Papeles de Población ISSN: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México México

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1 Papeles de Población ISSN: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México México Cacopardo, María Cristina; Maguid, Alicia; Martínez, Rosana La nueva emigración de latinoamericanos a España: el caso de los argentinos desde una perspectiva comparada Papeles de Población, vol. 13, núm. 51, enero-marzo, 2007, pp Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México Toluca, México Available in: How to cite Complete issue More information about this article Journal's homepage in redalyc.org Scientific Information System Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal Non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative

2 Resumen New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective* María Cristina Cacopardo, Alicia Maguid y Rosana Martínez Universidad Nacional de Luján, Argentina Abstract La emigración de argentinos ha venido aumentando desde mediados del siglo XX, pero durante la reciente década aparecen destinos alternativos a Estados Unidos, como España. El objetivo de este trabajo es comparar las características sociodemográficas y las modalidades de inserción ocupacional de los argentinos con las de ecuatorianos y colombianos. La elección de estos grupos se justifica por su mayor presencia en España y porque ejemplifican distintas dimensiones de los procesos migratorios. Interesa visualizar el papel que juegan estos grupos migratorios en el mercado de trabajo español, identificando los nichos sectoriales de absorción y el grado de subutilización de su fuerza de trabajo asociada a su perfil educativo, considerando el género, la antigüedad migratoria y la ciudadanía. Palabras clave: migración internacional, migración latinoamericana, migración latinoamericana a España, emigración argentina a España. New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective From the mid XX century, Argentinean emigration has increased dramatically, but it is in the last decade when destinations different to the United States have come into scene, such is the case of Spain. The objective of this study is to compare the sociodemographic characteristics as well as the modalities of the migrants employment patterns of Argentinean emigrants to those of Ecuadorians and Colombians. These three groups were selected due to their representativity in Spain and because they exemplify different dimensions of the migratory processes. It is of our interest to visualize the role these groups play in the Spanish labor market by the identification of main insertion sectors and their occupational qualification use according to their educational achievement, in terms of gender, time of residence and citizenship. Introduction Key words: international emigration, Latin American emigration, Latin American emigration to Spain, Argentinean emigration to Spain. he decade of the most important changes in the Latin American population' migratory patterns that are seen as from the 1990's decade are the increase of the flows and the destinations' diversification, since Tcountries such as Spain, Japan and Canada are added to the United States, main receptor country. * This work has been realized based upon the lecture presented in the II Congress of the Latin American Association of Population, held in Guadalajara, Mexico, from September 3 rd to 5 th, 2006.

3 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM Among the alternative destinations, in Spain there is the largest Latin American presence, as well as the most significant increments, when changing from to people between 1991 and In this group, migrants from Ecuador, Colombia and Argentina represent 59 percent and are the first three contingents in magnitude, according to the data from the last Spanish census. The arrival of new Latin American flows into Spain takes place in an immigration context characterized by the acceleration, the diversification of the origins and the increment in their irregular residence situation. These movements become relevant in the framework of a process of intense economic, social and demographic changes started by the end of the 1970's decade, where it is noticeable the fast fertility descent and the life expectancy increase altogether with the expansion of the educational system, specially for women and their incorporation to labor market. Immigration becomes relevant for favoring both the population's growth and feeding a segmented labor market which assigns foreign population a complementary role to that of mobility of the more educated young Spanish generations (Domingo, 2005). At the beginnings of the 1990's decade, Moroccan male and Dominican female workers have a predominant role in the Spanish labor market, nevertheless as from the middle of the said decade important flows from Latin American countries (particularly Ecuadorians) and Eastern Europe are added to the workforce. Between 2000 and 2001, Spanish government sign bilateral agreements on migration with Ecuador, Colombia, Poland, among other, and carries out regularization programs which favored the flow's massiveness. A large number of these agreements currently have limitations, among them, the introduction of obligatoriness of visa countersigning for Colombians and Ecuadorians as from 2003 (Anguiano, 2002). In respect to the presence of Latin American people in Spain, the most important demographic group in relative and absolute terms, Pérez Caramés (2004) points out that it is no novelty, but in reality the relative weights of the compositions by continents of origin have changed. According to some authors, this increment largely responds to a political will to favor the entrance of Latin American people to the country against the African population especially Moroccan and it is interpreted in terms of the "preferred ones" (Izquierdo et al., 2002) or "ethnical substitution" (Domingo,2003), 2

