From Personal to Global Security. Edited by

Transcription

1 Security Dimensions International & National Studies From Personal to Global Security SD Edited by Prof. Ing. Marián Mesároš DrSc. MBA LL.M. Doc. JUDr. Stanislav Križovský, Ph.D. Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D. Ing. Anikó Tóvári, Ph.D. Scientific Journal No. 20 (4/2016)

2 Editorial Board Edited by: Prof. Ing. Marián Mesároš DrSc. MBA LL.M. (Slovakia) Doc. JUDr. Stanislav Križovský, Ph.D. (Slovakia) Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D. (Poland) Ing. Anikó Tóvári, Ph.D. (Hungary) Editor-in-Chief: Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D. (Poland) Executive Editors: Jarosław Dziubiński, M.A. (Poland) Radosława Rodasik, M.A. (Poland) Scientific Editor: Prof. Witold POKRUSZYŃSKI, Ph.D. (Poland) Language Editors: Prof. Mirosław SKIBNIEWSKI, Ph.D. (USA) Robert Ottenburger (UK) Prof. JUDr. Mojmír Mamojka, DrSc., dr.h.c. mult. (Slovakia) Statistical Editors: Doc. Ing. Jaromir Mlynek, CSc. (Slovakia) Tadeusz RATUSIŃSKI, Ph.D. (Poland) Technical edition and cover: Jarosław Dziubiński, M.A. (Poland) Publisher: University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow ul. Krupnicza Kraków

3 Funding body: University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow Copyright by: University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow, Kraków 2016 Printed edition: 100 copies Frequency of issue: Quarterly Contact person: Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D. (editorial board and publisher) University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow ul. Krupnicza Kraków Tel. (12) ; fax (12) e- mail: science@apeiron.edu.pl Journal also available at: ISSN (previously: ISSN ) Indexation: MNiSW: 7 points Index Copernicus International: 87,30 points

4 1. Theory of security studies: Prof. Kuba Jałoszyński, Ph.D. (Poland) 2. Technology: Assoc. Prof. Inga V. Uriadnykova, CSc. (Ukraine) 3. Martial ArtS and physical culture: Prof. Tadeusz Ambroży, Ph.D. (Poland) Prof. Stanislav Dadelo, Ph.D. (Lithuania) 4. Army and dispositional groups: Brig. gen. (ret.) Prof. Ing. Miroslav Kelemen, Ph.D., DrSc. (Slovakia) Prof. Witold POKRUSZYŃSKI, Ph.D. (Poland) 5. Law: Prof. JUDr. Karel Schelle, CSc. (Czech Republic) 6. History: Doc. JUDr. Vladimir Zoubek, LL.M., MBA. (Czech Republic) Assoc. Prof. Stefan Bielański, Ph.D. (Poland) 7. Politics: Assist. Prof. Alessandro Vitale (Italy) Prof. Janusz Węc, Ph.D. (Poland) Subject Editors: Scientific Board: 8. Forensic science: Prof. JUDr. Ing. Viktor Porada, DrSc., dr h. c. mult. (Czech Republic) Prof. Janina Zięba-Palus, Ph.D. (Poland) 9. Ethics and philosophy: Prof. Łukasz Trzciński, Ph.D. (Poland) 10. SECURITY ENGINEERING: Prof. Ing. Karol BALOG, Ph.D. (Slovakia) Gen. Aleksander NEJEDLÝ (Slovakia) Doc. Ing. Jozef SABOL, DrSc. (Czech Republic) 11. Protection of persons and property: Ing. Paweł Pajorski, M.A. (Poland) 12. MATHEMATICAL ASPECTS OF SECURITY CULTURE: Ing. Tadeusz Ratusiński, Ph.D. (Poland) 13. MEDICAL AND KINESIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SECURITY CULTURE: Prof. Dariusz MUCHA, Ph.D. (Poland) M.D. Dorota Szczeblowska, Ph.D. (Poland) Assoc. Prof. Tomasz Aleksandrowicz, Ph.D. (Poland) Assoc. Prof. Tadeusz Ambroży, Ph.D. (Poland) Prof. Gerhard Banse, Ph.D. (Germany) Assoc. Prof. Iryna BASYSTA, Ph.D. (Ukraine) Assoc Prof. Stefan Bielański, Ph.D. (Poland) Prof. Yuriy Boshytskyi, JUDr. (Ukraine) Wojciech Czajkowski, Ph.D. (Poland) Prof. František HANZLÍK, Ph.D. (Czech Republic) Gen. Prof. Natalia Kalashnik, (Ukraine) Brig. gen. (ret.) Prof. Ing. Miroslav Kelemen, Ph.D., DrSc. (Slovakia) Doc. JUDr. Štefan Kočan, Ph.D. (Slovakia) Adam KRZYMOWSKI, Ph.D. (Poland) Prof. Jerzy Ochmann, Ph.D. (Poland) Col. GS Ing. Ivo PIKNER, Ph.D. (Czech Republic) Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D. (Poland) Prof. JUDr. Ing. Viktor Porada, DrSc., dr.h.c. mult. (Czech Republic) Gen. Ing. Andor Šándor (Czech Republic) Prof. JUDr. Karel Schelle, CSc. (Czech Republic) Prof. Mirosław J. Skibniewski, Ph.D. (USA) Prof. Svilen STEFANOV, Ph.D. (Bulgaria) Prof. Stanisław SULOWSKI, Ph.D. (Poland) Col. Katarina Štrbac, Ph.D. (Serbia) Prof. Łukasz Trzciński, Ph.D. (Poland) Assoc. Prof. Alessandro Vitale, Ph.D. (Italy) Prof. Janusz Józef Węc, Ph.D. (Poland) JUDr. Jozef Zat ko, general poručik ICOCRIM (Slovakia) Assoc. Prof. Vaiva ZUZEVIČIŪTĖ, Ph.D. (Lithuania)

5 Board of Reviewers: Prof. Carlos Eduardo Pacheco Amaral Universidade dos Acores (Italy) LtCol Assoc. Prof. Nevena ATANASOVA- -KRASTEVA, Ph.D. Vasil Levski National Military University (Bulgaria) Prof. Vania Banabakova, Ph.D. Vasil Levski National Military University (Bulgaria) Prof. Eliseo Bertolasi, Ph.D. L Istituto di Alti Studi in Geopolitica e Scienze Ausiliarie (Italy) Prof. Wojciech Cynarski, Ph.D. Uniwersytet Rzeszowski w Rzeszowie (Poland) Andrzej CZOP, Ph.D. Wyższa Szkoła Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego i Indywidualnego Apeiron w Krakowie (Poland) Prof. Stanislav Dadelo, Ph.D. Vilnus Gediminas Technical University (Lithuania) Jerzy Depo, Ph.D. Krakowska Akademia im. Andrzeja Frycza Modrzewskiego (Poland) Assoc. Prof. Jacek Dworzecki, Ph.D. Wyższa Szkoła Policji w Szczytnie (Poland) Adam GoŁuch, Ph.D. Górnośląska Wyższa Szkoła Handlowa im. W. Korfantego w Katowicach (Poland) JUDr. Wojciech M. Hrynicki, Ph.D. Wyższa Szkoła Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego i Indywidualnego Apeiron w Krakowie (Poland) Prof. Kuba Jałoszyński, Ph.D. Wyższa Szkoła Policji w Szczytnie (Poland) Assoc. Prof. Krzysztof Kaganek, Ph.D. Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie (Poland) Doc. JUDr. Štefan Kočan, Ph.D. Akadémia Policajného zboru v Bratislave (Slovakia) Doc. Ing. Jozef Martinka, Ph.D. Slovak University of technology in Bratislava (Slovakia) Krzysztof Michalski, Ph.D. Politechnika Rzeszowska w Rzeszowie (Poland) Prof. Ing. Jana Müllerová, Ph.D. Žilinská univerzita v Žiline (Slovakia) prof. Andrzej MISIUK, Ph.D. University of Warsaw (Poland) Prof. Jerzy Ochmann, Ph.D. Polska Akademia Umiejętności (Poland) Assoc. Prof. Antoni OLAK, Ph.D. University College of Enterprise and Administration in Lublin (Poland) Bogusław Płonka, Ph.D. Wyższa Szkoła Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego i Indywidualnego Apeiron w Krakowie (Poland) Prof. Francesco SIDOTI, Ph.D. L Uuniversita` dell Aquila (Italy) Prof. Sergii Viktotovych Slinko Lviv University of Bussines and Law (Ukraine) Prof. Lyubomyr Sopilnyk, Ph.D. Lviv University of Business and Law (Ukraine) Doc. PaedDr. Samuel Uhrin, CSc. Akademia Pomorska w Słupsku (Poland) Prof. Bernard Wiśniewski, Ph.D. Wyższa Szkoła Policji w Szczytnie (Poland) Prof. Larisa A. Yankovska, Ph.D. Lviv University of Business and Law (Ukraine) Assoc. Prof. Mirosław Zabierowski, Ph.D. Wyższa Szkoła Oficerska Wojsk Lądowych im. Generała Tadeusza Kościuszki we Wrocławiu (Poland) Doc. Vasyl Zaplatynskyi, CSc. National aviation university (Ukraine) Doc. JUDr. Vladimir Zoubek, LL.M., MBA. Policejní akademie České republiky v Praze (Czech Republic)

6 Contents Scientific Pivot Juliusz Piwowarski Three Pillars of Security Culture 16 Martial Arts Wojciech J. Cynarski, Juliusz Piwowarski Japanese Security Culture in the Global Village. The Budo Charter as a Modernized Element of Ancient Military Tradition 30 Internal security Marián Mesároš, Mikuláš Bodor Monitoring House Arrest in the Slovak Republic 52 Ewa Płaczek Importance of Professional Competence in the Rescue in Opinions of Young People 68 Jacek Bil The Electoral Corruption in the Reality of Unconsolidated Democracy 81

7 HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE OF KINESIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SECURITY CULTURE Tadeusz Ambroży, Jarosław Omorczyk, Arkadiusz Stanula, Amadeusz Kwiatkowski, Wiesław Błach, Dariusz Mucha, Andrzej Kędra A Proposal for Special Kickboxing Fitness Test 96 Grzegorz Mańko, Izabela Kocot, Magdalena Pieniążek, Angelika Sosulska, Henryk Piwowar Assessment the Risk of Falls Versus Postural Stability of the Elderly, Using a Stabilographic Platform 111 Security Technologies Nikita Bobrov, Jan Mandelík, Peter Havaj, Vlastimil Rábek, Juliusz Piwowarski Possibility of the Evaluation of Injuries of an Unbelted Passenger in a Vehicle and the Need for Special Procedures while Inspecting the Site of the Accident 132 International Security Antoni Olak, Antoni Krauz Strategic Reserves in National Security System of the Republic of Poland 166 Erik Pajtinka Military Diplomacy and Its Present Functions 179 Ivan Jagersky Hybrid Tactics as Part of Russian Foreign Policy and Attempts to Influence Political Discourse in the EU 195

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13 Publisher Responsibilities Editorial autonomy Security Dimensions: International & National Studies is committed to working with editors to define clearly the respective roles of publisher and of editors in order to ensure the autonomy of editorial decisions, without influence from advertisers or other commercial partners. Intellectual property and copyright University of Public and Individual Security Apeiron in Cracow ensures the integrity and transparency of each published article with respect to: conflicts of interest, publication and research funding, publication and research ethics, cases of publication and research misconduct, confidentiality, authorship, article corrections, clarifications and retractions, and timely publication of content. Scientific misconduct In cases of alleged or proven scientific misconduct, fraudulent publication, or plagiarism the publisher, in close collaboration with the editors, will take all appropriate measures to clarify the situation and to amend the article in question. This includes the prompt publication of a correction statement or erratum or, in the most severe cases, the retraction of the affected work. WHAT IS APPROPRIATE FOR US? We welcome submissions on widely comprehended security. Papers of nonscientific character that consists merely of opinion are generally rejected. Our rule is to define security broadly, so the topics of analyses we are interested in are numerous, below please find only few examples of them: 1. Theory of security studies, including new propositions of definition of relevant concepts and attempts of applying existent theories that are important for contemporary securitology. 2. Technology, i.e. analysis of all kinds of technological aspects of national and international security. 3. Martial Arts, papers regarding philosophy of modern and traditional Budo as well as analysis of work-outs for athletes training hand-tohand combat. 4. Dispositional groups, analysis of schooling, trainings and work of uniformed services, antiterrorists and other. 5. Law, analysis of legal aspects of national and international security and order. 6. History, new interpretations of or new information on historical events. 13

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15 Scientific Pivot

16 SECURITY DIMENSIONS International & National Studies NO. 20; 2016 (16 27) DOI /SD/14/1 Three Pillars of Security Culture* 1 Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D. University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow, POLAND ABSTRACT The article presents a proposal for multidisciplinary scientific platform, as a basis for security studies. It includes not only the military but mostly non-military aspects of security. An emphasis is put on security culture, the main pivot of the Security Dimensions as a scientific journal, with three pillars of the security culture concept: mental and spiritual (individual dimension), legal and organizational (social dimension), material. ARTICLE INFO Key words Security culture, security studies, multidisciplinary, pillars This article is an invitation for co-creating interdisciplinary scientific platform. The aim is to provide such a mutual understanding, that allows to achieve a certain coherence and the comparability of the security studies research results, in the frame of Security Dimensions, a transdisciplinary scientific journal, created by me as an editor-in-chief, in accordance with the motto e pluribus unum. The proposed platform is the scientific category known as security culture, with her three pillars: individual, social, and material, connected with such scholars as Alfred Louis Kroeber or Marian Cieślarczyk. * The article has been firstly published in Security Dimensions No 14, and is repeated as a manifest of scientific pivot of the journal; J. Piwowarski, Three Pillars of Security Culture, Security Dimensions. International and National Studies, 2015, no 14, p , DOI /SD/14/1.

17 Three Pillars of Security Culture *** The development of the human being, and daily functioning of the social collectivities, formed by families, local communities, including professional groups is accompanied by a continuous erection of edifice of culture. The phenomenon of culture is the whole material and nonmaterial embedded elements of the legacy of people. In 1871 English anthropologist Edward Tylor formulated a definition of the concept of culture 1. According to Tylor, culture includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society. American anthropologist of culture Alfred Louis Kroeber ( ) presented the concept of culture, which is the inspiration for the idea of the pillars of security culture. In his concept presented in The Nature of Culture (1952), the three components of culture are material reality, social culture, and ethical culture with related values 2. *** English philosopher and sociologist, Roger Vernon Scruton, as an apologist of Western culture, highlights importantly culture is important. This statement, in globalization era, does not reverberate all around us so strongly that it does not need to be repeated after Scruton, and confirmed in the specific actions 3. To teach others, that culture is important, we must therefore first begin with ourselves. Nowadays the false interpretations of freedom are very common, depriving us of culture, that give us patterns of behavior in accordance with specific standards and rules. Interpretations exempting us from obligations or responsibilities, result in aberrations in subarea of culture known as security culture. There have been a threat that our culture can be devaluated, and morality will be eliminated, to the detriment of human security. 1 e. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, Vol. 1, Vol. 2, John Murray, London a. L. Kroeber, The Nature of Culture, University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1952; Idem, Configurations of Culture Growth, University of California Press, Berkeley Action in sociology is a kind of human conduct, to which their operators (the authors) imply some meaning. Such recognition of action category widespread thanks to thesociology of Max Weber today is considered to be a rudimentary sociological category: Max Weber, Gospodarka i społeczeństwo. Zarys socjologii rozumiejącej, (Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, Tübingen 1922), Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 2002, p

18 Juliusz Piwowarski The phenomenon of security culture is a part of culture in wide sense. As being clearly shaped, a cultural domain is accompanied by a man from the dawn. As many anthropologists conclude, with Malinowski in the lead, providing security lays at the root of humanizing and constituted a conditio sine qua non not only of the survival of the human species, but also the development of other sectors of human culture 4. *** You may discover that the phenomenon of culture and security, operate in a very similar way: 1. Both for security and for culture in parallel the importance have two simultaneously occurring parameters: space and time. 2. Physical space gives, as an example, the possibility of regions of security (or regions of threats ), and at the same time allows the culture to expand on more and more territory. 3. The time parameter provides a frame of reference in which it lasts on a given territory, culture-building process identical with the development process of human bodies, small, medium and large social groups and whole societies-nations this development determines the level of their security. 4. The development process is, by definition and common sense, the mechanism of response to any threats or even as defined in the security term can be considered an analogon of the phenomenon of security. 5. Culture is in the particular civilization not only some added value, but it is an autonomous self-defenceness potential of a given civilization active persons or entities in the fields of political, military, cultural, economic, ecological, legal, organizational, cybernetic or technical activities. 6. Culture in relation to the different active persons or entities that function under its impact, from a personal to a global scale, provides such a mechanism, which may significantly affect the attitudes and behavior of these active persons or entities in certain situations, processes, or points-in-time events, carrying a variety of opportunities, risks and threats. 4 S. Jarmoszko, Nowe wzory kultury bezpieczeństwa a procesy deterioracji więzi społecznej, [in:] Jedność i różnorodność. Kultura vs. kultury, E. Rekłajtis, R. Wiśniewski, J. Zdanowski (red.), Aspra-JR, Warszawa 2010; B. Malinowski, Naukowa teoria kultury, [in:] Szkice z teorii kultury, Książka i Wiedza, Warszawa 1958, p

