Discipline [L. disciplina, training] 訓練 鍛鍊 教訓 紀律 學科 裴元領 yuanlingpei@yahoo.com.tw Michel Foucault (1926-1984) I. Discipline and Body The historical moment of the disciplines was the moment when an art of the human body { 一種人體藝術 un art du corps humain} was born, which was directed not only at the growth of its skills, nor at the intensification of its subjection, but at the formation of a relation that in the mechanism itself makes it more obedient as it becomes more useful, and conversely. What was then being formed was a policy of coercions { 一種強制政治 [ 策 ]une politique des coercitions} that act upon the body, a calculated manipulation of its elements, its gestures, its behavior. The human body was entering a machinery of power { 一種權力機器 une machinerie de pouvoir} that explores it, breaks it down and rearranges it. A political anatomy { 一種 «政治解剖學»une anatomie politique }, which was also a mechanics of power { 一種 «權力力學»une mécanique du pouvoir }, was being born; it defined how one may have a hold over others bodies, not only so that they may do what one wishes, but so that they may operate as one wishes, with the techniques, the speed and the efficiency that one determines. Thus discipline produces { 編織出 fabrique} subjected and practiced bodies, docile bodies. Discipline increases the forces of the body (in economic terms of utility) and diminishes these same forces (in political terms of obedience). In short, it dissociates power from the body; on the one hand, it turns it into an aptitude{ 才能 才華 稟賦 }, a capacity, which it seeks to increase; on the other hand, it reserves the course of energy, the power that might result from it, and turns it into a relation of strict subjection. If economic exploitation separates the force and the product of labor, let us say that disciplinary coercion establishes in the body the constricting link between an increased aptitude and an increased domination. Surveiller et punir, p.162. Discipline and Punish, Part III, Ch.1, p. 137-138. La discipline est une anatomie politique du détail. (SP:163) Discipline is a political anatomy of detail. (DP:139) 規訓就是一種細節的政治解剖學 ( 規訓 :157-158) II. Power and Panopticon How is power to be strengthened in such a way that, far from impeding progress, 權力如何以這種方式被強化, 遠非阻礙進步, far from weighing upon it with its rules and regulations, it actually facilitates such 遠非在進步之上強加權力的種種規則和管制, 卻實際上促成這種進步? progress? What intensificator of power will be able at the same time to be a multiplicator 1
什麼樣的權力的增強器也能同時是生產的擴大器? of production? How will power, by increasing its forces, be able to increase those of 權力如何能藉著增進自己的力量來增進社會的力量, 而非查封或阻礙它們? society instead of confiscating them or impeding them? The Panopticon s solution to this 全視樓對這個問題的解答是, problem is that the productive increase of power can be assured only if, on the one hand, 只有在下述條件下才能保證權力的生產性增進 : 一方面, it can be exercised continuously in the very foundations of society, in the subtlest 權力得以在真正的社會基礎中以盡可能最微妙的方式持續行使, possible way, and if, on the other hand, it functions outside these sudden, violent, 另一方面, 權力是在那些與王權的行使相聯繫之突發的 暴烈的 discontinuous forms that are bound up with the exercise of sovereignty. The body of the 不連續的形式之外起作用 君王的肉體, king, with its strange material and physical presence, with the force that he himself 以其奇特的實質展現, 及其本人部署 deploys or transmits to some few others, is at the opposite extreme of this new physics 或傳導給其他少數人的力量, 正與全視主義所代表的新權力物理學 of power represented by panopticism; the domain of panopticism is, on the contrary, 截然對立 ; 反之, 全視主義的領域就是一切較低的區域, that whole lower region, that region of irregular bodies, with their details, their multiple 即各種不規則肉體的區域, 包括這些肉體的各種細節 各種多發運動 movements, their heterogeneous forces, their spatial relations; what are required are 各種異質力量 各種空間關係 ; 這裡需要的是 mechanisms that analyze distributions, gaps, series, combinations, and which use 解析各種分配 間隔 序列 組合的機制, 而且這些機制使用 instruments that render visible, record, differentiate and compare: a physics of a 能夠揭示 記錄 分化和比較的工具 : relational and multiple power, which has its maximum intensity not in the person of the 一種關係性與多發性權力的物理學, 不是在君王身上 而是在 king, but in the bodies that can be individualized by these relations. At the theoretical 能被這些關係所個體化的肉體上達到最大強度 在理論層次上, 2