4 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. a preference reflected in the number of permissions granted to Latin American people in recent years, in special with the regularization processes, notwithstanding, Domingo (2005) states the «rhetoric of the Hispanic World», due to the clear inequality in the labor and social insertion of the Latin American immigrants. In relation to the Argentinean situation, there are also alternative destinations such as Spain and other European countries that now have similar participation as the United States. Hence, almost Argentinean used to live in the United States in the year 2001, 1 whereas the 200 Spanish Census 2 registered a greater figure: Their presence has also a deeper impact in Spain, for it represents 4.8 percent of the people born abroad, while in the United States they do not reach one percent. The Argentineans preference for Spain is partly explained by the possibility of many immigrants to acquire the nationality of their ancestors, protagonists of the old and great European immigration that took place by the end of the XIX century and mid XX century. The second characteristic is the growing heterogeneity of the Argentinean migrants: up to the middle of the 1970's, professionals and technicians with a high education level were abundant, originated by the military intervention in the university. Later, the exiles of the generalized political repression joined the previous contingents; by the 1990's decade the persistent economic deterioration and its repercussions in the labor markets did not only contribute to increase the flows' volume but also to socially diversify them. However, a persisting pattern is the significant existence of a high schooling level among the Argentinean migrants' contingent (Pellegrino, 2003). In a recent work, Martínez (2005) points out that according to the Statistics of Residential Variations (Estadísticas de Variaciones Residenciales), the arrival of Argentineans is intensified in such manner that as from 2001 it reaches a total of Argentinean-born people residing in Spain in early This situation demonstrates the validity and relevance of the emigration topic for Latin America. 1 Based on the Current Population Survey. 2 Taken from the National institute of Statistics (Instituto Nacional de Estadística, INE) at 3 January/March 2007

5 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM Argentinean emigration: context and analysis perspectives The objective of this work is to compare the main socio-demographic characteristics and in particular the occupational insertion modalities of the Argentinean people in relation to those of the Ecuadorians and Colombians, and their differences from the Spanish population. It is of our interest to visualize the role these migratory groups have in the Spanish labor market, identifying their sectorial niches of absorption and the subutilization degree of their workforce associated to their education profile, with control of certain attributes such as age, time of arrival and citizenship. The election of these three Latin American groups is justified by several reasons. In the first place, due to their widespread presence in Spain, besides because it is considered they exemplify different dimensions of the migratory process. Thus, in relation to the trajectory and direction of the flows, Colombian and Ecuador historically have been emigrating countries and have as a main destination the United States, being Spain a much more recent destination. Whereas in Argentina there is a traditionally receptive character of foreign population from neighboring countries and recently also Peruvian combined with another closer, that of emigration. Apart from this, the greater incidence of qualified people among Argentineans would imply a different socioeconomic and educational composition among the immigrants with poor schooling; finally, even if the reform of the Spanish Civil Code makes it easy to obtain the nationality for several groups, Argentineans would have relative advantages to obtain the citizenship in countries of the European Union. This work retakes the importance of analyzing emigration from the perspective of the countries of origin. In this sense, it is important to acknowledge the characteristics of the populations in study in accordance with the country where they were born, besides their citizenship. Even if it is recognized that the possession of a communal citizenship constitutes one of the immigrants' attributes allegedly egalitarian it must be studied. For this research it is considered that the population in study is constituted by all the people who were born in Argentina, Colombia and Ecuador living in family households in Spain in the year The censual source used, 3 even if it loses 3 Special processes have been performed based on the Census of Population and Households (Censo de Población y Viviendas de España de 2001) available at ww.ine.es 4

6 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. actuality in respect to a source such as the continuous governmental censuses, allows a data elaboration adequate to the objectives of this study. The results hereby presented constitute the first exploratory advancement in the framework of a research project on Argentinean emigration. Time of arrival and socio-demographic profile The migratory impact of the Argentineans, Colombians, and Ecuadorians is differenced in function of their volume and the time of arrival. Virtually, twenty percent of the Argentineans had already arrived into Spain before 1971, and they present a growing tendency, stressed as from Conversely, Colombians and Ecuadorians start to have a notorious presence in Spain in the 1990's decade, reaching magnitudes almost or as much as twice the Argentinean presence. To sum up, 47.1 percent of the Argentineans in the census arrived between 1991 and 2001, whereas the Colombians and Ecuadorians' percentages are 80.2 and 81.2 percent, respectively. A different citizenship acquiring (largely European, mainly Spanish and Italian) is visibly associated to the time of arrival, even though in the Argentinean case this is reinforced with the jus sanguis. Altogether, almost half of the Argentineans only have birth nationality, a proportion that is reduced to 16.3 percent in the people arrived before 1971 and which gradually rises until it reaches 72.8 percent among those who arrived in We should not forget that the date refer to the year 2001 stock (result of entrances, departures and deceases), evolution according to the year of arrival, when comparing Colombians and Ecuadorians it is very similar through time, however, there is larger incidence of Ecuadorians with no communal citizenship. Besides, it must be noted that among the few Colombians who arrived before 1991, there is certain correspondence between time of arrival and the possession of the said citizenship, which does not occur among the Ecuadorians, who have always had a very low access to it. As a whole, 90.3 percent of the Colombians and 97.4 percent of the Ecuadorians lack a communal citizenship. In relation to the gender composition, there are also variations to stand out. Argentineans show having had a feminine majority before 1971 and then a slight male predominance that is summarized in a masculinity index almost even. In the Ecuadorians and Colombians, though, feminine presence is always dominant; however, with much stronger among Colombians, whose index is 72.4 male per hundred women. 5 January/March 2007

