành a Confucius lập Học Institute viện Khổng be established in Vietnam? RFA Interviews with Dr. Nguyen Thanh Liem] Hanban, Confucius Institute at Fuxing School Myanmar 864;jsessionid= F D6B29B D (Accessed 1 July 2012). Hanu (University of Hanoi City), Ký kết biên bản ghi nhớ thành lập học viện Khổng Tử [MOU signing ceremony on establishment of Confucius Institute], He, Qinglian, Soft Power with Chinese Characteristics Is Changing the World ; (Accessed 1 July 2012) Khon Kaen University, The Vice President for Academic and International Affairs selected an individual with performance excellence index.php/news/1-latest-news/150-the-vice-president-foracademic-and-international-affairs-selected-an-individual-withperformance-excellence- (Accessed 1 July 2012) Koh, Tommy, st Century: China and the World ; in: China in the Next 30 years; pa_tk_21st%20century%20china%20and%20the%20world_ 11.pdf (Accessed 1 July 2012) Kriengsak, Promote Chinese Studies: Develop the Relationship between Thailand and China blog.nationmultimedia.com/print.php?id=5017 (Accessed 1 July 2012) McDowell, Adam, Are China s Confucius Institutes in Canada culture clubs or spy outposts. In: National Post, Friday, Jul. 9, 2010, Canada. Ministry of Education of the Kingdom of Thailand (MOE of Thailand), Framework of Cooperation Between the China National Office for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (Hanban) and the Ministry of Education of the Kingdom of Thailand (MOE of Thailand) on the cooperation in Chinese Language Teaching. images/stories/mou/framework/th-hanbaneng.pdf (Accessed 1 July 2012) Nye, Joseph S The Rise of China s Soft Power, Wall Street Journal Asia, December 29, 2005; belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/1499/ rise_of_chinas_soft_power.html (Accessed 1 July 2012) Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission (OCAC), The Ranking of Ethnic Chinese Population around the world; / (Accessed 1 July 2012)

10 FLUX AND FLOWS OF PEOPLE, POWER AND PRACTICES: ISSUES RELATING TO SOCIAL JUSTICE 243 Patchanee Tangyuenyong & Suree Choonhaaruangdej, Research on the Teaching and Learning of the Chinese Language in Higher Education Institutions in Thailand answer.php?question_id=830 (Accessed 1 July 2012) People Daily Online, Chinese helps me find my roots eng _ html (Accessed 1 July 2012) Pittaya Suvakunta, China s Go-Out Strategy: Chinese Foreign Direct Investment in Thailand; In: Thailand Law Journal, 2010 Spring Issue No.1, Volume 13. Ren Zhe, Confucius Institutes: China s Soft Power? ARRIDE_Discussion_No.330_ren.pdf (Accessed 1 July 2012) Shao Dan, Chinese by Definition: Nationality, Law, Jus Sanguinis, and State Succession, In : Twentieth- Century China, Vol. 35, No.1, Nov., 2009, pp Skinner, G. William, Chinese Assimilation & Thai Politics. Journal of Asian Studies, Vol.16, No.2. Thawee Theerawongseri, Sino-Thai Cooperation in the Teaching and Learning of Chinese. en/thailand_monitor/answer.php?question_id=863 (Accessed 1 July 2012) Wang, Edward, History, Space, and Ethnicity: The Chinese Worldview; Journal of World History 10.2 (1999) Xinhuanet, (21 Jan). Confucius Institute opens Chineselanguage class in Cambodia english2010/china/ /21/c_ htm (Accessed 1July 2012) Xinhuanet, (25 June) Hanban s Chinese Textbooks Appear at a Thai Academic Day hanban_en/article/ /25/content_ htm (Accessed 1 July 2012) Xu Lin, Chinese Language Quickly Going Global is a Great Phenomenon - A Special Interview with Chinese State Council Consultant and Director General of Hanban content_ htm (Accessed 1 July 2012) Yu Xintian, The Role of Soft Power in China s External Strategy, Global Review, trial issue, pp