level, Bentham defines another way of analyzing the social body and the power relations 邊沁界定了另一種解析社會體與橫亙其上的權力關係的方式 ; that traverse it; in terms of practice, he defines a procedure of subordination of bodies 在實踐上, 他界定了一種使肉體與力量為之屈服的程序, and forces that must increase the utility of power while practising the economy of the 這種程序必須在實踐君王經濟 [ 理法 調御 ] 的同時增進權力的效用 prince. Panopticism is the general principle of a new political anatomy whose object 全視主義是一種新 政治解剖學 的一般原則, 其對象和目的 and end are not the relations of sovereignty but the relations of discipline. 不是王權的各種關係 而是規訓的各種關係 Discipline and Punish, Part III, Ch.3, p. 208. 規訓與懲罰 :233-234 全書目錄 Part I, Torture I, Supplice 1. The body of the condemned (P. 3-31/ 頁 3-34) This book is intended as a correlative history of the modern soul and a new power to judge; a genealogy of the present scientifico-legal complex from which the power to punish derives its bases, justifications and rules, from which it extends its effects and by which it makes its exorbitant singularity. (P. 23/ 頁 24) * 對照 Three domains of genealogy are possible. First, a historical ontology of ourselves in relation to truth through which we constitute ourselves as subjects of knowledge; second, a historical ontology of ourselves in relation to a field of power through which we constitute ourselves as subjects acting on others; third, a historical ontology in relation to ethics through which we constitute ourselves as moral agents. So, three axes are possible for genealogy. All three were present, albeit in a somewhat confused fashion, in Madness and Civilization. The truth axis was studied in The Birth of the Clinic and The Order of Things. The power axis was studied in Discipline and Punish, and the ethical axis in The History of Sexuality. ( On the Genealogy of Ethics: An Overview of Work in Progress (1983) in: Paul Rabinow ed., 1997[1994], Michel Foucault, Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth. The Essential Works of Michel Foucault, 1954-1984. Volume 1, p. 262-63.) * 比較 Emile Durkheim, 1899-1900, Deux lois de l évolution pénale. (P.23/ 頁 24) G. Rusche and O. Kirchheimer, 1939, Punishment and Social Structures. (P.24/ 頁 25-26) E. Le Roy-Ladurie, 1973, Contrepoint; 1974, L histoire immobile. (P.25/ 頁 27) E. Kantorowitz, 1959, The King s Two Bodies. (P.28/ 頁 31) 3
2. The spectacle of the scaffold (P. 32-69/ 頁 35-77) It was evident that the great spectacle of punishment ran the risk of being rejected by the very people to whom it was addressed. (P. 63/ 頁 68) Part II, Punishment II, Punition 1. Generalized punishment [La punition généralisée] (P. 73-103/ 頁 81-116) Shift the object and change the scale. Define new tactics in order to reach a target that is now more subtle but also more widely spread in the social body [corps social]. Find new techniques for adjusting punishment to it and for adapting its effects. Lay down new principles for regularizing, refining, universalizing the art of punishing. Homogenize its application. Reduce its economic and political cost by increasing its effectiveness and by multiplying its circuits. In short, constitute a new economy and a new technology of the power to punish: these are no doubt the essential raisons d être of penal reform in the eighteenth century. (SP:106/P.89/ 頁 99) In effect the offence opposes an individual to the entire social body [corps social]; in order to punish him, society has the right to oppose him in its entirety. The right to punish has been shifted from the vengeance of the sovereign to the defense of society [défense de la société]. (SP:107/P.90/ 頁 99-100) * 對照法蘭西學院 1976 年講座 必須保衛社會 (Il faut défendre la société.) One must take into account not the past offence, but the future disorder. (P.93/ 頁 103) [1] The rule of minimum quantity. (P.94/ 頁 104) Règle de la quantité minimale. (SP:112) [2] The rule of sufficient ideality. (P.94/ 頁 104) Règle de l idéalité suffisante. (SP:112) [3] The rule of lateral effects. (P.95/ 頁 105) Règle des effets latéraux. (SP:112) [4] The rule of perfect certainty. (P.95/ 頁 106) Règle de la certitude parfaite. (SP:113) [5] The rule of common truth. (P.96/ 頁 107) Règle de la vérité commune. (SP:115) [6] The rule of optimal specifications. (P.98/ 頁 108) Règle de la spécification optimale. (SP:116) ; but from the standpoint of the economy of the power to punish, (P.99/ 頁 109) * 對照一法蘭西學院 1975 年講座 不正常的人 (Les anormaux.) * 對照二 Emile Durkheim, 4