7 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM All in all, in these groups' stock it is observed the large concentration of Colombians and Ecuadorians who arrived last decade, with a great women's incidence and scarce access to communal citizenship. Separately, Argentineans have a greater dispersion in time, with with more male incidence and clear access to double citizenship (Table 1). These characteristics indicate that both time of arrival control and citizenship are more relevant to Argentineans than to other immigrants of the studied countries. These populations show an age structure of heavy concentration in the youngest potentially active ages, it is between 15 and 49 years, and with low incidence in the older than 64 year, what is proper to labor migrations. This is clear among Colombians and Ecuadorians, the ones with less time of arrival (only 1.2 and 0.5 percent, respectively, in this age group), while the Argentineans have an intermediate situation with 10.6 percent of people older than 65 years, before 17.3 percent of the Spanish. The major similitude in the weight of the 15 to 49 years groups in the populations in study leads to select it in order to perform comparisons along this work, thus eliminating the distortion of the uneven weight of the youngest and the oldest sectors. Besides, it is at these ages of larger insertion to labor market where the differentiation by gender deepens: more men among Argentineans and more women among Ecuadorians and Colombians (Table 2). Educational level is a fundamental characteristic to infer the positioning of the migrants in respect to their labor insertion. In graph 1, the distribution of the schooling level reached by the population older than 15 years, and also that of the groups from 15 to 29 and from 30 to 49 years can be observed; the most important issues can be pointed out. It is clear that among the youngest educational structures tend to reduce their differences, which implies the new migratory contingents have a greater access to education. In any manner, all of the time the Colombians and Ecuadorians' profiles are unfavorable in relation to the Spanish, and there is a wider breach with the Ecuadorians. In the case of the Argentineans the opposite happens, at the extent that their education levels are clearly superior, in respect to Colombians, Ecuadorians, and even Spanish. The Argentineans of 30 to 49 years have a notorious concentration in the higher education levels, which is a reflection of the emigration of highly qualified Argentinean population. 6

8 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. TABLE 1 POPULATION BORN IN ARGENTINA, NATIONALITY AND MASCULINITY INDEX ACCORDING TO ARRIVAL YEAR, 2001 Total Year of arrival into Spain Before Population born in: Argentina Absolute Percentage IM % with Argentinean nationality Colombia Absolute Percentage IM % with Colombian nationality Ecuador Absolute Percentage IM % with Ecuadorian nationality Source: Own elaboration based upon the data from the Census of Population and Households of Spain, INE, In all of the cases, women are always the ones who have the highest education level, a growing and very extended phanomenon in most of the countries in the world. These considerations reveal two interlaced phenomena; on the one side, a stressed selectivity in relation to who the emigrants are; and on the other, a general improvement in education access more noticeable among women in several Latin American countries. 7 January/March 2007

9 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM TABLE 2 POPULATION BORN IN ARGENTINA, COLOMBIA, ECUADOR AND SPAIN, ACCORDINGT O AGE GROUPS AND MASCULINITY INDEX, 2001 Argentina Colombia Ecuador Spain % IM % IM % IM % IM Total (100) (100) (100) (100) and Source: Own elaboration based upon the data from the Census of Population and Households of Spain INE, Access and insertion in the labor market Various authors, among them Domingo (2005), have pinpointed the complementary role of the Latin American migrants defined a those who do not have the Spanish nationality both to take positions not taken by the Spanish and to facilitate the increasing labor insertion of the native women, especially the ones who have or wish to have children. They also open the debate on the coexistence of complementariness and exclusion patterns of migrants. From the perspective of the ejector countries, besides these aspects, it is relevant to know the levels of employment and unemployment as well as the insertion modalities of the total of people born in the selected countries, independently from their nationality, even if it is procured to distinguish this characteristic in the case of Argentineans. To visualize the forms and quality of the insertion and the role these migratory groups play in the Spanish labor market, it is tried to identify the absorption sectorial niches; the occupations, taking in consideration the supposed qualifications for that job and the precariousness incidence. Finally, the analysis on the sub-utilization of their workforce in terms of the entailments between the occupational qualifications and the education profile is deepened, controlling the time of arrival, age and citizenship in the Argentineans. 4 4 It was not possible to obtain the crossing of all this variables by gender due to restrictions in the process required to control nationality. 8