19 Three Pillars of Security Culture 7. Culture can also be a theoretical model, having the power to explain, being applicable in security studies. *** The cultural turn has been popularized by American philosopher and sociologist Fredric Jameson and his collection of essays The Cultural Turn 5. Postmodernism pointed the culture, as the main element of social issues discourses. If the culture is the whole material and spiritual elements of the legacy of people, embedded and enriched in the course of history, transferred from generation to generation ( ) 6 and its components are the principia reducing the risks of social coexistence, cultural patterns, moral presumptions and behavior adequate for given social collectivity, in consequence, it affects the formation of social facts and artifacts belonging to the subarea of culture, which is the security culture. At the beginning of the 21st century the cultural turn in social sciences was prestigiously institutionalized by creation of the Center for Cultural Sociology at the University of Yale in The effects of research on security issues (security studies), belonging to the nonmaterial elements of embedded legacy of people, are an important part of a security culture, which used to be only a part of international relations. Over time, this scientific approach gained importance and autonomy. Today, its fields, realism or idealism, thanks to constructivist breakthrough, which came in the 1980s in security studies, can be used for research both the active persons or entities, in different scales, not only in the whole state scientific perspective. They are applied from the scale of the active persons by the scale of the entities up to the societies-na- 5 f. Jameson, The Cultural Turn: Selected Writings on the Postmodern , Verso Books Publ., London New York 1998; Idem, Globalization and Political Strategy, [in:] New Left Review, 4 ( July August, 2000); Idem, Postmodernism and Cultural Theories. Lectures in China (Houxiandaizhuyi he Wenhualilun), Shanxi Teacher s University, Xi an 1987; Idem, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, Duke University Press, Durham 1991; see G. Steinmetz, State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, New York 1999; M. Jacobs, L. Spillman, Cultural sociology at the crossroads of the discipline, [in:] Poetics. Journal of Empirical Research on Culture, the Media and the Arts 2005, 33, p. 1 14; V. E. Bonnell, L. Hunt, Beyond the Cultural Turn, University of California Press, Berkeley Kultura [ culture ], Mała Encyklopedia PWN, Warszawa 1996, p

20 Juliusz Piwowarski tions and their states. A brief definition of the security culture, is proposed by the author of this article, as follows: Security culture is the whole material and nonmaterial elements of embedded legacy of people, aimed at cultivating, recovering (if lost) and raising the level of safety specified active persons or entities. It can be considered in terms of individual mental and spiritual, social and physical dimensions. Developed, the so-called spectral version of the definition of a security culture, showing the importance of security consciousness for acting person or entity 7, is indicated below. It is the result of the Polish-Ukrainian cooperation, as a result of research program ( ), that took place in Cracow Research Institute for Security and Defence Skills APEIRON. The authors of the definition are Juliusz Piwowarski (CRISD APEIRON, Poland) and Vasyl Zaplatynski (National Aviation University in Kiev, Ukraine). Security culture 8 is the whole material and nonmaterial elements of embedded legacy of people in military and nonmilitary spheres that is, the widely understood autonomous defence of active persons or entities. This phenomenon is a trichotomy, that create three overlapping dimensions: mental and spiritual (individual dimension), legal and organizational (social dimension), material. Security culture is used for realization the specified aims and needs: 1. Effective control of emerging threats, obtaining the status of a satisfyingly low level of threats. 2. Recovery of security in a situation where it has been lost. 3. Optimization, for a specified active persons or entities, of the level of multiareal understood security. 4. To encourage in the social and personal consciousness about the need for self-improvement and trichotomal (mental/social/ material) development, along with enabling the motivation and attitudes that result in individual and collaborative activities, re- 7 See A. Zduniak, N. Majchrzak, Świadomość emocjonalna jako dystraktor w procesach badawczych bezpieczeństwa, [in:] Metodologia badań bezpieczeństwa narodowego, vol. 3, Akademia Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa J. Piwowarski, Ochrona VIP-a a czworokąt bushido. Studium japońskiej kultury bezpieczeństwa, [w:] Bezpieczeństwo osób podlegających ustawowo ochronie wobec zagrożeń XXI wieku, P. Bogdalski, J. Cymerski, K. Jałoszyński (red.), Szczytno 2014, s

21 Three Pillars of Security Culture sulting in a comprehensive development of acting persons or entities, including their autonomous defenceness. The precursor of the security and defence culture studies in Poland is Marian Cieślarczyk. It should be noted that the defence in this concept is concerned, despite schematic approaches, far beyond the military sphere. By defence Cieślarczyk means also the non-military potential. This potential enables effective tackling and preventing the occurrence of threats and to react on threats at the moment of their real occurrence. Professor Marian Cieślarczyk gives the following definition of a security culture: Security and defence culture is a kind of social matrix, the pattern of basic assumptions, values, norms, rules, symbols, and beliefs that influence the perception of the challenges, opportunities and (or) threats, and the way of feeling security and thinking about it, behaviour and activities (cooperation) of active persons or entities connected with this, in a variety of ways»articulated«and»learned«by them in the education of broad sense, including internal and external integration processes in natural adaptation and other organizational processes, as well as in the process of strengthening the widely (not just militarily) understood defence, serving the harmonious development of these active persons or entities, and the achievement by them widely understood security, for the benefit of each other, as well as the environment 9. The concept of Marian Cieślarczyk shows that security and defence culture is manifested in the following three dimensions: 1. The first dimension ideas, values, and spirituality of the human being, 2. The second dimension social impacts of the organisation and systems of law, 3. The third dimension material aspects of human existence. The above components Marian Cieślarczyk called pillars of a culture of security. They are named, respectively, mental-spiritual, organizational and legal, and material pillars. The components of these pillars interpenetrate, despite peculiarities. For example, knowledge as a component of the first pillar, is also an element of the second pillar, having the organizational-legal and technical-innovative nature. The concept of security culture allows, in many cases, the integration of multidisciplinary studies 9 M. Cieślarczyk, Kultura bezpieczeństwa i obronności, Wydawnictwo Akademii Podlaskiej, Siedlce 2010, p

22 Juliusz Piwowarski on security and defence issues. This concept includes also the emotional and rational understanding of safety as a neutralizing agent against controlled (for the time) and legitimated aggression. Security culture, its suitably high level, allows us to avoid the temptation of an aggressive win for the higher needs, what is the need for being an impregnable. *** Paying attention to the definition of security culture phenomenon, we can see that this combines all aspects of social life: spirituality, social competence, materiality and their coherent, holistic implementation. It promotes security, conceived both as a value (1st pillar of security culture), as the desired state (1st, 2nd and 3rd pillar of culture) and as a process, which aim is to use the heritage of generations, repeated and evolving in three areas of the human individual, human population and the material dimension of human existence continuously thanks to the functioning of the intersubjective phenomenon, which is a cross-generation national transmission 10. Security is implemented through the defence function, also understood very broadly not only understood as a category of military considerations. Cieślarczyk writes: from my research, it appears that today, but also in the foreseeable future, thinking about defence only in terms of the military is insufficient 11. Similarly, Emma Rothschild in the article What Is Security? 12, 1995, specifies the need to redefine the category of security in the process of extending its concept. The concept of defence concerned in individual and social (collective) context is almost synonymous with the concept of a security culture. Here you can talk about the exist- 10 Generation the term can be through the following determinants of this social phenomenon: a) genealogical relation of parents and children it occurs for example in the Bible, or pedigree, b) para genealogical an extension of the previous definition on the whole societies, c) registered (all of the peer groups) and d) cultural; see M. Wallis, Koncepcje biologiczne w humanistyce, [in:] Fragmenty filozoficzne, seria II, Tadeusz Kotarbiński (red.), Warszawa 1959; similar differentiation of the generation term, gives M. Ossowska, Koncepcja pokolenia, [in:] Studia Socjologiczne 1963, 2, but the first of her typologies is limited to the genealogical type (parents children relation) and cultural-genealogical (teacher pupil relation). 11 M. Cieślarczyk, Kultura bezpieczeństwa i obronności, Wydawnictwo Akademii Podlaskiej, Siedlce 2010, p e. Rotschild, What Is Security?, Daedalus, Vol. 124, No. 3, Summer 1995, p

23 Three Pillars of Security Culture ence of a coherent, although multithreaded security culture, for the level of which, of the utmost importance are, inter alia, education and teaching, identity and social constraints, and challenges associated with conscious effort, which is aimed at self-improvement of man, and on this basis the improvement created of social organizations, for example, in the spirit of the community, as it suggests the American sociologist, communitarianist, Amitai Etzioni 13. According to Etzioni the man does not exist as long as there is no socially; what he is, depends on his social being, and his use of this social being is irrevocably linked to who is. It has the ability to control his inner being, while the main path for self-control leads to connect with other, similar active persons, in social activities 14. *** American and English universities securitology is equated with the concept of security culture 15, as Leszek Korzeniowski observes. The use of the security culture category is recorded among a large number of researchers of transdisciplinary and very capacious issue, which is a modern security science. For example, Nick Pidgeon is among these authors 16. The issue of suitability of scientific term security culture for research carried out by securitologists, according to Korzeniowski, is confirmed through the Zohar 17. In the United States, Dove Zohar popularized his own concept and corresponding category an equivalent to the concept of security which is security climate. A research team from Illinois State University, led by Hui Zhanga studied the concerned issues of one hundred seven articles in which security culture or security climate phrases were 13 a. Etzioni, Spirit Of Community: The Reinvention American Society, Touchstone, New York a. Etzioni, Aktywne społeczeństwo, Zakład Wydawniczy Nomos, Kraków 2012, p Ll. Korzeniowski, Securitologia. Nauka o bezpieczeństwie człowieka i organizacji społecznych, EAS, Kraków 2008, p N. Pidgeon, Safety culture and risk management in organizations, The Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology Cardiff University 1991, No 22, p ; J. S. Carroll, Safety culture as an ongoing process: Culture surveys as opportunities for enquiry and change, Work & Stress 1998, No 12, p ; M. D. Cooper, Towards a model of safety culture, Safety Science 2000, No 36, p D. Zohar, Safety climate in industrial organizations: Theoretical and applied implications, Journal of Applied Psychology, No 65, p

24 Juliusz Piwowarski contained. Effect of comparative analysis was a prove for both concepts equity, with only one reservation, that the term security climate includes more psychological aspects than security culture 18. However, so as not to leave any further doubts, must be added that both concepts in terms of subject and research methods of securitology, as the security science concludes finally Korzeniowski 19. *** You could say that modern social sciences put culture on a pedestal. As Ulf Hannerz 20 states culture is everywhere, while Mahmood Mamdani 21 adds that culture is a matter of life and death. In addition, with the culture is to be reckoned with, as recalls Samuel Huntington 22. As previously noted, culture as a whole of the material and spiritual achievements of humankind gathered, adhered and enriched in the course of its history. It affects decisively, but often it happens unnoticed, the research by a man this kind of social facts and artifacts, that belong to a specific, divided into fixed pillars, through which societies (Nations) can address certain types of threats, political and military, to a threat to national identity. These pillars and their potentials, being a preserved heritage of society, settle national security culture. In opinion of many security scientists, this very important social phenomenon, studied in all scales of human threats-ranging, from personal scale through national, international to a global scale is always somehow rooted in the phenomenon of cultural trichotomy H. Zhang, D. A. Wiegmann, T. L. von Thaden, Safety Culture: a concept in chaos?, Urbana Champaign: University of Illinois, PapersPDFs/humfac02/zhawiegvonshamithf02.pdf, accessed l. Korzeniowski, Securitologia, op. cit., s U. Hanerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning, Columbia University Press, New York 1992; Idem, Cosmopolitans and Locals in World Culture, Columbia University Press, New York M. Mamdani, Beyond Rights Talk and Culture Talk: Comparative Essays on the Politics and Rights and Culture, Palgrave Macmillan, New York S. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations, Simon and Schuster, New York, See i.e. L. W. Zacher, Jednostkowe i społeczne konteksty i wyzwania dla bezpieczeństwa, [in:] Metodologia badań bezpieczeństwa narodowego, vol. 3, Akademia Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa

25 Three Pillars of Security Culture References: 1. Bonnell V. E., Hunt L., Beyond the Cultural Turn, University of California Press, Berkeley carroll J. S., Safety culture as an ongoing process: Culture surveys as opportunities for enquiry and change, Work & Stress 1998, No cieślarczyk M., Kultura bezpieczeństwa i obronności, Wydawnictwo Akademii Podlaskiej, Siedlce cooper M. D., Towards a model of safety culture, Safety Science 2000, No etzioni A., Aktywne społeczeństwo, Zakład Wydawniczy Nomos, Kraków etzioni A., Spirit Of Community: The Reinvention American Society, Touchstone, New York Hanerz U., Cosmopolitans and Locals in World Culture, Columbia University Press, New York Hanerz U., Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning, Columbia University Press, New York Huntington S., The Clash of Civilizations, Simon and Schuster, New York, Jacobs M., Spillman L., Cultural sociology at the crossroads of the discipline, Poetics. Journal of Empirical Research on Culture, the Media and the Arts 2005, Jameson F., Globalization and Political Strategy, New Left Review, 4 ( July August, 2000). 12. Jameson F., Postmodernism and Cultural Theories. Lectures in China (Houxiandaizhuyi he Wenhualilun), Shanxi Teacher s University, Xi an Jameson F., Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, Duke University Press, Durham Jameson F., The Cultural Turn: Selected Writings on the Postmodern , Verso Books Publ., London New York Jarmoszko S., Nowe wzory kultury bezpieczeństwa a procesy deterioracji więzi społecznej, [in:] Jedność i różnorodność. Kultura vs. kultury, E. Rekłajtis, R. Wiśniewski, J. Zdanowski (red.), Aspra-JR, Warszawa Korzeniowski L., Securitologia. Nauka o bezpieczeństwie człowieka i organizacji społecznych, EAS, Kraków

26 Juliusz Piwowarski 17. Kroeber A. L., Configurations of Culture Growth, University of California Press, Berkeley Kroeber A. L., The Nature of Culture, University of Chicago Press, Chicago Mała Encyklopedia PWN, Warszawa Malinowski B., Naukowa teoria kultury, [in:] Szkice z teorii kultury, Książka i Wiedza, Warszawa Mamdani M., Beyond Rights Talk and Culture Talk: Comparative Essays on the Politics and Rights and Culture, Palgrave Macmillan, New York ossowska M., Koncepcja pokolenia, Studia Socjologiczne 1963, Pidgeon N., Safety culture and risk management in organizations, The Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology Cardiff University 1991, No Piwowarski J., Ochrona VIP-a a czworokąt bushido. Studium japońskiej kultury bezpieczeństwa, [w:] Bezpieczeństwo osób podlegających ustawowo ochronie wobec zagrożeń XXI wieku, P. Bogdalski, J. Cymerski, K. Jałoszyński (red.), Szczytno rotschild E., What Is Security?, Daedalus, Vol. 124, No. 3, Summer 1995, p Steinmetz G., State/Culture: State-Formation after the Cultural Turn, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, New York tylor E. B., Primitive Culture, Vol. 1, Vol. 2, John Murray, London Wallis M., Koncepcje biologiczne w humanistyce, [in:] Fragmenty filozoficzne, seria II, Tadeusz Kotarbiński (red.), Warszawa Weber M., Gospodarka i społeczeństwo. Zarys socjologii rozumiejącej, (Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, Tübingen 1922), Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa Zacher L. W., Jednostkowe i społeczne konteksty i wyzwania dla bezpieczeństwa, [in:] Metodologia badań bezpieczeństwa narodowego, vol. 3, Akademia Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa Zduniak A., Majchrzak N., Świadomość emocjonalna jako dystraktor w procesach badawczych bezpieczeństwa, [in:] Metodologia badań bezpieczeństwa narodowego, vol. 3, Akademia Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa

27 Three Pillars of Security Culture 32. Zhang H., Wiegmann D. A., von Thaden T. L., Safety Culture: a concept in chaos?, Urbana Champaign: University of Illinois, factors.uiuc.edu/reports&paperspdfs/humfac02/zhawiegvonsham ithf02.pdf, accessed Zohar D., Safety climate in industrial organizations: Theoretical and applied implications, Journal of Applied Psychology, No 65. Author: Juliusz Piwowarski currently (since 2010) serves as the Rector of the University of Public and Individual Security Apeiron in Cracow. The founder of Cracow Research Institute for Security & Defence Skills APEIRON (2012) at the University of Public and Individual Security Apeiron in Cracow. An initiator of international cooperation of Slovakia, Czech Republic, Ukraine, Italy, Germany and the USA. In 2009 earned his doctorate degree in the field of religious studies at the Faculty of Philosophy at Jagiellonian University in Cracow (Poland) and the Ph.D. thesis pertained to the issues of security culture contained in the tradition of the ethical code of the Samurai Bushido. So far Juliusz Piwowarski is the author of two monographs published abroad, eleven monographs published at Polish publishers and nearly a hundred scientific articles published at Polish and foreign scientific magazines. His main interests are security sciences, philosophy of security, social psychology, sociology, pedagogy, praxeology and science of morality conceived as a constituent of the first pillar of security culture. Cite this article as: J. Piwowarski, Three Pillars of Security Culture, Security Dimensions. International and National Studies, 2015, no 14, p , DOI / SD/14/1. 27

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29 Martial Arts

30 SECURITY DIMENSIONS International & National Studies NO. 20; 2016 (30 50) DOI /SD/20/1 Japanese Security Culture in the Global Village. The Budo Charter as a Modernized Element of Ancient Military Tradition Prof. Wojciech J. Cynarski, Ph.D. University of Rzeszów, POLAND Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D. University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow, POLAND ABSTRACT Authors have presented and discussed the content of the Budo Charter, positioning it in social phenomenon forming a system of security culture. This is modernized ethics canon and a kind of credo showing today s social mission, which is implemented by the transmission of Japanese martial arts of budo. Triangulated problem analysis was carried out from three perspectives humanist theory of martial arts, security sciences and anthropology of martial arts. It was concluded that the content contained in the Budo Charter are elements of security culture, which show continuous up-to-date ideals carried since ancient times by the honorable Samurai code bushido and its manual application, which is a collection of martial arts of budo from the Japanese Islands. ARTICLE INFO Article history Received: Accepted Key words martial arts, way of a warrior, ethical canon, security culture Introduction Processes of intercultural exchange parallel with still accelerating globalisation give at the disposal of mankind potentials generated by the different