, [P]sychological knowledge will take over the role of casuistic jurisprudence., The code-individualization link was sought in the scientific models of the period., forms of anthropological individualization (P.99-100/ 頁 110) abnormal individual and treatment (P.101/ 頁 112) 2. The gentle way of punishment [La douceur <gentleness, softness> des peines] (P. 104-131/ 頁 117-149) The art of punishing, then, must rest on a whole technology of representation. (SP:123/P.104/ 頁 117) (1) They must be as unarbitrary as possible. (SP:123/P.104/ 頁 117) (2) This complex of signs {Ce jeu de signes } must engage with the mechanics of forces. (SP:125/P.106/ 頁 119) (3) Consequently, one must use a temporal modulation. (SP:127/P.107/ 頁 120) (4) For the convict, the penalty is a mechanics of signs, interests and duration. (SP:128/P.108/ 頁 122) (5) Hence a whole learned economy of publicity. D où toute une économie savante de la publicitè. (SP:129/P.109/ 頁 123) (6) This will make possible in society an inversion of the traditional discourse of crime. (SP:132/P.112/ 頁 126) * 對照 A I am supposing that in every society the production of discourse is at once controlled, selected, organized and redistributed according to a certain number of procedures, whose role is to avert its power and its dangers, to cope with chance events, to evade its ponderous, awesome materiality. (L ordre du discours, 1971[1970]:10-11 / The Discourse on Language, 1972:10-11) * 對照 B Whenever one can describe, between a number of statements, such a system of dispersion, whenever, between objects, types of statement, concepts, or thematic choices, one can define a regularity (an order, correlations, positions and functionings, transformations), we will say, for the sake of convenience, that we are dealing with a discursive formation thus avoiding words that are already overladen with conditions and consequences, and in any case inadequate to the task of designating such a dispersion, such as science, ideology, theory, or domain of objectivity. (The Archaeology of Knowledge, 1972[1969]:38 / 知識考古學,2007/1998:41 ) This, then, is how one must imagine the punitive city. From where the public is sitting, it is possible to believe in the existence of certain cruelties which, in fact, do not take place. But the essential point, in all these real or magnified severities, is that they should all, according to a strict economy, teach a lesson: that each punishment should be a fable. (P.113/ 頁 127) Part III, Discipline III, Discipline 1. Docile bodies [Les corps dociles] (P. 135-169/ 頁 153-192) 5
[A] The art of distributions [L art des répartitions] In the first instance, discipline proceeds from the distribution of individuals in space. (P.141/ 頁 160) (1) Enclosure [clôture]. (SP:166/P.141/ 頁 160) (2) The principle of elementary location or partitioning. (P.143/ 頁 162) (3) The rule of functional site. (P.143/ 頁 163) (4) Rank. Discipline is an art of rank, a technique for the transformation of arrangements. It individualizes bodies by a location that does not give them a fixed position, but distributes them and circulates them in a network of relations. (P.146/ 頁 165) The first of the great operations of discipline is, therefore, the constitution of tableaux vivants, which transform the confused, useless or dangerous multitudes into ordered multiplicities. (P.148/ 頁 167) [B] The control of activity [Le contrôle de l activité] (1) Time-table [L emploi du temps]. (SP:175/P.149/ 頁 169) (2) The temporal elaboration of the act. (P.151/ 頁 171) (3) The correlation of the body and the gesture. (P.152/ 頁 172) (4) The body-object articulation. (P.152/ 頁 172) (5) Exhaustive use [L utilisation exhaustive]. (SP:180/P.154/ 頁 173) [C]The organization of geneses [L organisation des genèses] (1) Divide duration into successive or parallel segments, each of which must end at a specific time. (P.157/ 頁 177-78) (2) Organize these threads according to an analytical plan - successions of elements as simple as possible, combining according to increasing complexity. (P.158/ 頁 178) (3) Finalize these temporal segments, decide on how long each will last and conclude it with an examination, which will have the triple function of showing whether the subject has reached the level required, of guaranteeing that each subject undergoes the same apprenticeship and of differentiating the abilities of each individual. (P.158/ 頁 178) (4) Draw up series of series; lay down for each individual, according to his level, his seniority, his rank, the exercises that are suited to him; common exercises have a differing role and each difference involves specific exercises. (P.158-59/ 頁 179) The seriation of successive activities makes possible a whole investment of duration of power: The disciplinary methods reveal a linear time whose moments are integrated, one upon another, and which is oriented towards a terminal, stable point; in short, an evolutive time. But it must be recalled that, at the same moment, the administrative and economic techniques of control reveal a social time of a serial, orientated, cumulative type: the discovery of an evolution in terms of progress. The disciplinary techniques reveal individual series: the discovery of an evolution in terms of genesis. These two great discoveries of the eighteenth century the progress of 6