10 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. GRAPH 1 POPULATION BORN IN ARGENTINA, COLOMBIA, ECUADOR AND SPAIN ACCORDING TO EDUCATION LEVEL BY LARGE AGE GROUPS, 2001 Men 15 years and older Women Incomplete Primary School Complete Primary school Complete and incomplete Secundary school Superior / Universitary 9 January/March 2007

11 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM GRAPH 1 POPULATION BORN IN ARGENTINA, COLOMBIA, ECUADOR AND SPAIN ACCORDING TO EDUCATION LEVEL BY LARGE AGE GROUPS, 2001 (CONTINUATION) Men 15 to 29 years women Incomplete Primary School Complete Primary school Complete and incomplete Secundary school Superior / Universitary 10

12 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. GRAPH 1 POPULATION BORN IN ARGENTINA, COLOMBIA, ECUADOR AND SPAIN ACCORDING TO EDUCATION LEVEL BY LARGE AGE GROUPS, 2001 (CONTINUATION) Men 30 to 49 years Women Incomplete Primary School Complete Primary school Complete and incomplete Secundary school Superior / Universitary Source: Own elaboration based upon the data from the Census of Population and Households in Spain INE, January/March 2007

13 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM TABLE 3 ACTIVITY AND UNEMPLOYMENT RATES OF THE POPULATION FROM 16 TO 49 YEARS OF AGE ACCORDING TO COUNTRY OF BIRTH 1 Activity Unemployment Breach with Rate Spanish 2 Country of Birth Rate Breach with Spanish 2 Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women Argentina Colombia Ecuador Spain See this universe s definition in graph 2. 2 It is the relative variation in respect to the rates of those who were born in Spain. Source: Own elaboration ased upon Domingo Valls and Houle (2005) and Martínez (2005). It is convenient to clarify that this exercise, that incorporates the main variables associated to labor insertion quality, constitutes a first advancement that would serve as a precedent to define the methodology to be followed in the project that frames this study. In relation to participation in labor market, it is expectable, as table 3 shows, that in this age group, men have rates of activity superior to eighty percent in all of the origins; what is relevant is the high level of feminine participation, particularly, among Colombians and Ecuadorians. Migrants have, although in different intensity, higher participation levels in labor market than the Spanish, and this is the same for both genders expressing the labor character of the migrations. Ecuadorians are distinguishable, 92 percent of the men and 79 percent of the women are active, values superior to the rest of the immigrants that result in wider breaches in respect to the Spanish of the same sex that reach their greatest expression in the distance among Ecuadorian and Spanish women. Colombian women also present a significant breach in respect to the Spanish, whereas the Argentinean women rates are fairly similar, for both men and women. The Argentinean and Spanish are the ones who have more stressed gender differences, for men reach levels 30 percent superior to those of women from their same country. In graph 2 the differential behavior by ages in men and women of each group is clearly reflected. Thus, the highest verified levels for the set of Colombian and Ecuadorian men is explained by their earlier entrance to the labor market 12

14 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. altogether with high rates among youths, practically disappearing by the 30 years. Among the migrant women, conversely, the differences are preserved in all of the age groups and are stabilized as from the 25 years for the three countries of origin, this suggests their permanence in the labor market independently from the life cycle they are in. The opposite happens to the Spanish women who show a descending curve after 25 years. Within the economic active population from 16 to 49 years, Argentinean women and Colombians of both genders are the ones who mainly experience unemployment, even though the Spanish women almost reach those levels. Ecuadorians are once again noticeable because they have the lesser levels among the migrants and, they even achieve a lower unemployment feminine share than their Spanish counterparts (table 3). This advantage is common to all of the women at all ages (graph 2) and young men. Colombian men hold the greatest unemployment levels, independently from the age, differently from their female compatriots, who reach levels slightly inferior to those of the Argentinean women and almost similar to those of the Spanish older than 20 years. As is happened in the labor market participation, Argentinean and Spanish men are also the ones who have more differences between gender, against women. Hence, it would seem like the capacity of the Spanish labor market to absorb the important Ecuadorian labor offering reinforced the hypothesis of its flexibility to develop a complementary role, situation that is strengthened when the sectors and occupations they have are observed. Graph 3 shows that among Argentinean, the fact of having Spanish nationality incises in their possibilities of access to labor market; being heavily stressed its effect on the women's activity. In table 4 the distribution according to occupational groups for the total of employed people and for both of the age groups centrally active of each country is displayed. Argentineans, such as Spanish, have a more diversified occupational insertion than the Ecuadorians and Colombians. 13 January/March 2007