31 Japanese Security Culture in the Global Village national and regional traditions. In our Global Village 1, from the security sciences point of view, the possibilities inherent in cultures until recently determined as foreign, are therefore today a suitable material for use in efforts to improve the security environment in every part of the world. The objective is the realization of many kinds of tasks related to the prevention of threats activation and with maintenance, recovery and raising to a higher level the security of states and inhabitant communities. Becoming more and more dynamic, globalisation 2 acts as a catalytic processes in intercultural exchange. Society of different cultures in the remote, as it seems, areas, can today find helpful analogies to create and run their own value systems, supported and used with many different ways and methods of using the knowledge of the functioning of the different phenomena. Budo is a quite specific social phenomenon. It is a collection of many varieties, defined in general, Martial Arts, basing on the tradition of Japan. Unlike the ancient and medieval bujutsu being a set of Japanese war techniques and methods of fighting, in budo, bujutsu is cultivated in spiritual, psycho-physical form. This is an important element of continuity in the transmission of the Japanese security culture. In terms of subdiscipline of humanistic theory of martial arts 3, created by Kazimierz Obodyński and Wojciech Cynarski, and security culture, of which Polish pioneer is Marian Cieślarczyk, the master of Juliusz Piwowarski, noted that budo puts a strong emphasis on self-realising and educational aspects of human activities. It should be noted that seeking self-realization by an active actor on the way of warrior is not an exclusive domain of the socio-cultural heritage of Japan. This also applies to China and Korea, and today this method is 1 M. McLuhan, The Global Village: Transformations in World Life and Media in the 21st Century, Oxford University Press, New York Z. Bauman, Globalization: The Human Consequences, Polity Press, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford 2000; J. E. Stiglitz, Globalization and Its Discontents, W.W. Norton, New York W. J. Cynarski, K. Obodyński (ed.), Humanistyczna teoria sztuk i sportów walki koncepcje i problemy, Uniwersytet Rzeszowski, Rzeszów 2003; W. J. Cynarski, Teoria i praktyka dalekowschodnich sztuk walki w perspektywie europejskiej, Uniwersytet Rzeszowski, Rzeszów 2004; idem, Sztuki walki budo w kulturze Zachodu, Wydawnictwo WSP, Rzeszów 2000; idem, Recepcja i internalizacja etosu dalekowschodnich sztuk walki przez osoby ćwiczące, Uniwersytet Rzeszowski, Rzeszów 2006; idem, Martial arts Phenomenon Research and Multidisciplinary Interpretation, Uniwersytet Rzeszowski, Rzeszów

32 Wojciech J. Cynarski, Juliusz Piwowarski disseminated among all the nations of the world, being one of the factors that affect many national security cultures. *** The following definition of a security culture was presented by Piwowarski Zaplatyński team 4. Security culture 5 is the whole material and nonmaterial elements of embedded legacy of people in military and nonmilitary spheres that is, the widely understood autonomous defence 6 of an actor of security. This is an energy pole of social interactions, and trichotomy of streams of this pole corresponds to the dimensions: mental-spiritual (individual), organizational-legal (collective) and physical (material). Energy pole of security culture allows active actor to carry out the following activities: 1. Control over dangers, allowing to obtain satisfactory low level of mental, social-organizational and cultural and physical risks. 2. Recovery of security in situations where it has been lost or decreased. 3. Optimization of multi-sectoral security through harmonious, adapted to the current needs, ratio of the development of its sectors 7. 4 J. Piwowarski, Transdyscyplinarna istota kultury bezpieczeństwa narodowego, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Akademii Pomorskiej w Słupsku, Słupsk 2016, p ; idem, Ochrona VIP-a a czworokąt bushido. Studium japońskiej kultury bezpieczeństwa, [in:] Bezpieczeństwo osób podlegających ustawowo ochronie wobec zagrożeń XXI wieku, P. Bogdalski, J. Cymerski, K. Jałoszyński (ed.), Wyższa Szkoła Policji w Szczytnie, Szczytno 2014, p J. Piwowarski, Three Pillars of Security Culture, Security Dimensions. International and National Studies, 2015, no 14, p , DOI /SD/14/1. 6 Defenceness [autonomous] defend on your own [by individual or entity], [in:] Słownik języka polskiego, W. Doroszewski (ed.), Warszawa ; defencive something that is a defense or is to defend against something, [in:] Inny słownik języka polskiego PWN, M. Bańko (ed.), Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa for example, to animate the efforts to achieve harmony of activity in directions of social involvement of entities of security in different scales, starting from individual (sociotechnical function of social sciences), causing balance in commitment of entity of security, in non-material and material aspects of own value rising, often limited to the success achieved in the economic sector of national security culture. P. Katzenstein, The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics, Columbia University Press, New York 1989; J.J. Romm, Defining National Security: The Nonmilitary Aspects, Council on Foreign Relations, New York 1993; M. Cameron, T. Weiner, National Security, Blackstone Audio, New York 2011; S. Horton, Lords of Secrecy: The National Security 32

33 Japanese Security Culture in the Global Village 4. To encourage needs for harmonious development (mental/social/material) and to activate the motivation and attitudes which result in individual and collective action for the development of individual and group security actors. *** Authors of this article believe, however, that actually deepened, mental-spiritual sense of psycho-social and psycho-sphere practices of Martial Arts, were possibly in most appropriate way defined in the Japanese tradition, where through the practice of having a holistic nature budo, man cultivates in the modern, humianistic version of the bushido ethos of chivalry. The main feature of the budo multisystem is its far advanced multidisciplinarity and multiformality. Based on the impact of the budo evolution of axiological antroposfphere and impact of socio-cultural systems, practice areas personal development and transcendence describes derived from humanistic theory of martial arts, anthropology of security and theory of security sciences, whose message is carried out from the perspective offered by the area of social sciences. Varieties of budo along with their adepts are involved in the processes of socio-cultural exchanges, being at the same time a subject of interesting modifications, which allows to continue successfully the harmonious development of security actors at personal (individual) and structural (collective) levels. It should be added that not without significance here is the fact of continuous use of this resource of security culture by modern uniformed formations. Often the concept of budo is compared or contrasted with the Western concept of sport. Modern budo (gendai budo), co-created by such masters-teachers 8 as Kano Jigoro (judo), Gichin Funakoshi (karate-do) or Ueshiba Morihei (aikido), already in the beginnings showed possibilities, different ways of self-improvement of security actor. This could be the paths of education and sports, self-realisation, taken without partici- Elite and America s Stealth Warfare Hardcover, Nation Books, New York 2015; J. Piwowarski, Wide Comprehension of Securitology in Culture of National Security, Security Dimensions: International & National Studies, 2013, nr 10, 2013, p ; M. Berkowitz, P. G. Bock, American National Security. A Reader in Theory on Policy, Free Press Publ., New York 1965, s. X; I. Cucu, The National Security and Economical Development, Strategical Impact 2008, No. 3; T. Berger, Cultures of Antimilitarism National Security in Germany and Japan, Hopkins University Press, Baltimore J. Stevens, Trzej mistrzowie budo: Funakoshi, Kano, Ueshiba, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz

34 Wojciech J. Cynarski, Juliusz Piwowarski pation in sports competition, connected with the social and para-religious path of self-improvement 9, and finally this path, which focuses solely on the spiritual development of security actor. Since the first masters of budo, implementing the ancient Japanese martial arts to the social world of the era of modernity, not only judo has changed, the old traditional karate in most of it varieties evolved strongly to sports, and aikido is today divided into numerous schools that practice in different ways and for different purposes. There is still a diversity of ideology of individual schools and styles of karate non-sports and sports varieties, full-contact and non-contact. It is probably the care of heirs of budo traditions to preserve the unique specificity of this tradition and the identity of the Japanese martial arts heritage, has led experts from that country not only to create numerous institutions for protection and promotion of budo but also to formalize in a new, most current main ideas discussed here, original in its form, but at the same time exploited today around the world the message of security culture. Therefore, a document titled Budo Charter was created. It stresses the main values and objectives, to which should lead the modern preservation of the Japanese martial arts, taking into account the very complex, suffering a crisis of values, postmodern social reality 10. The Budo Charter (Budo Kensho) Feliks F. Hoff, an experienced German coach and leader of kyudo, a sport variety of sword fighting, presented, during the European Symposium of Budo, which took place in Germany in Moers (1998), the Budo Charter, redacted by Japanese martial arts experts. This document was presented to the world by the Nippon Budo Shingikai organisation on 23 April We will soon be celebrating 30 years of showing modern version of the code. The following are the contents of this document: 9 J. Gierszewski, J. Piwowarski, Theoretical Basics of Societal Security, Security Dimensions. International & National Studies no 18, 2016, p Social World is formed by collective action, carried out in social communication with the help of certain symbols; its manifestation is the action, on the basis of which individual security actors negotiate rules of social interaction, social roles, language, ways of communication; Social World studies, based on the thought of Edmund Husserl, implemented in sociology of Alfred Schütz developed by his successors; Social World is not an objective entity it is socially constructed; in this approach, the accent is put on ways of experiencing the social reality for example by socialization or religious experience; A. Schütz, The Phenomenology of the Social World, Northwestern University Press, Evanston,

35 Japanese Security Culture in the Global Village Budo, rooted in the martial spirit of ancient Japan, is an aspect of traditional culture that has evolved from jyutsu to do through centuries of historical and social change. Following the concept of unity of mind and technique, budo has developed and refined a discipline of austere training which promotes etiquette, skillful technique, physical strength, and the unity of mind and body. Modern Japanese have inherited these values and they play a prominent role in forming Japanese personalities. In modern Japan the budo spirit is a source of powerful energy and promotes a pleasant disposition in the individual. Today, budo has been diffused throughout the world and has attracted strong interest internationally. However, infatuation with mere technical training, and undue concern with winning is a severe threat to the essence of budo. To prevent this perversion of the art, we must continually examine ourselves and endeavor to perfect and preserve this national heritage. It is with this hope that we establish the Budo Charter in order to uphold the fundamental principles of traditional budo. ARTICLE 1: OBJECT The object of budo is to cultivate character, enrich the ability to make value judgments, and foster a well disciplined and capable individual through participation in physical and mental training utilizing martial techniques. ARTICLE 2: KEIKO When practicing daily, one must constantly follow decorum, adhere to the fundamentals, and resist the temptation to pursue mere technical skill rather than the unity of mind and technique. ARTICLE 3: SHIAI In a match and the performance of kata, one must manifest budo spirit, exert himself to the utmost, win with modesty, accept defeat gracefully, and constantly exhibit temperate attitudes. ARTICLE 4: DOJO The dojo is a sacred place for training one s mind and body. Here, one must maintain discipline, proper etiquette, and formality. The training area must be a quiet, clean, safe and solemn environment. ARTICLE 5: TEACHING When teaching trainees, in order to be an effective teacher, the budo master should always strive to cultivate his/her character, and further his/her own skill and discipline of mind and body. He/She should not be swayed by winning or 35

36 Wojciech J. Cynarski, Juliusz Piwowarski losing, or display arrogance about his/her superior skill, but rather he/she should retain the attitudes suitable for a role-model. ARTICLE 6: PROMOTION When promoting budo, one should follow traditional values, seek substantial training, contribute to research, and do one s utmost to perfect and preserve this traditional art with an understanding of international points of view. Concise interpretation of Budo Kensho Preamble Already in the preamble of the Budo Charter we find an indication that the moral and educational way of life, connecting with the self-improvement of security actor and do, is an evolutionary consequence of past martial arts of war known as jutsu (art, technology, method, in this case method of war). Article 1 In the era of mad consumerism and increasing commercialization of many areas of life, we can encounter numerous examples of recourse, noble in its essence, of way of the warrior to pure fight or to showman s performances. Meanwhile, the main objective of practicing of budo applies to personality development of security actors. Article 2 The concept of keiko refers more to the spiritual sphere, than to training that has strictly physical nature. Keiko resonates with the ideas of shūgyo, which is an intense physical practice of asceticism, connecting with the aim of achieving higher values, transgressive goals and transcendent indicated inter alia by the humanist theory of martial arts and being extremely important elements for building individual and social dimensions of national security cultures. Article 3 This article says about sports competitions and their results, which do not constitute an autonomous aim but are a test of skills trained by budo adept and further training, having, in some extent, the nature of combat. You should take the right attitude both after reaching victory, and in the face of defeat. When rivaling in technical forms (kata) one should take care that psychophysical involvement was the involvement of actor of action and seriousness, that are a far from the climate of stage show off, because they 36

37 Japanese Security Culture in the Global Village belong to the sphere of fight, also this that security actor decides to take against its own weaknesses. Article 4 What more, above directives apply to the dojo, a place in which, through the appropriate training, Way of the Warrior is cultivated. Ceremonial dojo and applied etiquette, involve giving honours to the centuries-old traditions and many generations of masters of budo and showing attitudes arising out of respect for teacher and co-training people. Offered on the dojo discipline must be accompanied by the self-discipline conscious self-control kokki arising from the internalisation of ethos values of budo. Article 5 Teaching is associated, according to the Budo Charter, with continued education process of Martial Arts adepts. Paying attention to the personality improvement of budo adepts is the main duty of the master, teacher of budo. This approach to training sports, results are important but much, much less important than the development of moral disposition of adept. Secondary, although also important, it is to achieve technical perfection (level jutsu). The most important are, however, progress towards becoming more and more a better man. Body, skills and the spirit of budo practitioner have to harmoniously tend to master level, which seems to be completely consistent with the presented by J. Piwowarski concept of active security actor. Article 6 Popularising of individual paths of self-improvement, as budo systems, should be regularly combined with the transfer of proven in social reality traditional values. We should keep the continuity of traditional message of moral way of budo, also treated as a positively revised pedagogical system. Actuality of assumptions contained in the message of Budo Charter The above contents are interpreted in today s Japan as still actual 11. For forty five years they are developed in the framework of activities of the Japanese Academy of Budo, and for over a hundred years under 11 Matsunaga Hikaru et al., Budo: The Martial Ways of Japan, Nippon Budokan Foundation, Tokyo 2009; T. Sasaki, Budo (the martial arts) as Japanese culture: the outlook on the techniques and the outlook on the human being, [in:] W.J. Cynarski (ed.), Martial Arts and Combat Sports Humanistic Outlook, Rzeszów University Prss, Rzeszów, 2009, 37

38 Wojciech J. Cynarski, Juliusz Piwowarski auspices of the national organization of the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai. Today no longer this is just Japan. Content of the declaration of the Budo Charter are present in the ideologies of numerous schools and organizations of martial arts Japanese and even other origins, with borrowings from martial arts created in the homeland of the Samurai. The old bushido, angry, sometimes even ruthless and bloody, is now a thing of the past. Civilized society, for example, reject the ritual revenge order, honorable suicide, and similar, in essence extremely cruel, used formerly customs. But what in this tradition of security culture is sublime, and has been preserved by Nitobe Inazo and today s budo propagators, still inspires international practitioners and experts of martial arts, such as, for example, Matthias von Saldern 12, Felix F. Hoff 13, Deborach Klens-Bigman and Raymond A. Sosnowski 14, Dave Lowry 15 or Bradford Keeney and Hillary Keeney 16. With humanistic concept of today s bushido categories correspond i.a. creators of the concept of security management 17. Today s budo inspires p ; Uozumi Takashi, Bennett Alexander (eds.), The History and Spirit of Budo. IBU Budo Series Vol. 1, IBU, Katsuura M. von Saldern, Bushido Ethik des japanischen Ritters, Verlag der Universität Landau, Landau 1993; M. von Saldern, Bushido. Ethik des japanischen Ritters; T. Sasaki, Budo (the martial arts) as Japanese culture: the outlook on the techniques and the outlook on the human being, [in:] W.J. Cynarski (ed.), Martial Arts and Combat Sports Humanistic Outlook, Rzeszów University Press, Rzeszów, 2009, p ; M. von Saldern (ed.), Budo in heutiger Zeit, Universität Lüneburg, Lüneburg f. F. Hoff, Über den Sinn des Budo und Bushido in der heutigen Zeit, [in:] M. von Saldern (ed.), Budo in heutiger Zeit, Universität Lüneburg 1998, p D. Klens-Bigman, R. A. Sosnowski, The Way of the Bow: The Kyudo Path to a Disciplined Mind, Cliff Road Books, New York D. Lowry, In the Dojo: A Guide to the Rituals and Etiquette of the Japanese Martial Arts, Shambala Publications, Boston 2006; idem, The Karate Way: Discovering the Spirit of Practice, Shambala Publications, Boston 2009; idem The Essence of Budo: A Practitioner s Guide to Understanding the Japanese Martial Ways, Shambala Publications, Boston B. Keeney, H.. Keeney, Seiki Jutsu: The Practice of Non-Subtle Energy Medicine, Healing Arts Press, Rochester W. Czajkowski, J. Piwowarski, Administrowanie jakością życia człowieka poprzez system Modern Bushido, Ido Ruch dla Kultury/Movement for Culture, vol. 10, 2010, p ; J. Piwowarski, Samodoskonalenie i bezpieczeństwo w samurajskim kodeksie Bushido. Filozofia Budo: Jūdo, Jūjutsu, Karate-do, Kendo, Kenjutsu, Aikido, Collegium Columbinum, Kraków

39 Japanese Security Culture in the Global Village masses of lovers and enthusiasts in global scale. It becomes more an art of living than martial art, but at the same time keep its former capabilities, allowing the practitioner to achieve significant for him, as a security actor, specified, utilitarian value. The Budo Charter itself is a record of a general canon of ethics, in a sense, similar to the rules of fair play in the Western world. If for interpretation of the complex socio-cultural reality a multidimensional anthropological, ethical and educational perspective is assumed 18, also it should applied for explaining, actual up to present times, codes of chivalry and their derivative systems operating today. In the light of the humanistic, systemically taken anthropology of martial arts, budo is the educational system with significant educational value and high potential for opportunities of achieving by security actor, being on top of his needs, self-realisation 19, directly taken from traditional military culture of honor. Axiology included here is non-confessional, universalistic. The eight virtues of bushido axiological dimension of budo So in Japan, and around the world, exist groups following the ideas of Bushido. It is worth noting the utilitarianism of the Far Eastern guidance recommending combining constancy and change 20. Allegiance to ideas combined with the ability to customize many times was confirmed as a proper strategy for human development. During the reforms Japanese Emperor Meiji and military elite in the year 1882 officially renewed their allegiance to the Way of the Warrior 21 and its virtues. The old values, known for centuries in Japan, after World War II, became recognizable around the world. 1. Integrity Gi and wisdom Chi The concept of integrity includes in this context the strength of provisions, that is, the entry without hesitation on the way, which indicates the mind 18 J. Szmyd, Odczytywanie współczesności. Perspektywa antropologiczna, etyczna i edukacyjna, Krakowskie Towarzystwo Edukacyjne Oficyna Wydawnicza AFM, Kraków W. J. Cynarski, Antropologia drogi wojownika. Studia i szkice z socjologii i filozofii sztuk walki, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, Rzeszów M. Aluchna, P. Płoszajski, Zarządzanie japońskie. Ciągłość i zmiana, Szkoła Główna Handlowa, Warszawa See Reskrypt Cesarski do Żołnierzy i Żeglarzy [in:] A. Ślusarczyk, Samuraje (japoński duch bojowy), Warszawa