societies and the geneses of individuals - were perhaps correlative with the new techniques of power, and more specifically, with a new way of administering time and making it useful, by segmentation, seriation, synthesis and totalization. A macro- and micro- physics of power made possible, not the invention of history (it had long had no need of that), but the integration of a temporal, unitary, continuous, cumulative dimension in the exercise of controls and the practice of dominations. (P.160/ 頁 180-81) In any case, the small temporal continuum of individuality- genesis certainly seems to be, like the individuality-cell or the individuality-organism, an effect and an object of discipline. And, at the centre of this seriation of time, one finds a procedure that is, for it, what the drawing up of tables was for the distribution of individuals and cellular segmentation, or, again, what manoeuvre was for the economy of activities and organic control. This procedure is exercise. (P.161/ 頁 181) [D] The composition of forces [La composition des forces] (1) The individual body becomes an element that may be placed, moved, articulated on others. (P.164/ 頁 184) (2) The various chronological series that discipline must combine to form a composite time [un temps composé] are also pieces of machinery. (SP:193/P.164/ 頁 185) (3) The carefully measured combination of forces requires a precise system of command. (P.166/ 頁 186) To sum up, it might be said that discipline creates out of the bodies it controls four types of individuality, or rather an individuality that is endowed with four characteristics: it is cellular (by the play of spatial distribution), it is organic (by the coding of activities), it is genetic (by the accumulation of time), it is combinatory (by the composition of forces). And, in doing so, it operates four great techniques: it draws up tables; it prescribes movements; it imposes exercises; lastly, in order to obtain the combination of forces, it arranges tactics. Tactics, the art of constructing, with located bodies, coded activities and trained aptitudes, mechanisms in which the product of the various forces is increased by their calculated combination are no doubt the highest form of disciplinary practice. (P.167/ 頁 188) It may be that war as strategy is a continuation of politics. But it must not be forgotten that politics has been conceived as a continuation, if not exactly and directly of war, at least of the military model as a fundamental means of preventing civil disorder. Politics, as a technique of internal peace and order, sought to implement the mechanism of the perfect army, of the disciplined mass, of the docile, useful troop, of the regiment in camp and in the field, on manoeuvres and on exercises. In the great eighteenth century states, the army guaranteed civil peace no doubt because it was a real force, an ever-threatening sward, but also because it was a technique and a body of knowledge that could project their schema over the social body. If there is a politics-war series that passes through strategy, there is an army-politics series that passes through tactics. It is strategy that makes it possible to understand warfare as a 7
way of conducting politics between states; it is tactics that makes it possible to understand the army as a principle for maintaining the absence of warfare in civil society. The classical age saw the birth of the great political and military strategy by which nations confronted each other s economic and demographic forces; but it also saw the birth of meticulous military and political tactics by which the control of bodies and individual forces was exercised within states. (P.168/ 頁 189) 2. The means of correct training [Les moyens du bon dressement] (P.170-194/ 頁 193-218) [A]Hierarchical observation [La surveillance hiérarchique] The exercise of discipline presupposes a mechanism [un dispositif] that coerces by means of observation [regard]; an apparatus [un appareil] in which the techniques that make it possible to see induce effects of power, and in