15 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM GRAPH 2 ACTIVITY AND UNEMPLOYMENT RATES OF THE POPULATION BORN IN ARGENTINA, COLOMBIA, ECUADOR(1) AND SPAIN BY GENDER AND AGE, Activity rate Men Women Argentina Colombia Ecuador Spain 14

16 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. GRAPH 2 ACTIVITY AND UNEMPLOYMENT RATES OF THE POPULATION BORN IN ARGENTINA, COLOMBIA, ECUADOR AND SPAIN BY GENDER AND AGE, 2001 (CONTINUATION)* Men Unemployment rate Women Argentina Colombia Ecuador Spain * Estimated on the available database which covers almost the totality of each group. The Argentineans include 99.8 percent (people with Argentinean, Spanish and Italian nationality); the Colombian 93.2 percent and the Ecuadorian 98.7 percent (they do not have a different nationality apart from the one of their country of birth). Source: Own elaboration based upon Domingo and Martínez (2005) and Martínez (2005). 15 January/March 2007

17 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM It is interesting the Argentinean concentration in the occupations with the highest qualification managers, technicians, professional and supporting scientists with percentages, even above the Spanish in the total and in each age group: 43 percent of the Argentineans compared to 32 percent of the Spanish, 15 percent of the Colombians and 7 percent of the Ecuadorians, the Argentineans' advantage in relation to the Spanish is sharp among those who have a scientific character (19 percent of the Argentineans before 12 percent of the Spanish) and it is fundamentally explained by the contribution of those of older ages, who logically arrived before and, as it had been seen, have a higher education level. While the Ecuadorians in the first place and the Colombians are principally concentrated in unqualified jobs: 47 percent among the Ecuadorians and 36 percent among Colombians, these figures three-fold the proportion of Argentineans and Spanish in this situation. In the second place, they are inserted as qualified workers, with superior participation to those of the Argentineans, but inferior to the Spanish's. In all of the groups the percentage of people working as employee in the services sector or a salesman is significant; among Argentinean youths this reaches the major representation, surpassing scientists and technicians, and among Colombian youths surpasses qualified workers. Women contribute to the fact that the Argentineans would be the group with the greatest share of professionals and technicians with scientific and supportive qualification. As a matter of fact, 22 percent of them develops these activities before 18 percent of their male compatriots. In the total of employed people of 16 years and older, the distance in respect to the Spanish women is shorter than the Argentinean men have before Spanish men. The differences are attenuated in the youngest group. Another difference to highlight is that the Argentinean women have a considerable concentration as employees and saleswomen, that for this case is stressed among the youths from 16 to 29 years. The gender distinction manifests that the high proportion of Ecuadorians and Colombians as unqualified workers is basically explained by the incidence of women. This situation is stressed among the older women, particularly Ecuadorian women, since 63 percent of the women who are between 30 and 49 years is in this age group. Besides, the generational difference in favor of the youngest becomes more relevant among Colombians than among Ecuadorians. 16

18 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. GRAPH 3 ACTIVITY AND UNEMPLOYMENT RATES OF THE POPULATION BORN IN ARGENTINA WITH ARGETINEAN AND SPANISH NATIONALITY BY GENDER AND AGE, Men Women Argentinean nationality Spanish nationality Source: Own elaboration based upon Martínez (2005). 17 January/March 2007

19 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM TABLE 4 EMPLOYED POPULATION OF 16 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER BORN IN ARGENTINA, COLOMBIA, ECUADOR AND SPAIN ACCORDING TO OCCUPATION AND GENDER BY AGE GROUPS, 2001 Country of birth Employment Argentina Total of age & Colombia Total of age & Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Mangers Technicians and professional scientists Technicians and support professionals Administrative employees Service employees and sellers Qualified workers Unqualified workers Men Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Managers Technicians and professional scientists Army personnel and qualified workers are included. 2 Includes qualified workers in agriculture and fishing, artisans and qualidied workers of the manufacturing industries, construction, and mining, and machinery operators and assemblers. 18