40 Wojciech J. Cynarski, Juliusz Piwowarski recognising the nature of reality. Integrity is the backbone As the head without the bones could not keep the stack, as neither talent nor learning without righteousness cannot make Samurai from a human. Where is integrity, and no lack of knowledge is blatant. Even in later times ( ) when a longtime peace brought the warriors a respite, and along with this many other activities and the cult of the fine arts emerged, even then the nickname gishi man right, had a meaning greater than any other word that specifies the scholar or artist 22. The Japanese, in accordance to the instructions of the bushido, as it seems applying in this case to teachings of Buddha, say: Subete ni joseki ari always do the right thing 23. It is one of the most important features of the Samurai to tell the good from the bad Courage Yusha (chin. Yong) Courage is important for Bushido and characteristic for samurai virtue. Confucius specifies the virtue of fortitude as follows: to know what is right and not do this, shows a lack of courage 25. Understanding of courage in the spirit of Bushido has a deeper, moral dimension. Courage is shown only when a man puts on armor, takes a spear into hand and rushes into battle. You can find out about his virtue, while providing normal life the who was born courageous, will be loyal and obedient to their lord and parents. Will devote every free moment to learn, without neglecting practicing martial arts Kindness Jin Kindness is characterized by the real kindness of mind, is expressed in respect and sympathy for others, selfless love, tenderness and compassion. Underdeveloped kindness means lack of respect for other people and tendency to focus on own interests. In the education of young bushi there were features such as kindness and generosity to forgive and empathize with your loved ones. This ability is one of the basis of the recognition someone as noble, and bushi must be noble. This is not a feature far from 22 Ibidem p B. L. de Mente, Samuraje a współczesny biznes, Bellona, Warszawa 2006, p comp. Yamamoto Tsunetomo, Hagakure: The Book of Samurai, Kodansha International, Tokyo Daidoji Yūzan Taira-no Shigesuke, Kodeks młodego samuraja. Budo shoshinshū, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz 2004, p ibidem. 40

41 Japanese Security Culture in the Global Village the desired virtues of an European knight. In the case of bushi it is a specific combination of austerity and stoicism, being kind and generous. 4. Respect, Courtesy Rei and Honor Meiyo Funakoshi Gichin concluded that the essence of Martial Arts can be given by the words karate begins and ends with courtesy. The inhabitants of Okinawa consider their land a place where, with the utmost attention, to all forms of etiquette are respected 27 and Nitobe Inazo pointed out how in samurai social world with extraordinary care was taught and taught how to bow, walk and sit ( ). From the Europeans I ve heard disparaging remarks about so detailed education in courtesy 28. Nitobe however, undaunted by opinions of white barbarians of Europe, kept his mind despite their criticism and stressed that ceremonies ( ) are not trivial; on the contrary, they are a result of long-lasting insights as to the best way to achieve a certain purpose (...) in a low-cost and graceful way 29. If grace is the expression of power saving, hence the conclusion that the constant exercise in appropriate behavior as well as graceful, well trained kata karate should result in accumulation of energy reserve, visible or rather felt by people who behave in a distinguished way. Adept of karate should implement in his/her attitude model of master s distinguished behavior. Regardless of the ergonomics of each ceremonial, however, it is about the strength of a man given by self-esteem. This strength hurts no one but it serves its owner (and the environment). Oyama Masutatsu, a genteel but combative leader of the Kyokushin Karate-do style, wrote when I m drawing people to be trainers (...) their courtesy and respect for others is more important than their strength or skills in karate. [These people] in other countries, gain respect for their attitude and sense of manners, although most of them are just in their thirties 30. Japanese Master reminded also that martial arts begin and end 27 G. Funakoshi, Karate-do. Moje życie, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz 2002, p i. Nitobe, Bushido. Dusza Japonii, Keiko Publishers, Warszawa 1993, p Ibidem, p. 37; Comp.: (...) The great representative of (...) school of etiquette, Ogasawara [said]: the objective of each etiquette is as follows: you must thus shape your soul, that the largest brutal did not dare to poke you, even when you are calmly sitting, Nitobe, op. cit., p. 37, M. Oyama, Mas Oyama s Karate Philosophy. The Kyokushin Way, Japan Publications Inc., Tokyo, Japan 1979, p. 45; Filozofia Karate by Oyama Masutatsu is at the sime time autobiography. Compare other book of Oyama: What is Karate, Nichibo Shap- 41

42 Wojciech J. Cynarski, Juliusz Piwowarski in courtesy and manners must be impeccable 31. Oyama emphasized that a man should live harmoniously in accordance with rules of their mental powers. These rights include the principle of courtesy 32. Value, which can be found in knight s ethos of each of socio-cultural circle, is honor. In this context, in Poland the most significant are works of Maria Ossowska 33. As noted by Nitobe honor, touching with a living feeling of personal dignity and value, primarily characterized the samurai, whose birth and education made him esteem the value of duties and privileges of his profession 34. In Japan the good name was thought to be something [very precious], what is meant by itself; the lightest scar was a shame, and to stimulate the sense of shame (jap. renchishin) primarily was stressed in the upbringing of young people. Mencius already centuries before taught literally (...) that shame is the ground of all kinds of virtue, good habits and morality Loyalty Chūgi This is one of the most significant characteristics of the samurai. Fidelity to the daimyo, although having their analogies in the knights culture of Europe, achieved, however, such a high level that it seemed remarkable even for Europeans familiar with the culture of the East. As Nitobe states daimyo (...) felt that has a higher obligation to their ancestors and to the heavens. So he was the father for subjects. The difference that occurs between paternal and despotic rule is that the latter people [or subjects] listens with coercion, when in the first case, it is done with full pride, obedience full of dignity, with subordination of hearts, which even among serfdom supports the living spirit of freedom writes Nitobe, referring to Burke 36. pansha, Tokyo 1958; This is Karate, Japan Publications Inc., Tokyo 1965; Mastering Karate, Putnam Publ. Group, 1966; Vital Karate, Japan Publications Inc., Tokyo 1967; Boy s Karate, Japan Publications Inc., Tokyo 1968; Advanced Karate, Japan Publications Inc., Tokyo 1970 (recommended for black belts); Mas Oyama s Essential Karate, Sterling Publ. Co. Inc., New York, 1979; Karate School, Sterling Publ. Co. Inc., New York Ibidem p Ibidem p M. Ossowska, Etos rycerski i jego odmiany, PWN, Warszawa i. Nitobe, Bushido. Dusza Japonii, op. cit., p Ibidem, p. 49, Ibidem, p. 58, 59; Comp.: E. Burke, Rozważania o rewolucji we Francji, Kraków

43 Japanese Security Culture in the Global Village It seems that the specifics of Japanese loyalty lies in treating the society as a hierarchical family, with very strong binding sense of fidelity with a sense of honor. We can speak even about identifying fidelity with honor, and connecting them with preservation rules of respect (rei). 6. Honesty, Fairness Makoto This feature is a consequence of recognition truth as an important value. Because the Karate-do is a process of self-relisation, seeking the truth should be associated both with self-integrity as well as in relation to the other, and with reliability, especially with regard to the required by Bushido exercises of body and mind. In Bushido there is a concept of learning throughout the whole body karada de oboeru. This corresponds to mentioned by Nitobe teachings of Wang Yang Ming (jap. Oyomei, ), who his method of teaching and self-improvement called teaching the body and mind. Makoto is also associated with courage. The truth and associated truthfulness, as inherent elements of Makoto. Bushi-no ichi-gon means the word of samurai, knight s word. It was enough to confirm the truth of statement by a word. The power of word was so great that the agreements were concluded without a written form, and expecting this was considered as degrading dignity. Respect for truthfulness was so great that some samurai even swearing was considered disgraceful for their dignity 37. Put into practice by Japanese bushi, directions of the Bushido Code 38 made samurai became the ideal of the whole nation. As cherry blossom reigns between the flowers, the same samurai is the lord of men, people say 39. This, in its idealised form contained in this Code, became the longing and the inspiration of the whole nation Family pietism Ko This is one of the most important virtues in the Bushido Code. It contains, inter alia, absolute obedience to parents and older family members, which 37 Ibidem, p an element of tradition of Busido is seppuku an honorable rite which is a kind of a specific compensation and selection among bushi and kataki-uchi, for which translation revenge is not fully appropriate in meaning. Kataki-uchi was in turn a specific, honorary, and preventive at the same time duty. Comp.: A. B. Mitford, Harakiri, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz i. Nitobe, Bushido. Dusza Japonii..., op. cit., p Ibidem, p

44 Wojciech J. Cynarski, Juliusz Piwowarski is expressed, inter alia, through the donation of the respect or caring for them, also in financial terms. What is more, this virtue also requires Samurai, that a descendant cared for the parents even in this dimension, which instructs to hide from them all own problems, for the sake of their health and psychic calm. These seven virtues are not a closed set of attributes of the ideal Samurai (social role model). For example some Bushido Code interpreters already at the beginning talk about eight major bushido virtues, which is associated with the need for proper use and reduction in the spontaneous use of the potential, which is achieved through the exercise of budo. 8. Self-control Kokki This virtue is manifested in the restraint, fidelity to principles despite the suffering, acting to achieve the perfect model, despite the difficulties and hardships. Succumbing to emotions was always seen, by followers of the rules of Bushido Code, as a manifestation of barbarism and the lack of a good education and the weakness of the actor that should fight effectively and decisively this kind of disadvantages. Conclusions 1. Budo Charter is a document an axiological guideline for millions people practicing contemporary Far Eastern martial arts. From the perspective of security culture theory, humanistic theory of martial arts and martial arts anthropology system its today s actuality is confirmed, as an universal canon of ethics for security actors, in their conscious choice following a life style known as a Way of the Warrior. This lifestyle and co-related training, is very useful for uniformed services. 2. Budo Canon is a contemporary continuation of the ancient samurai bushido code, with theoretical basis and extensive sphere of practice. Canons of the Bushido Code, put into practice by Japanese bushi, have caused over time, not only in Japan, but also beyond her, the preservation of a specified social pattern. In historical times samurai became the ideal of the whole nation. As cherry blossom reigns between the flowers, the same samurai is the lord of men, people say This kind of actions, leading to social promotion by becoming by a security actor a master and model for others, was shown in its idealised 41 I. Nitobe, op. cit., p

45 Japanese Security Culture in the Global Village form in the Bushido Code (for social sciences and security sciences this form may constitute an ideal type). Thanks to that, Samurai s attitude and behavior have become the longing and the inspiration of the whole nation 42. As Nitobe wrote in 1900, people (...) with time came to the belief that Yamato Damashii the Soul of Japan, expresses the national spirit of our country Just as previously, in the modern Japanese management, derived its origins from the samurai tradition, and today followed worldwide, we are talking about important set of four basic characteristics, known as The Four G. They are essential for effective managing, creating many different projects and taking audacious challenges, for solid work and effective management. The Four G means the four basic, of praxeological nature, factors (characteristics) occurring in the modern version of the samurai philosophy of acting. The first of these features is Giri obligation. The second feature, Gisei means readiness to self-sacrifice, an example of which is are the Japanese rescuers, 50 Samurai Fukushima 44. Further are Gaman and Gambaru, perseverance and endurance. That means an individual security actor having an indomitable spirit, transmitted also to the whole society. The Japanese often pay attention to the persistence of action already taken and challenges and a rule of conduct becomes here a duty to strive to be the best. Therefore, perseverance and endurance are two of the most common phrases in the common Japanese language Beliefs, opinions and attitudes and lifestyle shown here, are related to described in the article the Budo Charter, as a highly representative element of the essence of Japanese security culture and its contemporary version. The important thing is that, it is possible to implement the thought system shown above in the spirit of universality. This is the way of approach to this issue and a way to implement its ideas for many today s adepts of budo, which as is well known, is now widespread in our contemporary Global Village Ibidem, p Ibidem, p a. Czop, M. Sokołowski, Samurajska moralność jako fundament japońskiej kultury bezpieczeństwa, Zeszyt Problemowy. Nauka Praktyka Refleksje, 2011, nr 6, p. 7 and foll. 45 B. L. de Mente, Samuraje a współczesny biznes, Warszawa 2006, p M. McLuhan, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man, University of Toronto Press, Toronto 1962; idem, Zrozumieć media. Przedłużenia człowieka, Wy- 45

46 Wojciech J. Cynarski, Juliusz Piwowarski 6. The old samurai ethos has been kept until the present day. This tradition, although for centuries still modified, evolved and is still an extremely socially useful way of putting into practice assumptions of philosophy of security in social reality, where praxeological approach is further enhanced by strong and focused on effectiveness weapons of ethics. It is, not always sufficiently visible, but nevertheless indispensable, element when we talk for example about people in structures carrying out security tasks. Descendants of the Samurai can, not at the expense of their pride, draw strength from the virtue of humility. In the service for the country, according to tradition, they follow the Way of the Emperor (teiogaku) and they still keep in memory the message of ascendants. They consider the latest events in Japan and take care of security of the country. A special passion of the Japanese, which also representatives of other nations around the world try to follow, is connected with maintaining for centuries continuity in the process of transmission of the Bushido and its intercultural and timeless values. Let us see, for example, as in Fukushima, in which the nuclear reactor instability threatened the country, the idea of samurai self-sacrifice jikogisei, was implemented. Six teams of fifty people, modern samurai-rescuers, were able to take a risky decision to even scarify their lives during security activities, that thousands of other people could peacefully exist. These rescuers remained in permanent job service in the nuclear power plant in Fukushima, acting to prevent nuclear threats. Bibliografia 1. Aluchna M., Płoszajski P., Zarządzanie japońskie. Ciągłość i zmiana, Szkoła Główna Handlowa, Warszawa Bauman Z., Globalization: The Human Consequences, Polity Press, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford Berger T., Cultures of Antimilitarism National Security in Germany and Japan, Hopkins University Press, Baltimore Berkowitz M., Bock P. G., American National Security. A Reader in Theory on Policy, Free Press Publ., New York Budo in heutiger Zeit, M. von Saldern (ed.), Universität Lüneburg, Lüneburg Burke E., Rozważania o rewolucji we Francji, Kraków dawnictwa WNT, Warszawa

47 Japanese Security Culture in the Global Village 7. Cameron M., Weiner T., National Security, Blackstone Audio, New York Cucu I., The National Security and Economical Development, Strategical Impact 2008, No Cynarski W. J., Martial arts Phenomenon Research and Multidisciplinary Interpretation, Uniwersytet Rzeszowski, Rzeszów Cynarski W. J., Recepcja i internalizacja etosu dalekowschodnich sztuk walki przez osoby ćwiczące, Uniwersytet Rzeszowski, Rzeszów Cynarski W. J., Sztuki walki budo w kulturze Zachodu, Wydawnictwo WSP, Rzeszów Cynarski W. J., Antropologia drogi wojownika. Studia i szkice z socjologii i filozofii sztuk walki, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego, Rzeszów Cynarski W. J., Obodyński K. (ed.), Humanistyczna teoria sztuk i sportów walki koncepcje i problemy, Uniwersytet Rzeszowski, Rzeszów Cynarski W. J., Teoria i praktyka dalekowschodnich sztuk walki w perspektywie europejskiej, Uniwersytet Rzeszowski, Rzeszów Czajkowski W., Piwowarski J., Administrowanie jakością życia człowieka poprzez system Modern Bushido, Ido Ruch dla Kultury/Movement for Culture, vol. 10, Czop A., Sokołowski M., Samurajska moralność jako fundament japońskiej kultury bezpieczeństwa, Zeszyt Problemowy. Nauka Praktyka Refleksje, 2011, nr Daidoji Yūzan Taira-no Shigesuke, Kodeks młodego samuraja. Budo shoshinshū, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz Funakoshi G., Karate-do. Moje życie, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz Gierszewski J., Piwowarski J., Theoretical Basics of Societal Security, Security Dimensions. International & National Studies no 18, Hoff F. F., Über den Sinn des Budo und Bushido in der heutigen Zeit, [in:] M. von Saldern (ed.), Budo in heutiger Zeit, Universität Lüneburg Horton S., Lords of Secrecy: The National Security Elite and America s Stealth Warfare Hardcover, Nation Books, New York Inny słownik języka polskiego PWN, M. Bańko (ed.), Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa Katzenstein P., The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics, Columbia University Press, New York

48 Wojciech J. Cynarski, Juliusz Piwowarski 24. Keeney B., Keeney H.., Seiki Jutsu: The Practice of Non-Subtle Energy Medicine, Healing Arts Press, Rochester Klens-Bigman D., Sosnowski R. A., The Way of the Bow: The Kyudo Path to a Disciplined Mind, Cliff Road Books, New York Lowry D., In the Dojo: A Guide to the Rituals and Etiquette of the Japanese Martial Arts, Shambala Publications, Boston Lowry D., The Essence of Budo: A Practitioner s Guide to Understanding the Japanese Martial Ways, Shambala Publications, Boston Lowry D., The Karate Way: Discovering the Spirit of Practice, Shambala Publications, Boston Matsunaga Hikaru et al., Budo: The Martial Ways of Japan, Nippon Budokan Foundation, Tokyo McLuhan M., The Global Village: Transformations in World Life and Media in the 21st Century, Oxford University Press, New York McLuhan M., The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man, University of Toronto Press, Toronto McLuhan M., Zrozumieć media. Przedłużenia człowieka, Wydawnictwa WNT, Warszawa Mente B. L. de, Samuraje a współczesny biznes, Bellona, Warszawa Mitford A. B., Harakiri, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz Nitobe I., Bushido. Dusza Japonii, Keiko Publishers, Warszawa Ossowska M., Etos rycerski i jego odmiany, PWN, Warszawa Oyama M., Advanced Karate, Japan Publications Inc., Tokyo Oyama M., Boy s Karate, Japan Publications Inc., Tokyo Oyama M., Mastering Karate, Putnam Publ. Group, Oyama M., This is Karate, Japan Publications Inc., Tokyo Oyama M., Vital Karate, Japan Publications Inc., Tokyo Oyama M., Karate School, Sterling Publ. Co. Inc., New York oyama M., Mas Oyama s Essential Karate, Sterling Publ. Co. Inc., New York, Oyama M., Mas Oyama s Karate Philosophy. The Kyokushin Way, Japan Publications Inc., Tokyo, Japan Oyama M., What is Karate, Nichibo Shappansha, Tokyo Piwowarski J., Ochrona VIP-a a czworokąt bushido. Studium japońskiej kultury bezpieczeństwa, [in:] Bezpieczeństwo osób podlegających ustawowo ochronie wobec zagrożeń XXI wieku, P. Bogdalski, J. Cymerski, K. Jałoszyński (ed.), Wyższa Szkoła Policji w Szczytnie, Szczytno