which, conversely, the means of coercion make those whom they are applied clearly visible. (SP : 201/P.170-71/ 頁 194) The perfect disciplinary apparatus [L appareil discipilinaire parfait] would make it possible for a single gaze [un seul regard] to see everything constantly. A central point would be both the source of light [source de lumière] illuminating everything, and a locus of convergence [lieu de convergence] for everything that must be known: a perfect eye [oeil parfait] that nothing would escape and a centre towards which all gazes would be turned. (SP:204/P.173/ 頁 197) Hierarchized, continuous and functional surveillance may not be one of the great technical inventions of the eighteenth century, but its insidious extension owed its importance to the mechanisms [mécaniques] of power that it brought with it. By means of such surveillance, disciplinary power became an integrated system, linked from the inside to the economy and to the aims of the mechanism [dispositif] in which it is practiced. (SP:208/P.176/ 頁 200) The power in the hierarchized surveillance of the disciplines is not possessed as a thing, or transferred as a property; it functions like a piece of machinery [machinerie]. Discipline makes possible the operation of a relational power [pouvoir relationnel] that sustains itself by its own mechanism [mécanismes] and which, for the spectacle of public events {à l éclat des manifestations}, substitutes the uninterrupted play of calculated gazes [le jeu ininterrompu de regards calculés]. Thanks to the techniques of surveillance, the physics of power, the hold over the body, operate according to the laws of optics and mechanics, according to a whole play [jeu] of spaces, lines, screens, beams, degrees and without recourse, in principle at least, to excess, force or violence. It is a power that seems all the less corporal in that it is more subtly physical. (SP:208/P.177/ 頁 200) * 討論 ( 一 ) 對照 :Naissance de la clinique. (1963) / The Birth of the Clinic. (1973) / 臨床醫學的誕生 (2001) Chapitre VII, voir, savoir. / 7, Seeing and Knowing. / 第七章, 看與知 The observing gaze [le regard qui observe] refrains from intervening: it is silent and 8
gestureless. Observation leaves things as they are; there is nothing hidden to it in what is given. The correlative of observation [le corrélatif de l observation] is never the invisible, but always the immediately visible, once one has removed the obstacles erected to reason by theories and to the senses by the imagination. (NC:107/BC:107/ 臨床 :118) (1) The alternation of spoken stages [moments parlés] and perceived stages [moments perçus] in an observation. (NC:112/BC:111/ 臨床 :123) (2) The effort to define a statutory form of correlation between the gaze and language. (NC:113/BC:112/ 臨床 :124) (3) The ideal of an exhaustive description. L idéal d une description exhaustive. (NC: 114/BC:113/ 臨床 :125) <1> The first of these epistemological myths concerns the alphabetical structure of disease. (NC:119/BC:117/ 臨床 :131) <2> The clinical gaze [le regard clinique] effects a nominalist reduction on the essence of the disease. (NC:119/BC:118/ 臨床 :132) <3> The clinical gaze [le regard clinique] operates on pathological phenomena a reduction of a chemical type. (NC:120/BC:119/ 臨床 :133) <4> The clinical experience is identified with a fine sensibility [une belle sensibilité]. (NC: 121/BC:120/ 臨床 :134) ( 二 ) 比較 :Manfred Frank, 1992[1989], On Foucault s Concept of Discourse in: Michel Foucault Philosopher. P.107. ; because for Foucault the foundation of the constitution of an order is never a subject, but yet another order: in the last instance this would be the order of the discourse with its regard déjà codé (already coded look). [B]Normalizing judgment [La sanction normalisatrice] (1) At the heart of all disciplinary systems functions a small penal mechanism [un petit mécanisme pénal]. It enjoys a kind of judicial privilege with its own laws, its specific offences, its particular forms of judgment. The disciplines established an infra-penality [«infra-pénalité»]; they partitioned an area that the laws had left empty; they defied and repressed a mass of behavior that the relative indifference of the great systems of punishment had allowed to escape. (SP:209/P.177-78/ 頁 201) * 討論 François Ewald, 1992[1989], A Power Without an Exterior in: Michel Foucault Philosopher. P.174. Norm should not be confused with discipline. Disciplines target bodies, with a function of training them; the norm is a measure, a means by which the common measure is produced. Disciplines are not necessarily normative. (2) The whole indefinite domain of the non-confronting is punishable: The order that the disciplinary punishments must enforce is of a mixed nature: (P.178-79/ 頁 202) (3) Disciplinary punishment has the function of reducing gaps. It must therefore be essentially corrective. (P.179/ 頁 203) (4) In discipline, punishment is only one element of a double system: gratification punishment. And it is this system that operates in the process of training and correction. (P.180/ 頁 203) (5) The distribution according to ranks or grade has a double role: it marks the 9