20 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. TABLE 4 EMPLOYED POPULATION OF 16 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER BORN IN ARGENTINA, COLOMBIA, ECUADOR AND SPAIN ACCORDING TO OCCUPATION AND GENDER BY AGE GROUPS, 2001 (CONTINUATION) Employment Argentina Total of age & + Country of birth Colombia Total of age & Technicians and support professionals Administrative employees Services employees and sellers Qualified workers Unqualified workers Women 17 Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Manageress Technicians and professional scientists Technicians and support professionals Administrative employees Services employees and sellers Qualified workers Unqualified workers P.T.O. 19 January/March 2007

21 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM TABLE 4 EMPLOYED POPULATION OF 16 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER BORN IN ARGENTINA, COLOMBIA, ECUADOR AND SPAIN ACCORDING TO OCCUPATION AND GENDER BY AGE GROUPS, 2001 (CONTINUATION) Country of birth Employment Total 16 & + Ecuador Total 16 of age & + Spain of age of age Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Managers Technicians and professional scientists Technicians and support professionals Administrative employees Services employees and sellers Qualified workers Unqualified workers Men Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Managers Technicians and professional scientists Army personnel and qualified workers are included. 2 Includes qualified workers in agriculture and fishing, artisans and qualidied workers of the manufacturing industries, construction, and mining, and machinery operators and assemblers. 20

22 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. TABLE 4 EMPLOYED POPULATION OF 16 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER BORN IN ARGENTINA, COLOMBIA, ECUADOR AND SPAIN ACCORDING TO OCCUPATION AND GENDER BY AGE GROUPS, 2001 (CONTINUATION) Employment Ecuador Total years of age and + Country of birth Total 16 of age and + Spain of age of age Technicians and support professionals Administrative employees Service employees and sellers Qualified workers Unqualified workers Women Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Manageress Technicians and professional scientists Technicians and support professionals Administrative employees Service employees and sellers Qualified workers Unqualified workers Source: Own elaboration based upon data from the Census of Population and Households in Spain. INE, January/March 2007

23 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM Conversely, men are largely concentrated as qualified workers, situation shared with Argentineans and Spanish. In respect to the activity branches that take the workforce from the studied countries, table 5 displays that the Argentineans have a wider sectorial variety than the other migrants and even than the Spanish, for men and women, even if the distribution has significant differences between genders and according to age. Argentinean and in Spanish men, the latter with greater intensity, take part in larger proportions in industry 5 in the first place; in construction in the second place; and finally in commerce. These three sectors take in a 62 percent of the Spanish men and half of the Argentinean, who achieve a larger participation in sectors such as financial and real estate, hotel business, education and health, in importance order. The effect of the age, linked to time of arrival, is transmitted as a different pattern among the youngest Argentineans. In spite industry, construction, commerce and financial activities have almost identical proportions to those that the 30 to 49 years group has, its larger participation in hotel business, which involves a 16 percent, surpassing the corresponding share of the migrants and Spanish. Conversely, their access to educational and health activities is reducued in favor of their older male compatriots. Argentinean women also have a wide sectorial diversification, but with a different distribution. They have a larger percentage in the educational and health sectors, similar to that of the Spanish women, however it surpasses that of Argentinean men and the rest of the migrant women; in the second place they got inserted in commerce, hotel business and financial activities with higher percentage than the Argentinean men. It would seem that the hotel business sector has grown in importance to absorb the most recent migration, since approximately 20 percent of the Argentinean and Colombian women take part in this activity, having the greatest percentages in relation to the rest of the groups either their age is. Young women have also a lesser share in education and health than their older compatriots; this position is verified everyday in all of the groups under study, what suggest us that a profile of experience and higher education is needed for these activities. 5 Within "Industry", the manufacturing industry represents 70 percent of the total, transport slightly less than 30 percent and basic services do not reach 0.6 percent. 22

24 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. TABLE 5 EMPLOYED PEOPLE OF 16 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER BORN IN ARGENTINA,COLOMBIA, ECUADOR AND SPAIN ACCORDING TO ACTIVITY SECTOR AND GENDER BY AGE GROUPS, 2001 Activity sector Total 16 of age & + Argentina Country of birth Total 16 of age & + Colombia Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Primary activities Industry Construction Commerce Hotel business Financial and real estate activities Education and health Household activities Rest Men Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Primary activities Industry Construction Includes agriculte, fishing and extractive industries. The employed people are concentrated in agriculture. 2 Includes manufacturing industry, production and distribuition of electric light, gas and water, and transport. 3 Includes public administration, defense and cumpulsory social security, other social activities and community service; personal services and extraterritorial organisms. 23 January/March 2007