49 Japanese Security Culture in the Global Village 47. Piwowarski J., Samodoskonalenie i bezpieczeństwo w samurajskim kodeksie Bushido. Filozofia Budo: Jūdo, Jūjutsu, Karate-do, Kendo, Kenjutsu, Aikido, Collegium Columbinum, Kraków Piwowarski J., Three Pillars of Security Culture, Security Dimensions. International and National Studies, 2015, no Piwowarski J., Transdyscyplinarna istota kultury bezpieczeństwa narodowego, Wydawnictwo Naukowe Akademii Pomorskiej w Słupsku, Słupsk Piwowarski J., Wide Comprehension of Securitology in Culture of National Security, Security Dimensions: International & National Studies, 2013, nr 10, Reskrypt Cesarski do Żołnierzy i Żeglarzy [in:] A. Ślusarczyk, Samuraje (japoński duch bojowy), Warszawa Romm J.J., Defining National Security: The Nonmilitary Aspects, Council on Foreign Relations, New York Saldern M. von, Bushido Ethik des japanischen Ritters, Verlag der Universität Landau, Landau Sasaki T., Budo (the martial arts) as Japanese culture: the outlook on the techniques and the outlook on the human being, [in:] W.J. Cynarski (ed.), Martial Arts and Combat Sports Humanistic Outlook, Rzeszów University Press, Rzeszów, Schütz A., The Phenomenology of the Social World, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, Słownik języka polskiego, W. Doroszewski (ed.), Warszawa Stevens J., Trzej mistrzowie budo: Funakoshi, Kano, Ueshiba, Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz Stiglitz J. E., Globalization and Its Discontents, W.W. Norton, New York Szmyd J., Odczytywanie współczesności. Perspektywa antropologiczna, etyczna i edukacyjna, Krakowskie Towarzystwo Edukacyjne Oficyna Wydawnicza AFM, Kraków Uozumi Takashi, Bennett Alexander (eds.), The History and Spirit of Budo. IBU Budo Series Vol. 1, IBU, Katsuura Yamamoto Tsunetomo, Hagakure: The Book of Samurai, Kodansha International, Tokyo

50 Wojciech J. Cynarski, Juliusz Piwowarski Cite this article as: W. J. Cynarski, J. Piwowarski, Japanese Security Culture in the Global Village. The Budo Charter as a Modernized Element of Ancient Military Tradition, Security Dimensions. International and National Studies, 2016, no 20, p , DOI /SD/20/1. 50

51 Internal security

52 SECURITY DIMENSIONS International & National Studies NO. 20; 2016 (52 67) DOI /SD/20/2 Monitoring House Arrest in the Slovak Republic Dr.h.c. prof.h.c., prof. Ing. Marián Mesároš, DrSc., MBA, LL.M The University of Security Management in Košice, SLOVAKIA JUDr. Ing. Mikuláš Bodor, MBA The University of Security Management in Košice, SLOVAKIA ABSTRACT The paper deals with the house arrest punishment as one of the alternative penalties that may be imposed on the offender under the Criminal Code effective. In this paper, the author focuses on the analysis of substantive provisions of the sentence under house arrest in the Slovak Republic. In particular, the author deals with a very topical issue of electronic monitoring of persons in the Slovak Republic, which is closely linked with the sentence of house arrest. ARTICLE INFO Article history Received: Accepted Key words house arrest, alternative sanctions, electronic monitoring Introduction Punishments have been here during the whole existence of mankind. At first, they represented a tool through which order was imposed. In the most ancient times, criminal law followed the principle of reward talio. This principle was adopted by almost all of the codes of laws at that time. Since then, though, punishments have evolved significantly. Every country strives to sentence criminals in order to ensure protection of the society from considerable illegal acts of natural entities.

53 Monitoring House Arrest in the Slovak Republic The means of punishing the criminals vary across the nations. Some countries prefer rather radical ways of sentencing such as capital punishment or life sentence. Mainly in developed countries, however, alternative ways of punishment are currently preferred. Alternative punishments are more human as in case of these, the aim of the punishment is not to separate the criminal from the society but rather than that, to rehabilitate the criminal through other methods. The house arrest punishment represents one of the alternative punishments, having been implemented in the Slovak legislation along with other alternative punishments. Having done so, the Slovak Republic expressed its willingness to use more democratic and human punishments 1. House Arrest Punishment The house arrest punishment already existed in our legal order in the Penal Code in 1852, having been an alternative to the first stage punishment. Subsequently, it vanished from our legal order but despite that, it extended the system of punishment once again, having come into effect on January 1, The house arrest punishment represents one of the kinds of alternative punishments. It is an important substitution to mandatory sentence of imprisonment. It is used when there is a need to restrict the criminal on personal liberty, yet this restriction is not realized in prison, but in the criminal s place of dwelling. The house arrest punishment is classified as a milder form of restricting personal and private liberty of offenders. It affects the essential rights and liberties in a less significant way as it is realized in home environment. Convicts are not separated from their families, they get to stay in touch with them and emotional bonds remain tight. The sentence is served in their own homes so they can keep working and thereby avoid negative effects of being imprisoned. The fact that this kind of punishment is not related to loss of freedom contributes to the decrease of recidivism. In prison, convicts no longer bear the responsibility for themselves and for their behaviour which may lead to released prisoners losing their ability to live by themselves and not being able to integrate into a non-criminal society and that is why they often seek the criminal environment as that is where they know how to exist. 1 T. Strémy, L. Kurilovská, M. Vráblová, Restoratívna justícia, 1st edition, Leges, Prague 2015, p

54 Marián Mesároš, Mikuláš Bodor Effective Legal Provisions The house arrest punishment was implemented into our legal order on the occasion of re-codifying the Penal Code effective since January 1, It was directly implemented into the Provision 32 of the Penal Code as a separate punishment. Its position in the hierarchy suggests that this punishment should become an important alternative to mandatory sentence of imprisonment. The substantive adjustment of the house arrest punishment itself is dealt with in the Provision 53 of the Penal Code and based on paragraph 1 of this article, the house arrest punishment of up to 2 years may be imposed on the offender provided: Imposition of this sentence is considered as sufficient with regard to the character and seriousness of the offense committed as well as on the person and situation of the offender, The offender promised in writing that s/he will be staying at the place of dwelling at the address defined and that s/he will provide all the necessary assistance, the conditions regarding the realization of supervision through technical means have been met. Based on the Provision 10 of the Penal Code, the following is considered to be an offence: A crime committed as a result of negligence or An intentional crime punishable by a maximum sentence of five years as defined by a separate section of this law. This implies that this punishment may be imposed for less serious crimes whereas the range of crimes it may be imposed for is rather wide. 53 paragraph 1 of the Penal Code does not cover actual situations in case of which the court should prefer imposition of the house arrest punishment. It is up to the court to consider whether the crime potentially punishable with the house arrest punishment shall be punished with this kind of punishment or with mandatory sentence of imprisonment. The second paragraph of 53 of the Penal Code states that while serving the sentence of house arrest, the convict is obliged to stay at the place of his/her dwelling including exterior areas belonging to it at times defined by the court, to lead a solid life and to submit to supervision by technical means. The time the convict must spend staying at the place of his/her dwelling represents a significant part of the decision by means of which 54

55 Monitoring House Arrest in the Slovak Republic the punishment was imposed on the offender. The exact time is to be determined by the court based on particular circumstances related to the case. The law does not deal with time limits; that falls under the exclusive competence of the court. For instance, the convict should be enabled to commute to and from work or to take part in religious ceremonies. The convict serves the sentence at his/her place of dwelling including exterior areas belonging to it. In relation to the house arrest punishment, the Penal Code does not exactly define the term place of dwelling. However, the definition may be found in the Provision 122 paragraph 5 of the Penal Code in relation to commitment of a crime. Based on this provision, the place of dwelling may be interpreted as a house, flat or other areas serving the purposes of housing as well as areas and premises belonging to those, yet they must be part of a closed place of dwelling. A hotel room or a dormitory may also be considered as places of dwelling. As we can see, the concept of place of dwelling is a rather broad one so when imposing this punishment, a place where the convict actually stays should be considered as the place of dwelling. Also, the convict is obliged to lead a proper life, to comply with the conditions of house arrest as well as with other prohibitions resulting from the sentence. The law also covers the obligation of the convict to submit to the supervision through technical means. The third paragraph of 53 of the Penal Code states that while serving the sentence, the court may impose restrictions or duties on the offender in order to make him/her lead a proper life. The restrictions mainly refer to the following prohibitions: To take part in public events, To consume alcoholic beverages and other addictive substances, To meet persons having negative impact on the offender or those who were assisting offenders or directly participated in the crime, To enter selected places or areas where the crime was committed, To gamble, play slot machines and bet, To contact certain persons in any way including or through other similar means. The duties mainly lie in the following restrictions: Not to approach certain persons within distance of less than five meters and not to stay close to the place of dwelling of a certain person or in a certain place at which this person stays or which s/he visits, 55

56 Marián Mesároš, Mikuláš Bodor To move out of the flat or house s/he occupies without authorization or which s/he occupies illegally, During the trial period, to compensate for damages incurred, During the trial period, to pay debts or delayed alimony, To apologize to the aggrieved party personally or publicly, To acquire a certain job qualification or to take part in a requalification course during the trial period, To submit to probation and mediation workers or other professionals of the social training program or other educational program, To undergo treatment of addictions to addictive substances if this was not ordered, To undergo psychotherapy or attend psychological counselling services, To find a job or to provably apply for one during the trial period, To make an appearance at a particular police station based on the place of residence at a specified time, even repeatedly in justified cases. The fourth paragraph of 53 of the Penal Code states that while serving the sentence of home arrest punishment, the convict may only leave the place of dwelling after having received the permission of the probation and mediation worker, only in urgent events and for the period of time necessary. This time, however, counts as serving the sentence. The Penal Code does not define the term urgent event, but it may refer to cases sporadic or exceptional. It may refer to the attendance of various courses, external studies, appointment at the doctor s, funerals etc. Anyway, the period of time necessary is highly individual. The fifth paragraph of 53 of the Penal Code states that on condition that the convict fails to comply with the restrictions or duties resulting from the house arrest punishment, the court shall change the punishment into mandatory sentence of imprisonment in such a way that an unserved day of house arrest equals one day of mandatory sentence of imprisonment and it shall decide how the sentence is to be served, too. Serving the House Arrest Punishment In Slovak legislation, serving the house arrest punishment is dealt with in the Provision 435 of the Law No. 301/2005 Coll. of the Penal Code as amended as well as in the Law No. 78/2015 Coll. about controlling the realization of some decisions through technical means as amended and in the Decree of the Department of Justice of the Slovak Republic about Processing and Office Order for District Courts, County Courts, the Special 56

57 Monitoring House Arrest in the Slovak Republic Court and Military Courts No. 543/2005 Coll., specifically in the Provision 79a. This provision deals with the process position of probation and mediation workers in cases of serving the house arrest punishment. Based on the Penal Procedure Code, the court in the district of which the house arrest punishment is to be served is relevant to realize the decision through which the house arrest punishment is imposed including the decisions and measures as defined in 406. As soon as the decision through which the house arrest punishment was imposed becomes realizable, the head of the senate shall immediately send its original copy to the court. The court orders serving the house arrest punishment without any delay right after the judgement through which it was imposed becomes realizable. At the same time, the court must call the attention of the convict to restrictions and duties resulting from the sentence imposed as well as the threats of changing this sentence into mandatory sentence of imprisonment. The supervision over serving the house arrest punishment is performed by probation and mediation workers. Should the probation and mediation worker announce any violation of duties or restrictions resulting from the house arrest punishment to the head of the senate, the court shall change this sentence or the rest of it into mandatory sentence of imprisonment at a public meeting through a resolution. Before this decision is made, though, the convict must be interrogated as not all of the cases suggest intentional violation of duties or restrictions: there might be situations in which the violation is not intentionally initiated by the convict s behaviour, such as sudden worsening of the health condition or an accident that happens while commuting to the workplace. Similar reasons could be discovered by the court during the interrogation of the convict. After having served half of the house arrest punishment, the convict may apply for withdrawal from serving the rest of this sentence; the court shall decide about it by means of a resolution within 3 days at most. The probation and mediation workers prepare the source materials regarding the decision about the interruption of serving the house arrest punishment and about withdrawal from serving the rest of the house arrest punishment for the head of the senate. Against the resolution of the court, a complaint having suspensory effects is acceptable based on paragraphs 3 and 4 of 435. On a proposal from the convict, the probation and mediation workers may authorise an exception from the sentence to the convict for a period 57

58 Marián Mesároš, Mikuláš Bodor of time necessary, though for 48 hours at most. In case of such a permission, it is the officer who decides whether the convict is to be granted the exception from the sentence or not. It can only be permitted in case of urgent reasons and for a period of time necessary. The supervising office shall consider the authorisation individually in each and every case, based on particular requests. Such cases involve the following: health assessment or arranging certain issues in case of which the convict s presence is required. These exceptions should bear the hallmark of urgency as well as exceptionality 2. There is also the possibility of changing the rest of mandatory sentence of imprisonment into house arrest punishment. The court may do so on a proposal from the head of the prison where the sentence is served in case of a convict who: Has been serving a penalty involving deprivation of liberty for an offence, having considered the character and seriousness of the offence committed, the person and situation of the convict, his/her promise and willingness to submit to such a punishment and meeting the material-technical conditions necessary to realize it, Has shown improvement, has served one third of the imposed penalty involving deprivation of liberty and whose remaining sentence does not exceed 2 years, Had not served the penalty involving deprivation of liberty before the crime was committed, whose house arrest punishment was not changed into mandatory sentence of imprisonment or who is not serving a sentence ordered as a result of a failure during the trial period. The supervision over the realization of a decision in criminal proceedings is dealt with in the Penal Code in a general way, whereas the methods and procedures of its realization are defined by the competences of probation and mediation workers representing the organs performing the supervision over the realization of the decision. Supervision using technical means represents one of the methods of supervision of the realization of a decision in criminal proceedings and its application does not exclude the application of other methods of supervision over the realization of the same decision 3. 2 v. Cehlár, Trest domáceho väzenia a aplikácia elektronického monitoringu s akcentom na probáciu, Justičná revue, 2013, Vol. 2, p J. Čentéš, Trestný poriadok- Veľký komentár, Eurokódex, Žilina

59 Monitoring House Arrest in the Slovak Republic Interruption of the House Arrest Punishment With regard to the current legislation, serving the house arrest punishment is considered as interrupted after having imprisoned the convict or him/her starting mandatory sentence of punishment as a result of another crime. The head of the senate can, however, interrupt serving the house arrest punishment for a period of time necessary in case of important reasons preventing the convict from serving the sentence properly. A complaint against such decisions is acceptable, though. In case the above mentioned reasons no longer apply, the head of the senate shall order the convict to continue serving the house arrest punishment. What is important is the fact that the time during which serving the house arrest punishment was interrupted does not count as serving the sentence. The Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure Amendment The Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure Amendment effective since January 1, 2016 affected the house arrest punishment in a major way. In short, the changes it introduced are as follows: Prolongation of the period of time regarding the imposition of the house arrest punishment for 2 years, Completion of the sentence imposition conditions seriousness, the convict s person and situation + his/her promise and willingness to submit to it, Obligatory supervision through technical means, Possibility to impose the house arrest punishment on juvenile offenders (1 year maximum), with the permission of his/her legal representative only, Supervision over serving the sentence by probation and mediation workers rooted in the law (without authorization), Withdrawal from the influence of the organ administrating the technical supervision over the convict as an alternative to the activities of probation and mediation workers, Implementation of the option to change the rest of the mandatory sentence of imprisonment into house arrest punishment, Changes regarding the reduction when changing the sentence into mandatory sentence of imprisonment in case the convict fails to comply with the house arrest punishment conditions: an unserved day of house arrest punishment equals one day of mandatory sentence of imprisonment. 59

60 Marián Mesároš, Mikuláš Bodor Electronic Monitoring Electronic monitoring is the most important element to ensure effective supervision of serving the house arrest punishment. The usage of this kind of sentence has proved that supervision performed exclusively by means of probation and mediation workers is unreasonable and impossible. These workers cannot ensure as effective supervision over the convicts as technical means can provide. The first time electronic monitoring as such was used was in 1980s. It was used to supervise over serving the house arrest punishment in the United States of America and it turned out to be effective. In some countries of the world, the supervision is realized by the public sector and in others, on the other hand, this is done by the private sector. However, there are also countries where both sectors participate in the supervision together 4. Electronic monitoring serves three basic functions. Firstly, it is the function of imprisonment in case of the house arrest. In this case, it is important to ensure that the convict stays at the very same place as s/he is serving the sentence to which restriction of liberty is related and as a result of that, the convict is obliged not to leave his/her own place of dwelling for a certain period of time. Secondly, monitoring restricts. In case of these restrictions, the offender is forbidden to enter specific places or approach certain persons. Thirdly, monitoring serves the function of supervising over the offender which can be constantly done by organs without having to restrict his/her movement. Electronic System of Monitoring Persons (ESMP) The main reason for the realisation of the ESMP project was the commitment of the Ministry of Justice of the Slovak Republic defined by the Policy Statement of the Slovak Republic based on which the resort shall particularly focus on the options of imposing alternative punishments and emphasize crime prevention. The project is financed through the European Union resources (approximately million EUR excluding VAT) and it enables to monitor 2,000 persons electronically. Technical means for this particular project are provided by ICZ Slovakia a.s. which was selected based on a public competition 5. 4 J. Mendelský, Súčasné uplatňovanie prvkov restoratívnej justície, 1st edition, Eurokódex, 2013, p Ministry of Justice of the Slovak Republic. Elektronické služby monitoringu obvinených a odsúdených osôb (ESMO), 3 March 2016, 60