gaps, hierarchizes qualities, skills and aptitudes; but it also punishes and rewards. (P.181/ 頁 204) The perpetual penality that traverses all points and supervises every instant in the disciplinary institutions compares, differentiates, hierarchizes, homogenizes, excludes. In short, it normalizes. The disciplinary mechanisms secreted a penality of the norm, which is irreducible in its principles and functioning to the traditional penality of the law. (P.183/ 頁 206-07) [C]The examination [L examen] The examination combines the techniques of an observing hierarchy and those of a normalizing judgment. It is a normalizing gaze, a surveillance that makes it possible to qualify, to classify and to punish. It establishes over individuals a visibility through which one differentiates them and judges them. That is why, in all the mechanisms of discipline, the examination is highly ritualized. In it are combined the ceremony of power and the form of the experiment, the deployment of force and the establishment of truth. At the heart of the procedures of discipline, it manifests the subjection of those who are perceived as objects and the objectification of those who are subjected. The superimposition of the power elations and knowledge relations assumes in the examination all its visible brilliance. (P.184-85/ 頁 208) (1) The examination transformed the economy of visibility into the exercise of power. (P.187/ 頁 210) (2) The examination also introduces individuality into the field of documentation. (P.189/ 頁 212) (3) The examination, surrounded by all its documentary techniques, makes each individual a case. (P.191/ 頁 215) The disciplines mark the moment when the reversal of the political axis of individualization as one might call it takes place. (P.192/ 頁 216) 3. Panopticism (P. 195-228/ 頁 219-256) Against the plague, which is a mixture, discipline brings into play its power, which is one of analysis. (P.197/ 頁 221) If it is true that the leper gave rise to rituals of exclusion, which to a certain extent provided the model for and general form of the great Confinement, then the plague gave rise to disciplinary projects. The leper and his separation; the plague and its segmentations. The first is marked; the second analyzed and distributed. The exile of the leper and the arrest of the plague do not bring with them the same political dream. The first is that of a pure community, the second that of a disciplined society. (P.198/ 頁 222) The constant division between the normal and the abnormal, to which every individual is subjected, brings us back to our own time, by applying the binary branding and exile of the leper to quite different objects; the existence of a whole set of techniques and institutions for measuring, supervising and correcting the abnormal 10
brings into play the disciplinary mechanisms to which the fear of the plague gave rise. All the mechanisms of power which, even today, are disposed around the abnormal individual, to brand him and to alter him, are composed of those two forms from which they distantly derive. (P.199-200/ 頁 224) Bentham s Panopticon is the architectural figure of this composition. (P.200/ 頁 224) Hence the major effect of the Panopticon: to induce in the inmate a state of conscious and permanent visibility that assures the automatic functioning of power. (P.201/ 頁 226) The Panopticon is a machine for dissociating the see/being seen dyad; in the peripheric ring, one is totally seen, without ever seeing; in the central tower, one sees everything without ever being seen. (P.201-02/ 頁 226) A real subjection is born mechanically from a fictitious relation. (P.202/ 頁 227) Part IV, Prison IV, Prison 1. Complete and austere institutions (P. 231-256/ 頁 259-289) 2. Illegalities and delinquency (P. 257-292/ 頁 290-336) 3. The carceral [Le carcéral] (P. 293-308/ 頁 337-354) 11