25 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM TABLE 5 EMPLOYED PEOPLE OF 16 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER BORN IN ARGENTINA,COLOMBIA, ECUADOR AND SPAIN ACCORDING TO ACTIVITY SECTOR AND GENDER BY AGE GROUPS, 2001 (CONTINUATION) Activity sector Total 16 of age & + Argentina Country of birth Total 16 & + Colombia of age of age Commerce Hotel business Financial and real estate activities Education and health Household activities Rest Women Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Primary activities Industry Construction Commerce Hotel business Financial and real estate activities Education and health Household activities Rest

26 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. TABLE 5 EMPLOYED PEOPLE OF 16 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER BORN IN ARGENTINA,COLOMBIA, ECUADOR AND SPAIN ACCORDING TO ACTIVITY SECTOR AND GENDER BY AGE GROUPS, 2001 (CONTINUATION) Activity sector Total 16 of age & + Ecuador Country of birth Total 16 years of age & + Spain of age of age Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Primary Activities Industry Construction Commerce Hotel business Financial and real estate activities Education and health Household activities Rest Men Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Primary activities Industry Construction Includes agriculte, fishing and extractive industries. The employed people are concentrated in agriculture. 2 Includes manufacturing industry, production and distribuition of electric light, gas and water, and transport. 3 Includes public administration, defense and cumpulsory social security, other social activities and community service; personal services and extraterritorial organisms. 25 January/March 2007

27 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM TABLE 5 EMPLOYED PEOPLE OF 16 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER BORN IN ARGENTINA,COLOMBIA, ECUADOR AND SPAIN ACCORDING TO ACTIVITY SECTOR AND GENDER BY AGE GROUPS, 2001 (CONTINUATION) Activity sector Total 16 of age & + Ecuador Country of birth Total 16 of age & + Spain Commerce Hotel business Financial and real estate activities Education ad health Household activities Rest Women Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Primary activities Industry Construction Commerce Hotel business Financial and real estate activities Education and health Household activities Rest Source: Own elaboration with base on data from the Census of Population and Housing of Spain, INE,

28 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. The market becomes tight for Colombians and even tighter for Ecuadorians of both genders, as their notoriously segmented insertion shows. This state is graver among women. In this way, 74 percent of the Colombian men is concentrated in for categories, namely, in order of importance: construction (20 percent), industry (20 percent), hotel business (11 percent), commerce (11 percent). These proportions vary with age in the case of construction, where the 30 to 49 years group reaches a higher proportion than the younger groups, and in hotel business that generally privileges the groups younger than 30 years. Ecuadorian men are the only group which takes part in farming activities. Among them the concentration is yet more acute, since 81 percent is taken in by four main activities: construction (33 percent), primary activities (21 percent), industry (19 percent) and hotel business (9 percent). The differences by age are given in the same activities and in the same sense as for the Colombians. As previously stated, segmented insertion sharpens for women from these two groups, who have an absorption niche in "household activities", which are fundamentally related to house chores and looking after the other family members, 47 percent of the Ecuadorian women and 38 percent of the Colombian are into this activity, this percentages increase to 52 and 42 respectively among the women between 30 and 49 years. Women from Colombian have relative advantages before the Ecuadorians: they have a more significant participation in hotel business (17 percent), particularly the youngest ones, and reach shares of around 9 percent in construction, commerce, and financial activities and education and health. Ecuadorians have also participation in these sectors but in very inferior proportions. Similarly to men, they are the only ones who work in primary activities. Summarizing, the high percentage of qualified and unqualified workers among Ecuadorians and, in a smaller scale among Colombians, has a counterpart in their participation in activities that require manual labor of that character. This association is evident in the case of women, whose main niche is characterized by not requiring specialized workforce. It has been indicated that more than the half of the Argentineans have a communal citizenship, out of which almost all have Spanish nationality. With the intention of finding out the effects of citizenship in laboring characteristics, in table 6 their distribution by occupation and activity is presented. 27 January/March 2007