61 Monitoring House Arrest in the Slovak Republic The essentials are included in the legislation covered by the Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure following the Law No. 78/2015 Coll. about the supervision over the realisation of some decisions through technical means as amended. Process of Electronic Monitoring of the House Arrest The house arrest serving device consist of two parts. The first one is a home monitoring station that is to be placed in the household or somewhere else where the monitored person is to stay. It is not allowed to manipulate with the station. The second part consists of a personal identification device, laically called a bracelet. Typically, it is to be installed onto the ankle. The battery of this device shall work for 4 years approximately. The personal identification device the bracelet is a small radio frequency transmitter that is constantly sending information such as whether or not it is turned on, whether the particular person is moving or whether s/he is present and it also sends information about closing the case and loads of other necessary data. These data are sent to the home monitoring station. This station sends the messages to the central monitoring system. Should a particular mode be violated as a result of any causes either objective or intentional the central monitoring system will record the incident which is to be further dealt with by operators. If it turns out that the device was damaged intentionally, the incident will be delegated to probation and mediation workers. Figure 1 [The Electronic System of the House Arrest Monitoring] 61

62 Marián Mesároš, Mikuláš Bodor Technical Means The following devices are classified as technical means: Personal identification devices, also known as bracelets, Devices controlling the presence of the controlled person, Devices locating the controlled person, Devices notifying about nearness and controlling the consumption of alcoholic beverages, Devices checking the presence of the controlled person through voice checks, Devices assigned for probation and mediation workers. All of these devices communicate with the central monitoring device so a complete overview about potential violations of conditions regarding serving the sentence is ensured. All technical means are owned by the state. Ministry of Justice of the Slovak Republic administrates them. Figure 2 [Electronic Bracelet] 6 Controlling the Technical Means The probation and mediation worker assigned by a particular court based on 13 article 1 is in charge of the control of means related to the house arrest punishment, that is to say the home monitoring station and the personal identification device. Under the term control, we understand: Installation and uninstallation of the device, Activation and deactivation of a particular mode, Dealing with all incidents related to objective causes or intentions, Checking the functionality of the device and maintenance. 6 tv noviny, Takéto náramky čoskoro uvidíte na ulici, 4 March 2016, sk/domace/ _taketo-naramky-coskoro-uvidite-na-ulici. 62

63 Monitoring House Arrest in the Slovak Republic Central Monitoring System The central monitoring system is used as an information system that controls the technical means. Also, it communicates with all of the technical means and notes the occurrence of security and operational incidents and doing so, it monitors the supervision process. Security Incident The identification of a security incident represents an exceptionally important element of the supervision through technical means as it shows the violation of duties, restrictions or prohibitions resulting from the decision. In case a security incident is identified, probation and mediation workers shall assess it and delegate it to the judge who is to decide whether the convict has violated the conditions, duties or restrictions resulting from the law or not. This can lead to the change of the house arrest punishment into mandatory sentence of imprisonment. Operational Incident An operational incident is the other incident that might be identified by the central monitoring system. However, this kind of incident mostly does not lead to the detection of violation of conditions or duties resulting from the realization of the decision. As the name of the incident implies, it is an operational breakdown of technical means, such as a breakdown or a discharge of the battery. Yet in some cases it may turn out that an operational incident is actually a security incident. By damaging the device intentionally, the convict may aim at avoiding being monitored. It is also necessary to mention that the central monitoring system is assigned for the identification of both operational and security incidents, so only this information will be available to the centre. This is how the law determines the range of the data about the convict processed. In other words, the monitor of the workers of the operation centre remains inactive unless there is an operational or security incident. Operation Centre The operation centre is a centre thanks to which probation and mediation workers can realize their authorizations and duties and it also operates the central monitoring system. The activity of the operation centre is ensured by the Ministry of Justice. It is in non-stop service (24 hours a day, 63

64 Marián Mesároš, Mikuláš Bodor 7 days a week). The main task of the operation centre is related to probation and mediation workers and its technical support when controlling the technical means as well as checking the compliance with the conditions of the realization of the control of technical means. In case of a life endangerment or a suspicion of a commitment of a crime, it also reports the security incident to police forces. Discretions and Duties of Controlled and Protected Persons While the control is in process, the controlled or protected person can ask the probation and mediation worker as well as the operation centre for help. They can ask them for help when dealing with situations related to the control of technical means as well as situations influencing the course of the control through technical means. Duties of controlled and protected persons: To comply with the exact orders of using the technical means, To protect all technical means from being broken, stolen, lost or damaged, To report any breakage, stealth, loss or damage of technical means to the probation and mediation worker, Not to manipulate with the technical means, To let the probation and mediation worker know about one s journey abroad within at least five work days before leaving, To announce any changes to probation and mediation workers, To enable the installation and uninstallation of technical means, their maintenance and entering one s place of dwelling for these purposes, To participate in the compensation for the realization of the supervision (1.50 EUR/day), Many other duties defined by the law. The conditions specified in 1 to 4 as well as in 7 also apply in case of persons living in the same household with the controlled person. Provided the protected person is juvenile, the duties specified in 5 and 6 shall be realized by his/her legal representative or by the person entrusted with the care for the juvenile child as a result of a decision of the court. In case of any violation of the duties, the probation and mediation worker must immediately inform the one who made the decision. Subsequently, s/he shall inform the operation centre with regard to the seriousness of the violation and the consideration of the probation and mediation worker. Item No. 5 states that the convict is obliged to let his/her probation and mediation worker know about a journey abroad within at least 5 days be- 64

65 Monitoring House Arrest in the Slovak Republic fore leaving. Whether it is a protected or controlled person, except for his/ her name and surname, also the actual place of stay and expected length of the stay shall be mentioned. Conclusion The paper focuses on the house arrest punishment and its monitoring. As it has already been mentioned, it is an alternative sentence. That means it is an alternative used instead of mandatory sentence of imprisonment. Only those who have committed an offence may be sentenced to house arrest. That means that those who have committed a rather serious crime cannot be sentenced to house arrest. In case of this punishment, there are conditions and restrictions defined that the convicts must comply with. Even though they are sentenced to house arrest, they can keep going to work. They only have to stay at home in the night time and during weekends. At the time when the convict is prohibited from leaving his/her place of dwelling, s/he is only allowed to violate the prohibition in emergency situations, such as in case of an appointment at the doctor s. From the perspective of the convict, one of the advantages of this kind of sentence is the possibility to stay in touch with his/her family. S/he can keep carrying out his/her parental responsibilities, taking care of the household, spending time with his/her partner and kids and, last but not least, to contribute financially. On the other hand, there is a great advantage to the state, too. As we know, prisons are full. Some of them are even 100% full. The main reason for the realization of the electronic monitoring system project was the commitment of the Ministry of Justice of the Slovak Republic defined by the Policy Statement of the Government of the Slovak Republic based on which the resort shall particularly focus on the options of imposing alternative sentences and emphasizing crime prevention. The essentials are included in the legislation covered by the Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure following the Law No. 78/2015 Coll. about the supervision over the realisation of some decisions through technical means as amended. The greatest advantage is probably represented by financial resources spent in case of the house arrest punishment compared to those spent in case of mandatory sentence of imprisonment. In case of brick-andmortar prisons, the costs spent on a single convict per day are approximately 39 EURO. On the contrary, in case of the house arrest punishment, the costs are almost incomparable. It is approximately 3 EURO, 65

66 Marián Mesároš, Mikuláš Bodor with almost half of it being paid by the convicts themselves. The state spent almost EUR on buying new electronic means to monitor the convicts, although part of it was financed through Euro Funds. The payback period of these finances is estimated at 6 years at most. The house arrest punishment should be used more and more often by the court so the financial resources return as soon as possible. The already mentioned electronic means are a novelty in our country. They have been used since January Up to now, the convicts were only monitored during occasional controls of probation and mediation workers. The electronic means had to be tested first to make sure they are viable. 220 people took part in the experiment which lasted for 5 weeks. During the experiment, minor errors had occurred that were eliminated. The electronic means can also be used in case of other sentences. For instance, they are used in case of the prohibition to contact certain persons, the prohibition to consume alcohol, the prohibition to stay or attend public events, voice monitoring or discrete zone. References: 1. Cehlár V., Trest domáceho väzenia a aplikácia elektronického monitoringu s akcentom na probáciu, Justičná revue, 65, 2013, Vol. 2, pp Čentéš J., Trestný poriadok- Veľký komentár, Eurokódex, Žilina Medelský J., Súčasné uplatňovanie prvkov restoratívnej justície. 1st edition, Eurokódex 2013, p Strémy T., Kurilovská L., Vráblová M., Restoratívna justícia.1st edition, Leges, Prague 2015, p TV noviny, Takéto náramky čoskoro uvidíte na ulici, 4 March 2016, 6. Ministry of Justice of the Slovak Republic. Elektronické služby monitoringu obvinených a odsúdených osôb (ESMO), 3 March 2016, gov.sk/stranky/nase-sluzby/nase projekty/elektronicke%20sluzby%20 monitoringu/uvod.aspx. 7. The Law No. 300/2015 Coll. of the Penal Code as amended. 8. The Law No. 301/2015 Coll. of the Penal Code as amended. 9. The Law No. 550/2015 Coll. about probation and mediation workers as amended. 66

67 Monitoring House Arrest in the Slovak Republic 10. The Law No. 78/2015 Coll. about the control of realization of some decisions through technical means as amended. Authors Marián Mesároš President of The University of Security Management in Košice, Chairman of the Governing Board of The University of Security Management in Košice, Slovakia Mikuláš Bodor Head of the Department of Safety Management and Crime Prevention, The University of Security Management in Košice, Slovakia Cite this article as: M. Mesároš, M. Bodor, Monitoring House Arrest in the Slovak Republic, Security Dimensions. International and National Studies, 2016, no 20, p , DOI /SD/20/2. 67

68 SECURITY DIMENSIONS International & National Studies NO. 20; 2016 (68 80) DOI /SD/20/3 Importance of Professional Competence in the Rescue in Opinions of Young People Prof. Ewa Płaczek, Ph.D. University of Economics in Katowice, POLAND ABSTRACT Specific competences of employees are important for rescue services. This means that workers who have a certain set of competences including knowledge, abilities, experience, attitudes and the worker s readiness to act in conditions of high stress and risk will be searched for. The goal of the paper is to study opinions of young generation who are not associated with rescue services and who do not see their career in the area about the importance of competences necessary to perform the work of a rescue worker. ARTICLE INFO Article history Received: Accepted Key words rescue services, competences, knowledge, skills, experience There are public benefit organisations operating in our surroundings, for which the major goal of activity is to provide help to others, in other words, to save life in life-threatening situations. Considerable flexibility is demanded from these types of organisations (rescue services, e.g. Ambulance Services, Fire Brigades, etc.), while starting activities perceived as fast reaction time in the situation of the necessity to help an injured person.

69 Importance of Professional Competence in the Rescue in Opinions It is undeniable that flexibility of their operations depends on efficient and effective work of their personnel the rescue workers. Generally speaking it depends on their competence. The goal of the paper is to analyse the opinions of young generation that is not associated with rescue work and does not see their future there, on the subject of importance of having necessary skills that are crucial to perform the work of a rescue worker. The importance of competences The issues of identification and shaping competences are complex and multidimensional. A vast number of definitions of the notion of competence can be found in the literature on this subject. Initially, competences 1 were approached as a formal right to deal with particular matters and make decisions within a determined scope, on behalf of a particular organisation. On the other hand, the ability to work effectively and efficiently was usually associated with qualifications 2. In the 1980s, competence started to be more extensively perceived as the scope of rights, obligations and responsibilities of an employee, attributed to a particular workplace 3. Currently, competences are defined as a range of powers and rights, the scope of activity of the public authority of an organisational unit, and as the scope of one s knowledge, responsibilities and skills 4. Apart from quoted interpretations of the notion of competence, two trends in defining the discussed notion are observed in the literature on the subject. The first trend defines competences directly related to man. They are the so-called personal competences, defined as broadly understood scope of knowledge, skills, responsibilities or the rights to take actions 5, while identifying them with a collection of behaviours that some people will mas- 1 the notion of competences was first used by D. McClelland (American social psychologist) in 1973who proposed a study of features that he called competences, rather than a study of personality features. 2 t. Oleksyn, Zarządzanie kompetencjami, Teoria i praktyka Oficyna Ekonomiczna, Kraków 2006, p M. Armstrong, Zarządzanie zasobami ludzkimi, Oficyna Ekonomiczna, Kraków 2002, p Słownik języka polskiego, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa t. Oleksyn, Zarządzanie kompetencjami, Teoria i praktyka Oficyna Ekonomiczna, Kraków 2006, p

70 Ewa Płaczek ter better than others, which makes them work more efficiently in a particular situation 6, and also with capabilities, interests and personality features, as example parameters that make individuals different from one another 7. The second trend defines competences while referring them to performed work or occupied position. They are the co-called working competences that are defined as a group of qualities of a particular person that are typical of the person and that include such elements as motivation, personality features, skills and self-assessment, associated with functioning in the group, as well as knowledge that the person has acquired and has been using 8 ; they are also qualities in the sphere of knowledge, skills and attitudes that allow for implementation of occupational assignments on appropriate level 9. In the context of general considerations presented before, the notion of competences can be approached as: the capability to use and apply knowledge in occupational situations, a collection of capabilities that enable effective use of labour, attainment of goals and observance of operational standards, a collection of knowledge, skills and qualities that allow for efficient performance of tasks and effective achievement of goals in a particular position in the context of adopted goals of the organisation. Competences defined in this way can be referred both to the position at work and to the person performing the work in this position. Components of competences Competences approached generally, represent the worker s capability to act in the way that leads to achievement of assumed goals in particular conditions, by means of specified measures. In the developed version, competences are the total of knowledge, skills, experiences, attitudes and worker s readiness to operate in specific conditions, and therefore also the ability to adapt to these changing conditions M.Sidor-Rządkowska, Kształtowanie nowoczesnych ocen pracowniczych, OE, Kraków 2006, p c. Levy-Leboyer, Kierowanie kompetencjami. Bilanse doświadczeń zawodowych, Poltext 1997, p S. Whiddett, S. Hollyfirde, Modele kompetencyjne w zarządzaniu zasobami ludzkimi, Oficyna Ekonomiczna, Kraków 2003, p G. Filipowicz, Zarządzanie kompetencjami zawodowymi, PWE, Warszawa 2004, p M. Egeman, przedmowa do polskiego wydania D. Thierry, Ch. Sauret, N. Monod, Zatrudnienie i kompetencje w przedsiębiorstwach w procesach zmian, Poltext, Warszawa 1994, p

71 Importance of Professional Competence in the Rescue in Opinions Regardless of what definition is applied, it should be assumed that knowledge analysed on the following three levels is the basis of competence: 1. knowledge in the common meaning (declarative knowledge I know what), 2. capabilities (procedural knowledge I know how and I a capable of), 3. attitudes (I want and I am ready to use my knowledge) 11. Figure 1 presents the components of competences. Fig. 1: Components of competence Source: own case study Knowledge (general, theoretical and specialist) concerns the awareness of issues acquired in the process of education (schools, university studies), and within self-education, that are confirmed in the form of certificates and diplomas. Knowledge approached in this way is associated with the notion of qualifications. Skills (technical, technological and professional) represent the knowledge of particular issues and fluency in completing tasks associated with them. They concern what the worker can really do and are often identified with experiences or capabilities to act. Personality features are dispositions to behave in an adequate way. They are qualities that determine the choice of goals and programs of activities and the ways people respond to the world (reasons, attitudes, needs and convictions, etc.) M. Sidor-Rządkowska, Zarządzanie kompetencjami teoria i praktyka. cz.1, Biuletyn POU- Zarządzanie zmianami, 2010, no Encyklopedia, PWN, Warszawa

72 Ewa Płaczek Competences are also composed of soft competences and hard competences. The first refer to personal skills, personality features, what we are like, how we perceive the surroundings and how we act. The others, hard competences, are our particular capabilities that we can call technical, i.e. knowledge of languages, ability to operate a particular device and knowledge about management processes. Key competences in rescue services Key competences of workers are of the key importance for emergency services. They are perceived as a group of these hard skills and worker s qualities that enable them to perform the work of a rescue worker effectively. However, competences are not permanent qualities but they are subject to changes in the course of learning, occupational and life experiences. The result of this changeability is the fact that the key competences for a very similar position in various emergency services may seem slightly different, particularly if we take into consideration soft competences (practical skills and personality features). This leads to the conclusion that there is no single specific group of skills for a particular profession. They most often emerge on the basis of empirical studies conducted in actually functioning organisations. They are created by experts from the world of science and practice, and they can also occur as models derived from particular enterprises. Taking into consideration individual components of competences, fig. 2 shows a general model of competences with reference to rescue work. A detailed collection of competences that refer to actually or potentially possessed competences is presented in a simplified way 13. Study of the importance/significance of competences in emergency work Pilot studies that aimed at obtaining opinions of young generation about perceiving rescue services and competences associated with them were conducted in Katedra Logistyki Społecznej Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Katowicach [Department of Social Logistic of the University of Economics in Katowice]. The study included a group of 152 students of full-time and part-time studies, not associated with broadly approached emergency 13 actual competences are competences really possessed by particular people, potential competences are these that a particular person can acquire in the future. 72

73 Importance of Professional Competence in the Rescue in Opinions services. The study applied Likert scale where 1 represents no importance and 5 represents crucial importance. There are no doubts (even without the research) that competences are of great significance in performance of all types of emergency services. The respondents emphasise the importance of studied competences (graph 1) which definitely confirms our statement. Fig.2: Simplified model of competences in emergency services Source: own case study on the basis M. Kapler, Zawód; ratownik medyczny, Na ratunek 2012, no

74 Ewa Płaczek Graph 1. Importance of basic competences in emergency services 14 6,00 5,00 4,00 3,00 2,00 1,00 0,00 a b c d e f g h i j k l ł m n Source: own case study Graph 2: Structure of importance of competences in medical rescue services 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% RM a RM b RM c RM d RM e RM f RM g RM h RM i RM j RM k RM l RM ł RM m RM n crucial important medium important little important unimportant Source: own case study 14 For further studies symbols of competences (a-n) from figure 2 were adopted. 74