29 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM It is evident that the lack of Spanish citizenship negatively affects the quality of insertion, provoking a diminution in the proportion of people employed in higher qualification positions and an increment in the proportion of those who work in supposedly less complex activities. The group of mangers, technicians and professionals, highly fair by gender, reaches values superior to 50 percent among those who have the citizenship, it is however reduced to a third among those who do not have it. Nevertheless, men from the latter group have a superior weight to that of the Spanish men and for women it is slightly inferior. It is worth noticing the increment in the proportion of unqualified female workers among women with no Spanish nationality, who reaches a 22 percent, almost doubling the weight Spanish women have. In their distribution by activity branch, Argentineans have a diversified insertion even with the lack of Spanish citizenship. However, the changes manifested by the ones with no nationality are similar to those of other migrant groups. In this sense, the larger insertion of men in construction; in household activities from women and hotel business for both genders is distinguished. This state of affairs is associated to the time of arrival, since those are precisely the people with no nationality the ones with the most widespread presence among those who recently arrived. The described occupational and sectorial insertion modalities are associated with the precariousness of employment, in terms of its stability and social security. The percentage of 'temporary workers', defined as those salaried people who do not have a steady or defined labor relation, clearly shows the unfavorable situation of the Ecuadorians, both men and women, in the total of employed people and in the two age groups: 63 percent of the men and 57 percent of the women are temporary workers; as for the Colombians, more than a half of them in both genders share this situation. Argentinean have proportions slightly superior to those of the Spanish, it is worth mentioning that the youths of the 16 to 29 years group seem to be the most vulnerable, at the extent their precariousness increases independently from the country where they were born. This situation is sharper among women (graph 4). The stressed differences in sectorial insertion and the occupations according to their qualification requirements as well as the precariousness of the job state questions on the role the educational profile of each group and up to which extent the capacities accomplished through formal education are taken as an advantage. 28

30 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. TABLE 6 ARGENTINEANS BY NATIONALITY AND SPANISH ACCORDING TO OCUPATION AND ACTIVITY SECTOR BY GENDER. TOTAL OF EMPLOYED PEOPLE OF 16 YEARS OF AGE AND OLDER, 2001 Argentineans Without Spanish With Spanish nationality nationality Spanish Activity Men Women Men Women Men Women Total (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Managers, technicians and professionals Administrative, services employees and sellers Qualified workers Unqualified workers Sector (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100) Industry Construction Commerce Hotel business Financial and real estate activities Education and health Household activities Rest The sectors specified in table 5 and the primary activities were summed up. Source: Own elaboration based upon the Census of Population and Households of Spain. INE, January/March 2007

31 Papeles de POBLACIÓN No. 51 CIEAP/UAEM In order to get close to this problem, two indicators of sub-qualification are used, they try to reflect the most notorious or extreme forms of sub-employment (Table 7). In this sense, the results only constitute a first approach and do not give a thorough account of the complexity and magnitude of this phenomenon. It is convenient to bear in mind this limitation, especially when considering the b-type sub-employment levels, since it only considers the university students inserted in unqualified occupations. In the first place, in all of the sub-populations under study, the graduates with higher studies experience in less intensity sub-employment problems, particularly the Argentineans and Spanish. As for the employed people, the differences among groups at the level of both types of sub-employment are notable. In the case of those who have secondary studies, the ones who perform unqualified tasks reach a 45 percent among the Ecuadorians, 37 percent among the Colombians and 13 percent among the Argentineans; among the latter, the ones who have Spanish nationality have an inferior percentage (9.2 percent) that is similar to that of the Spanish. Breaches according to the origin widen in the case of the ones with the highest education levels: the proportion of sub-qualified Ecuadorians doubles that of Colombians and it is ten times superior to that of the Argentineans. Once again, the possession of nationality notoriously favors Argentineans, at the extent that they reach the proportion of the Spanish with a share that does not surpass two percent. Among the migrants, time of arrival contributes to a more adequate use of the capacities they accomplished through formal education and this tendency is verified for the two age groups. The advantage of the oldest migrants increases in the case of the sub-employment of those with the highest education levels. The Ecuadorians, as it was previously stated, have the worst employment conditions; they are also the ones who more intensely experience sub-employment of both types. Among them the most favored are the ones who are between 30 and 49 years that arrived in the most recent period. 30

32 New emigration of Latin American people to Spain: the case of Argentineans from a compared perspective /M. Cacopardo et al. GRAPH 4 PERCENTAGE OF TEMPORARY WORKERS BORN IN ARGENTINA, COLOMBIA ECUADOR AND SPAIN, ACCORDING TO GENDER BY AGE, 2001 Men Women Spain Colombia Ecuador Argentina Source: Own elaboration based on the data from the Census of Population and Households of Spain, INE, January/March 2007