75 Importance of Professional Competence in the Rescue in Opinions While conducting a detailed analysis, we look for the answer to the question if in all types of emergency services (medical rescue [RM], water rescue [RW], mountain rescue [RG], firefighting [SP]) the assessment of importance of competences is identical. In medical rescue services all competences are defined as significant and crucial (75 99% respondents). In respondents view, competences d-i (d readiness to constant development and learning, i communication skills and skills of relationships formation) are little important or in a small rate even unimportant (1% respondents). Graph 3: Structure of importance of competences in water rescue services 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% RW a RW b RW c RW d RW e RW f RW g RW h RW i RW j RW k RW l RW ł RW m RW n crucial important medium important little important unimportant Source: own case study In the assessment of young generation, the importance of competences in water rescue services is more diversified. According to 70% respondents, d-h competences are important or crucial and 20% claim they are medium important. There are opinions claiming little importance of competences (competences b and d-n). 75

76 Ewa Płaczek Graph 4: Structure of importance of competences in mountain rescue services 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% RG a RG b RG c RG d RG e RG f RG g RG h RG i RG j RG k RG l RG ł RG m RG n crucial important medium important little important unimportant Source: own case study The assessment of importance of competences in mountain rescue services is similar to the assessment of competences in water rescue services. Probably specific character of this type of rescue services and its seasonal nature can be the reason for such an assessment. Graph 5: Structure of importance of competences in firefighting services 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% SP a SP b SP c SP d SP e SP f SP g SP h SP i SP j SP k SP l SP ł SP m SP n crucial important medium important little important unimportant Source: own case study 76

77 Importance of Professional Competence in the Rescue in Opinions In majority, the assessment of importance of competences in firefighting services is similar to previous results. In the case of competence b (knowledge about human physiology and anatomy), a decline in the assessment of importance is observed (60% of respondents perceive this competence as important and crucial in comparison with 80% in the case of water and mountain rescue services). Referring to figure 2 the question can be asked of what group of competences has a crucial importance. The results are presented in graph 6. Graph 6: Importance of basic groups of competences in rescue worker profession umiejętności społeczne umiejętności osobiste rozumienie środowiska pracy SP RG RW RM wiedza merytoryczna 0,00 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 Source: own case study In all studied types of rescue services, social skills associated with the necessity to cope with stress in crisis situations and the ability to integrate and coordinate actions, are considered the most important competences. Because of the major goal of actions of medical rescue activities (protection of human life) competences in the sphere of substantive knowledge i.e. knowledge about medical rescue work, human physiology and anatomy, and the skills of rescue activities are crucial competences. In other types of rescue services, competences in the sphere of substantive knowledge are less important (significantly). Personal skills associated with capabilities 77

78 Ewa Płaczek of teamwork (rescue teams) and oriented at the injured person, are located on the third level of importance. The fourth level of importance includes competences in the sphere of understanding the work environment, associated with work ethics, readiness to constant development and improvement of qualifications, or knowledge about provisions of law. Conclusions There are no doubts that while selecting workers for rescue services, it is a necessary condition for the candidates to have specific competences. So what is the opinion of young people who do not see their career in rescue professions on the subject of the type of rescue services in which the aforementioned groups of competences have crucial importance. While answering the question, a picture diagram (graph 7) was applied, where each face represents the type of rescue services (RM, RW, RG, SP). - face/wide =substantive knowledge ears/level = understanding the work environment face/height =personal skills upper half of the face = social skills Graph 7: Picture diagram of the importance of competences RM RW RG SP Source: own case study Face width describes substantive knowledge, the level of ears refers to understanding of work environment, face height defines personal skills, and upper height of face represents social skills. It results from graph 7 that 78

79 Importance of Professional Competence in the Rescue in Opinions the most of crucial and essential competences are attributed to medical rescue services. In medical rescue services substantive knowledge (competences a-c) and understanding of work environment (competences d-f ) have critical importance. The most important competences in the sphere of personal skills (competences h-j), and social skills (k-n) are perceived as most important in firefighting services, and as least important in water rescue. Nevertheless in all types of rescue services, it is observed that it is necessary to have competences that are essential in performance of this rewarding but really difficult job (saving human life), that is stressful and highly risky. References 1. Armstrong M., Zarządzanie zasobami ludzkimi, Publisher: Oficyna Ekonomiczna Kraków Egeman M., przedmowa do polskiego wydania, D. Thierry, Ch. Sauret, N. Monod, Zatrudnienie i kompetencje w przedsiębiorstwach w procesach zmian, Poltext, Warszawa Encyklopedia PWN, Warszawa Filipowicz G., Zarządzanie kompetencjami zawodowymi, PWE, Warszawa Kapler M., Zawód; ratownik medyczny, Na ratunek 2012, no Levy-Leboyer C., Kierowanie kompetencjami. Bilanse doświadczeń zawodowych Poltext, Warszawa Oleksyn T., Zarządzanie kompetencjami. Teoria i praktyka, Oficyna Ekonomiczna Kraków Sidor-Rządkowska M., Kształtowanie nowoczesnych ocen pracowniczych, Oficyna Ekonomiczna, Kraków Sidor-Rządkowska M., Zarządzanie kompetencjami teoria i praktyka cz.1, Biuletyn POU- Zarządzanie zmianami, 2010, no Słownik języka polskiego, Wydawnictwo PWN, Warszawa Whiddett S., Hollyfirde S., Modele kompetencyjne w zarządzaniu zasobami ludzkim, Oficyna Ekonomiczna, Kraków Author Ewa Paczek doctor of economic sciences, researcher and teacher in the Department of Social Logistics at the University of Economics in Katowice. Her main research interests focus on international logistics, the logis- 79

80 Ewa Płaczek tics market and logistics service providers, controlling logistics and unusual applications of logistics (logistics rescue, logistics, healthcare, logistics, tourism). The author of one of the first academic textbooks in the field of international logistics, 4 monographs and over 100 scientific articles and chapters in books published in Poland and abroad. She is a member of the Polish Logistics Association and in was a Secretary of the Board. She has Qualification Certificate of the Minister of Finance of the Republic of Poland. Cite this article as: E. Płaczek, Importance of Professional Competence in the Rescue in Opinions of Young People, Security Dimensions. International and National Studies, 2016, no 20, p , DOI /SD/20/3. 80

81 SECURITY DIMENSIONS International & National Studies NO. 20; 2016 (81 94) DOI /SD/20/4 The Electoral Corruption in the Reality of Unconsolidated Democracy Jacek Bil, Ph.D. Pedagogical University of Cracow, POLAND ABSTRACT The article is devoted to the problem of corruption in politics. The author presents the risks of corruption for the democratic system of the state and describes the anticorruption legal regulations. Mechanisms of electoral corruption are presented and the involvement of the state and political parties in the anti-corruption programs is showed. It shows the necessity of anti-corruption education of society. ARTICLE INFO Article history Received: Accepted Key words corruption, elections, crime, politics, political parties Mentioned in the title of the article expressions: corruption, elections and democracy are not a modern product. Even in ancient times they were a part of methods of conducting politics. In the public discourse on the issue of corruption it is raised that it (corruption) is the domain of totalitarian regimes and economic systems situated on a centrally controlled economy. A fair analysis of this phenomenon reveals that this is only a part of the truth, because in democracy this image is also not strange. There are different mechanisms of corruption, its scale and en-

82 Jacek Bil tities. But corrupt behavior always relates to abuse of delegated authority. In non-democratic systems the scale of it was included in the political and economic system and was caused by deficiency of goods which were available within the system. Corruption in democracy also relies on influencing decisions of officials and politicians but its image relates primarily to economic area. A common value of these systems, and for centuries it is political corruption, expressed among others by abuses during the elections. Elections and corruption Election is a process of direct or indirect appointment of representatives to perform specific functions in the legislative and executive authorities 1. The election is the most important political project on the basis of democracy because it is the basis for the creation of structures of authorities. An appointment of representatives of the executive in terms of free, democratic elections is a welcome tool for politics. Electing authorities according to the rules of the adopted electoral system is the essence of democracy. The appointment of representatives of the authorities and, under certain circumstances, the exchange is fair only if it is followed through elections and voluntary returning the positions by the current government. Candidates participating in parliamentary and local elections are representatives of different social groups. The election result in which a change of authority reflects the views of society and their needs. The elections are considered democratic if they are carried out according to established standards, according to which: there will be elected representatives who will have constitutional control over political decisions of the government, will be carried out with the right of free choice and will be proceeded in a fair manner, will be conducted with respect for universal suffrage, freedom of speech and the ability to be elected will be ensured, access to information will be enabled, the possibility of freedom of association will be ensured. As already noted, the elections held in conditions of mature democracy are founded on legal regulations laid down by the legislation of the State. Control over the proper conduct of elections is entrusted to independent 1 a. Żukowski, Wybory, [in:] Mały słownik politologii, S. Opara (ed.), Toruń 2007, p

83 The Electoral Corruption in the Reality of Unconsolidated Democracy electoral authorities and the judiciary 2. The elections are always accompanied by a struggle of at least two candidates, one of them is currently challenging the authority who acts. Following the elections, the ruling is being changed or the mandate is extended. But regardless what the outcome is there will always be a loser, which is impossible phenomenon in authoritarian systems 3. One of the aforementioned principles associated with democratic elections is to conduct them fairly in compliance with the general electoral law. The author of this article would like to note that in common discourse of the proper conduct of the elections the issue of crimes related to corruption election is neglected. It should be noted, however, that corruption accompanying the election is nothing new. As noted by P. Palka already at the end of the third and beginning of the second century BC they made the first criminalization of electoral fraud. The use of illegal means, in the form of bribery of the electorate, took place during the creation of the first state posts and at the first legislative procedures. Politicians have long been buying votes, in ancient times forms of bribes were expressed among others by giving out money, issuing public feasts, arranging the games at election time and buying up seats in theaters for the electorate. The first criminal act relating to election bribery was the Lex Cornelia Baebia, published as a part of Roman law in 181 BC. It referred in fact to the prohibition of distribution of money to voters. Roman regulations on anti-corruption during the elections were characterized by not only the gradual extension of the prohibition of acts deemed illegal but also provided penalties for their commission. In this regard, they foresaw penalty of ten years of exile, lifetime deprivation of passive voting rights, fines and banishment for life and confiscation of assets 4. Incidents of corruption on the election also took place in Polish history. A. Holub aptly points out corrupt practices taking place during the interregnum. At the time, the French envoy of King Louis the fourteenth Melchior Polignac informed in his reports about the venality of Poles. The subject of the treatment of the French envoy was to make a pact with the magnates in order to obtain Polish crown 2 a. Żukowski, Wybory, [in:] Podstawowe kategorie polityki, S. Opara, D. Radziszewska- -Szczepaniak, A. Żukowski (eds.), Olsztyn 2005, p A, Antoszewski, R. Herbut, Systemy polityczne współczesnej Europy, Warszawa 2006, p P. Palka, Sprzedajne nadużycie funkcji publicznej. Studium z prawa karnego, Olsztyn 2011, p

84 Jacek Bil by Francois Louis de Bourbon, the Prince of Conti. Polignac decided to make contracts in which the parties committed themselves to favorable treatment of Conti s candidature. According to the undertaken arrangements the Primate of Polish Catholic Church was to receive talars, Potocki had more than Jakub Sobieski had promised them, while Hieronim Lubomirski was valued at an amount equal to that which the Primate was to receive. In the next period Polignac continued the idea of buying the favor, which was reflected in the conclusion commitments with further representatives of the nobility, including Stanislaw Herakliusz Lubomirski. Polignac made the Poles promises to provide material benefits in the amount of the total sum of approx. 6 million francs. It should be noted that the French court was not especially impressed, because it was known that lords, the nobles and provincial governors were bribed 5. The electoral corruption is a criminal action, which in the most important negative way impacts on the quality of election decisions. It should be noted that individuals who earn the mandate of trust as a result of corrupt practices are involved in the lawmaking process at the same level of decision-making as candidates elected in accordance with the law. People supported during the election with non-democratic means, ie. the support of the electorate due to pressure from representatives of the criminal groups are forced into a debt repaid with eg. the appropriate lawmaking process. The votes of the electorate are treated as a commodity on the market of the political struggle. As noted by W. Jasinski this market is imperfect, because politicians are not able to reach with their offer to all voters and there are no tools to verify the transactions between the electorate and the politician. In addition, there are difficulties in determining the time of payment, which is caused by a distinct position in society, either a politician or voters 6. Electoral corruption counteraction should be the domain of both the state apparatus as well as non-governmental organizations taking social control over the actions of politicians. One of the NGOs having social control over the behavior of politicians is the Anti-Corruption Coalition of Non-Governmental Organisations (AKOP). The aim of the mentioned organization 5 a. Hołub, Rola czynników materialnych w walce o tron państwa polskiego w końcu XVII wieku, [in:] Społeczno prawne aspekty przeciwdziałania korupcji, J. Bil, A. Wawrzusiszyn (eds.), Szczytno 2012, p W. Jasiński, Osoby na eksponowanych stanowiskach politycznych. Przeciwdziałanie korupcji i praniu pieniędzy, Warszawa 2012, p

85 The Electoral Corruption in the Reality of Unconsolidated Democracy is inter alia checking the fulfillment of election promises of representatives of political parties on the prevention of corruption 7. During the tenure of representatives of organization they monitor compliance of politicians with standards of transparency and document the collected information in the form of summarizing reports 8. An interesting project having regard to the topic of this publication was a contest conducted by AKOP entitled The Competition Pork Barrel. In 2007 they invited the electoral committees participating in the elections to the Parliament in 2007, asking them to respond to the following questions: What are in your opinion the biggest problems in the fight against corruption? How are you going to solve them? How can you see the future of the Central Anticorruption Bureau: whether and what needs to change? Under this action it was proposed that every citizen could, using a website, judge whether submitted by political parties electoral declarations were reliable and reasonable. As it turned out proposals were submitted (in the opinion of AKOP) unreliable, which led to the contest to be closed 9. Incidents related to electoral corruption are extremely rarely revealed, and the law enforcement authorities receive information about the commission of this crime usually after many years, from politicians who failed to get the mandate of the public trust. The chance of obtaining the information about an offense of corruption during the election campaign, or during the the actual voting, is even more reduced. It should be noted that the offense of corruption of the election, just like any other variation of the crime of corruption, is an act that none of the parties is interested in the fact of its disclosure, which is why so incidentally, public opinion is informed of the practices of electoral corruption 10. Monitoring of crimes related to election corruption shows the two faces of the social and political pathologies. First, the action involving the handing and taking small sums of money in exchange for appropriate casting of votes while the other variant of that act are cases for offering 7 More information on anti-corruption election slogans see J. Bil, Korupcja jako narzędzie uprawiania polityki, Przegląd Antykorupcyjny 1A (4), Warszawa More information on AKOP activity see website 9 Kiełbasa wyborcza, (accessed ). 10 W. Jasiński, Osoby na eksponowanych stanowiskach politycznych, p

86 Jacek Bil high benefits and the use of mentioned mechanisms in the abuse of power. At this point it should be noted the duality of electoral corruption, due to its subjective scope. The discussed action can be committed both by the person applying for the mandate of trust and an official fighting for re-election. The character of both actions is quite different, although guided by the same goal power. Applicants to obtain public office accuse those already enjoying sinecure, to commit during the election campaign a number of irregularities related to the abuse of power. The author of this study conducting an open lecture at the Faculty of Law and Administration, University of Warmia Mazury in Olsztyn entitled Election Corruption on the eve of local elections in 2014, met with considerable opposition from people who for the first time ran for election to occupy certain positions of government, to the abuse of power by their rivals, occupying positions in the local government units. There was raised, inter alia, inequality in access to advertising surfaces used in the election campaign and investment projects taken over by rivals which were financed with public funds while the electoral struggle. To illustrate the above-mentioned action it is accurate to recall model circumstances surrounding the electoral corruption. In the first case initiated by persons seeking mandate, and in the second event of public officials who are taking advantage of entitlements conferred on them resorting to abuse of office. In preparation for the local elections, a candidate for the mayor in the municipality X, decided to undertake the actions enhancing the success of his choice. For this purpose he decided to give to socalled environmental pathology persons sums of money not exceeding the amount of 20 zł. or bottles of vodka in exchange for giving him votes. In the interest of the proper voting and ensuring a high attendance, he made an agreement with friends or family members who provided him with comprehensive assistance. The role of family and friends became so: to transfer a certain amount of money or a bottle of vodka, making instruction to vote and poll after leaving the premises of election contractors of the system, how they had voted. This criminal model does not raise the need for illustrating the mechanism of its commission. A slightly more complicated way of committing electoral corruption was accompanied by one of the candidates for mayor of the municipality X that had held the indicated position for two terms. This person using the powers 86

87 The Electoral Corruption in the Reality of Unconsolidated Democracy granted to him led an active campaign with violation of the law. During this period, the mayor held a series of discussions with entrepreneurs engaged in economic activities in the municipality, on which he inter alia proposed them reduction or exemption from taxes for land and real estate as well as building permises of certain buildings in exchange for an agreement of them and their employees (and their families) to vote on his person. In addition, he proposed entrepreneurs attractive contracts (settled by the Public Procurement Act) relating to the works financed from public funds 11. It practices are only a selective case study and an accompanying array of electoral corruption is much richer. In order to assess the scale of electoral corruption crime one must take into account the statistics relating to the crime. These indications are supplied with data from services entitled to the fight against crime corruption. However, you should ask whether on the basis of these data, are we informed about the real scale of the phenomenon? Well, no. According to the author basing only on statistics relating to the acts committed (electoral corruption) is a poor source of information. This is due to circumstances accompanying criminal corruption, which is a crime extremely hard to detect (none of the parties either giving or taking a bribe are not interested in the fact disclosure of the act), which makes it not recognized in statistics the so-called dark number of crimes (crimes which law enforcement agencies not learned). Using data contained in the report Map of Corruption developed by the Central Anti-Corruption Bureau, we noted that: in acts of electoral corruption were committed, in crimes of electoral corruption were committed, in cases of electoral corruption offenses were recorded 12. Are these values likely to cause social unease? Considering the number of actions identified in cases of clerical corruption, which in 2013 about three thousands were committed 13, there is no reason for concern. A careful analysis of the pathologies associated with electoral corruption, authorizes to conclude that the problem is a significant barrier to the functioning 11 the indicated electoral corruption cases relate to cases conducted/supervised by the author as part of his duties. 12 Mapa korupcji. Stan przestępczości korupcyjnej w Polsce w 2013 r., Centralne Biuro Antykorupcyjne, Warszawa More information on corruption crimes see Mapa korupcji. Stan przestępczości korupcyjnej w Polsce w 2013 r., CBA

88 Jacek Bil of a democratic state. First of all statistics cover a period of consecutive years, so it is difficult to compare this kind of crime to clerical corruption, due to the fact that the elections are held every four years (municipal, parliamentary). Secondly an army of bureaucracy is much greater than the number of candidates for the local government units or those aspiring to sit on the benches of parliament. Thirdly universality and ease of bribery of the electorate does not require as many treatments as bribery of officials. Fourth the most important, electing the representatives of the people using illegal procedures makes the policy makers of the local and central states are often indebted to people who have given their support in corrupting the electorate. This situation leads to other related pathologies inter alia exerting pressure on the representatives of the people knowing about their corrupt past (threatening the fact of its disclosure). So the interested strive to make contracts according to established rules of the game to the detriment of the state, to obtain a permit for conducting economic activities in contravention of applicable rules, require the use of practices related to unfair competition and determine the shape of created legal norms. Thus, is electoral corruption a pathology that endangers the security of the democratic state? Definitely yes, despite the apparent lack of interest in such obvious limitations of events beyond a catalog of behaviors attributed to democratic states. The electoral corruption in the Polish legal system The State trying to counteract described practices introduced regulations which penalize corruption election. In the general scientific discourse on the issue of corruption they often point the so-called corruption novella, in which a number of anti-corruption regulations were implemented in 2003 to the Penal Code, including a regulation included in art. 250a P. K. electoral corruption. Without taking the importance of this novella it should be noted that the regulation on electoral corruption existed in the Polish legislation since On the cards of that act active electoral corruption crime is laid down in art. 121 Whoever gives or promises to provide material or personal benefit to a person entitled to vote or another person to exert influence on the voting behavior of the person entitled or to stop her from voting shall be punishable by imprisonment up to 5 years 14. Passive corruption election was placed 14 Rozporządzenie Prezydenta Rzeczpospolitej z dnia 11 lipca 1932 roku, Kodeks karny. 88

89 The Electoral Corruption in the Reality of Unconsolidated Democracy in art. 122 of the Criminal Code of 1932, Who, being entitled to vote, adopts financial or personal benefit for himself or another person for voting in a prearranged way or refrains from voting, or such benefit requests shall be subject to imprisonment up to 5 years 15. However, in art. 123 specifies that criminal liability is subject to the who accepts financial or personal benefit for himself or another person to influence the voting behavior of the proprietor or stops him from voting, or requires the benefits shall be punished up to 5 years 16. Electoral corruption offenses have been included in Chapter XX of the Criminal Code of 1932 entitled Offences against voting in public affairs. In the Penal Code of 1969 and Penal Code of 1997 (until 2003) the offense of electoral corruption did not found place. By implementing international regulations, Polish legislator introduced into Chapter XXIX, entitled Offences against the elections and referendum art. 250a electoral corruption. In this article they included the causative behavior involving active and paid electoral corruption and in the third paragraph they referred to actions of lesser importance. An important to prevent electoral corruption is the regulation of paragraph four, pursuant to which perpetrator of the offense of passive corruption (taking advantage) uses the extraordinary leniency or may avoid its imposition, if he notifies the body responsible for the prosecution of the fact of the crime and the circumstances of its commission before that body had learned about it 17. In comparison with active and passive corruption as contained in art. 228 and 129 of the Penal Code, election corruption is keeping a lower degree of social harm, as evidenced by the degree of risk of imprisonment between 3 months to 5 years, while in the case of bribery and venality of public punishment is from 6 months to 8 years in the basic mode. The subject of the protection of electoral corruption offenses is the freedom of voting during elections and the referendum. The indicated regulation is to prevent the emergence and spread of a phenomenon associated with obtaining the mandate of the public trust by persons resorting to electoral corruption practices. This regulation protects the rules of conduct: elections to the Parliament, the Senate, for the President of the Republic of Poland, the European Parliament and to the local government 15 ibidem. 16 ibidem. 17 Ustawa z dnia 6 czerwca 1997 roku, Kodeks karny, Dz.U. 1997, nr 88, poz

90 Jacek Bil and the referendum. An act of passive (election) corruption is an individual crime that can be committed only by a person entitled to vote, while awarding with benefits can commit every person. Acting of perpetrators of election venality is thus to: the adoption of financial or personal gain and requesting such benefits in exchange for voting in a certain way. In this regulation formula on the promise of financial or personal gain was omitted (in contrast to other regulations of corruption). Absence of this is not justified. Folded election promises are often unkept and the electorate certificates authorities in the next election. In addition, it must be noted that the submission of election promises is quite something different from submitting a promise to provide a financial benefit in exchange for a certain way of voting 18. Cited above issues distinguishing the election promises of promises relating to the submission of corruption proposals is not only a subject of theoretical considerations. The author of this study met the described situation in the discussion of candidates for a mandate of public trust in the local elections in 2014, during (the already mentioned) open lecture devoted to electoral corruption. The views presented by the candidates in the area of election promises and fears to take responsibility for their failure in the light of electoral corruption offenses forces to the view that in this matter there is widespread misunderstanding of the subject. It would seem that a person aspiring to hold important positions in local government administration should have at least symbolic training in lawful procedure. That is not so. Political struggle (because I have to call the project focused on the acquisition or maintenance of power) are accompanied by arguments based primarily on emotions which are far from reliable knowledge about the basics of election in a democratic state. The Penal Code Act is not the only regulation containing regulations guarding the correctness of holding of elections. At this point, we should recall disposition of art of the Election Code, according to which criminal liability is subject to the one who gives or accepts a financial or personal benefit in return for collecting or signing a list of candidates or candidate 19. Electoral committees often accuse opponents of free transfer of certain articles during organized meetings with the electorate. The answer 18 G. Łabuda, Komentarz do art. 250a Kodeksu Karnego, System Informacji Prawnej LEX. 19 Ustawa Kodeks wyborczy z dnia 5 stycznia 2011 roku, Dz.U. 2011, nr 21, poz. 112 ze zm. 90

91 The Electoral Corruption in the Reality of Unconsolidated Democracy of legislators on this issue is the regulation of article 502 of Election Code, according to which a fine (from to zł) shall be given the one who in the elections, gives or delivers as part of electioneering, alcoholic beverages free of charge or selling prices net of value able to reach, not higher than purchase prices. Another regulation of Election Code, on the regularity of the election is the disposition of art. 507 of Election Code, according to which a fine (from to zł) will be imposed on the person who in connection with elections provides election committee or accepts on behalf of the financial benefit non-cash, other unpaid services to disseminate posters and election leaflets by individuals and help in the office provided by individuals 20. The activity of political parties in the light of the anticorruption actions Political parties should also be the entities (except of the state) particularly interested in building transparent electoral processes and the creation of anti-corruption strategies aimed at transparency in public life and the fight against corruption. The issue of corruption began to be taken by politicians of the Democratic Left Alliance (SLD) in (the first stage of the Anticorruption Strategy). In subsequent years, the fight against corruption declarations proclaimed the Law and Justice (PiS) and other political groups critical to SLD projects. During the early parliamentary elections, which were preceded by suspicions of corruption directed against the deputy prime minister in the government of Jaroslaw Kaczynski, this subject (corruption) was treated peripherally. Anti-corruption slogans appeared, however, in the programs of political parties. In 2007 the Civic Platform (PO) took the authority over, which did not introduce any significant actions aimed at eliminating corruption from public life. Identified anticorruption actions of the Civic Platform became the cancellation of nominated by the previous government Mariusz Kaminski the head of the CBA. This party, however, did not take the reform of the Central Anticorruption Bureau but just the politicians of this party called for the de-politicization of the central institutions for fighting against corruption. During the reign of the Civic Platform there was established the position of the Government Plenipotentiary Studies Program for Prevention of Irregularities in Public Institutions in the rank 20 Ustawa Kodeks wyborczy z dnia 5 stycznia 2011 roku, Dz.U. 2011, nr 21, poz. 112, ze zm. 91

92 Jacek Bil of secretary of state, who took Julia Pitera 21. Actions of the office proved to be unnoticeable, and this position was liquidated. In addition, it should be noted that Julia Pitera in 2005 was the president of the Polish branch of Transparency Interenational, which in 2011 was disbanded after the decision of the International Council of TI. This organization as a leading non-governmental entity with around 100 branches all over the world in Poland does not work anymore. The reason of disbanding of the Polish Branch was a total lack of anti-corruption activity. From other sources, however, it shows that the organization earned on issuing in a few tens of thousands it issues a certificate of morality for companies in troubles. Such a testimony was even given to a football club Widzew at the top of the corruption scandal 22. It is noticed that the fight against corruption in the actions of the current government coalition is not a priority point of political activity. It should be noted that in many election programs, both the coalition and the opposition, the fight against corruption was a perceptible postulate 23. (Intra-) anti-corruption initiative taken by political parties are carried out with different degrees of success. The Civic Platform in the fight against corruption and nepotism on electoral lists established the principle of the fact that in the elections of 2011 from one district could not compete related persons (this postulate, however, was inconsistently implemented). The Law and Justice introduced a regulation under which the membership of the party were to be deprived persons accused of the crime of corruption. Political declarations and reality are two different things. An example is the case of the Civic Platform politician (former President of Wałbrzych) who during the local elections committed a crime related to votes trading 24. Conclusion Practices of electoral corruption are the example of democratic immaturity. Election of authorities is a key element for conducting state policy 21 Partie polityczne, [in:] Mechanizmy przeciwdziałania korupcji w Polsce. Raport z monitoringu, Instytut Spraw Publicznych, Warszawa 2012, p Polski oddział Transparency International został rozwiązany, html (accessed ). 23 More information on anti-corruption contents in election programs see J. Bil, Korupcja jako narzędzie uprawiania polityki, Przegląd Antykorupcyjny 1A (4), Warszawa Partie polityczne, [in:] Mechanizmy przeciwdziałania korupcji w Polsce, p

93 The Electoral Corruption in the Reality of Unconsolidated Democracy and gaining the support of the electorate by means of bribes is unacceptable election tool. A worrying problem is the increasing impoverishment of society, manifested in lack of responsibility for the decisions taken. The legislator taking care of securing fundamental democratic values admitted citizens the opportunity to vote and stand in the process of selecting authorities. As reality shows, these powers are not used in accordance with the law. It is disturbing that the legitimacy of the governance can be transmitted by assets. Actions taken by politicians (especially the coalition) seem to take the form of pretense. Scandals involving people from political circles (not only) are redeemed or at the stage of trial the accused get acquittal. Introduced on 1 April 2014, another Anti-Corruption Strategy for reflects the strategy of the second stage, and what s more in the proposed anti-corruption activities and areas at risk of corruption the sphere of politics was not mentioned. Apart from the projects related to the fight against corruption equally important are initiatives to prevent this pathology. One of the areas of prevention is certainly anti-corruption education. The state desiring to have sufficient political background must ensure political and civil education. These tasks are assigned primarily to the teachings of politics and security, which graduates are predestined to perform certain functions of local government and the wider public administration. References 1. Antoszewski A., Herbut R., Systemy polityczne współczesnej Europy, Warszawa Hołub A., Rola czynników materialnych w walce o tron państwa polskiego w końcu XVII wieku, [in:] Społeczno prawne aspekty przeciwdziałania korupcji, J. Bil, A. Wawrzusiszyn (eds.), Szczytno Jasiński W., Osoby na eksponowanych stanowiskach politycznych. Przeciwdziałanie korupcji i praniu pieniędzy, Warszawa Kiełbasa wyborcza, 5. Łabuda G., Komentarz do art. 250a Kodeksu Karnego, System Informacji Prawnej LEX. 6. Mapa korupcji. Stan przestępczości korupcyjnej w Polsce w 2013 r., Centralne Biuro Antykorupcyjne, Warszawa Palka P., Sprzedajne nadużycie funkcji publicznej. Studium z prawa karnego. Olsztyn

94 Jacek Bil 8. Partie polityczne, [in:] Mechanizmy przeciwdziałania korupcji w Polsce. Raport z monitoringu, Instytut Spraw Publicznych, Warszawa Polski oddział Transparency International został rozwiązany, rp.pl/artykul/ html. 10. The Act of 6 June 1997, the Penal Code, Journal of Laws of 1997., No. 88, item The President of the Republic of Poland Decree of 11 July 1932, the Penal Code. 12. Ustawa Kodeks wyborczy z dnia 5 stycznia 2011 roku, Dz.U. 2011, Nr 21, poz. 112, ze zm. 13. Żukowski A., Wybory, [in:] Mały słownik politologii, S. Opara (ed.), Toruń Żukowski A., Wybory, [in:] Podstawowe kategorie polityki, S. Opara, D. Radziszewska-Szczepaniak, A. Żukowski (eds.), Olsztyn Cite this article as: J. Bil, The Electoral Corruption in the Reality of Unconsolidated Democracy, Security Dimensions. International and National Studies, 2016, no 20, p , DOI /SD/20/4. 94

95 HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE OF KINESIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SECURITY CULTURE

96 SECURITY DIMENSIONS International & National Studies NO. 20; 2016 (96 110) DOI /SD/20/5 A Proposal for Special Kickboxing Fitness Test Tadeusz Ambroży University of Physical Education in Cracow, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Institute of Sport, POLAND Jarosław Omorczyk University of Physical Education in Cracow, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Institute of Sport, POLAND Arkadiusz Stanula Department of Individual Sports, The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, Katowice, POLAND Amadeusz Kwiatkowski University of Physical Education in Cracow, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, POLAND Wiesław Błach Academy of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Department of Sports Didactic, POLAND Dariusz Mucha University of Physical Education in Cracow, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, POLAND Andrzej Kędra University of Physical Education in Cracow, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, POLAND ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to evaluate validity and reliability of a new special kickboxing fitness test. The test can be also useful in such combat sports as karate, taekwondo, ju-jitsu and MMA. The study group was 25 elite level athletes from the KS Gladiator club in Grybów. The test was repeated in the same group for three times. In order to evaluate test reliability, test results were compared to the results obtained by study participants in

97 A Proposal for Special Kickboxing Fitness Test two special fitness tests proposed by Sterkowicz 1. The statistical analysis of the results was also performed. The analysis of the results presented in this study shows that the specific character of the movements typical of the kickboxing fight justifies the introduction of the tests based on kicks and punches to the test battery that evaluates special fitness. Furthermore, the new special fitness test proposed in this study can be used for selection and interpretation of the achievements of kickboxers since it offers a reliable, valid and user-friendly research tool. ARTICLE INFO Article history Received: Accepted Key words Special fitness, kickboxing, fitness tests Introduction One of the key components of the effective management of the training process in combat sports is to develop the training plan based on experiences from the previous training. The training plan is evaluated and analysed through regular control that provides information about the level of determinants of sport performance and psychophysical adaptation of human body to the training-specific load. The information obtained in this manner can be used to model training and determine the effectiveness of the methods and resources used for training 2. The control system should be planned in detail, included in the training plans and, implemented on regular basis. The periodical evaluation should be performed to verify the degree of achievement of the goals of each stage of athlete s preparation. Changes in the athlete s body should be compared to the training effects. Training evaluation in combat sports includes medical check-ups, psychological tests, evaluation by coaches (methodological) and self-control 3. 1 K. Sterkowicz, Special fitness test in sports ju-jitsu, [in:] S. Sterkowicz, T. Ambroży (eds.), Sports ju-jitsu: Training process (coach s textbook), EAS, Kraków 2003, p H. Sozański (ed.), Fundamentals of the training theory, Biblioteka Trenera, COS, Warszawa t. Ambroży, Structure of ju-jitsu training, Biblioteka Trenera, COS, Warszawa

98 Tadeusz Ambroży, Jarosław Omorczyk et at. One of the components controlled by coaches is special physical fitness. Special physical fitness is examined using biomechanical and subjective tests 4 and methods of evaluation of the most efficient technical elements and tests of technical skills 5, as well as special strength, special endurance tests and coordination 6. Based on the results of general fitness tests and the level of achievement, several indices are obtained to characterize the level of sport skills of the athletes examined 7. The special fitness tests can be used to monitor the level of preparation of combat sport athletes at individual stages of training, and, if repeated on regular basis, the tests are likely to show progress or regress in fitness. Analysis of test results can be used to effectively modify training programs. The test battery should be used every 4 to 6 weeks in the preparation period. Due to the specific character of the exercise, the last test can be performed in the direct preparation period before competition 8. The test of technical skills and motor preparation which is the most adequate to training practice is the response to exercise which occurs in the real fight during competition. 4 J. Pawluk, Coaching journals, no 2, 3. PZJudo. Warszawa 1985; W. Chwała, T. Ambroży, S. Sterkowicz, Three-dimensional analysis of the ju-jitsu competitors motion during the performance of the ippon-seoi-nage throw, Archives of Budo Science of Martial Arts and Extreme Sport, 2013, vol. 9, p S. Sterkowicz, T. Ambroży, (eds.) Sports ju-jitsu: Training process (coach s textbook), EAS, Kraków e. Franchini, M.Y. Takito, R.C.M. Bertuzzi, Morphological, physiological and technical variables in high-level college judoists, Archives of Budo, 2005, vol. 1, p. 1 7; R. Lidor, Y. Melnik, A. Bilkevitz, B. Falk, The tenstation judo ability test: a test of physical and skill components, Strength Conditioning Journal, 2006, vol. 28, no. 2, p ; S. Sterkowicz, E. Franchini, Testing motor fitness in karate, Archives of Budo, 2009, vol. 5, p ; H. Sertić, T. Vidranski, I. Segedi, Construction and Validation of Measurement Tools for the Evaluation of Specific Agility in Karate, IDO MOVEMENT FOR CUL- TURE. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology: Ido Ruch dla Kultury, 2011, vol. 11, no. 1, p G. Lech, A. Tyka, T. Pałka, R. Krawczyk, The physical efficiency and the course of fights and the sports level of judo contestants, Medicina Sportiva Practica, 2007, vol. 8, no. 3, p ; G. Lech, W. Chwała, A. Tyka, T. Pałka, J. Jaworski, W. Pilch, T. Ambroży, D. Mucha, The use of k-means method for assessment of training and differences in motor abilities indices in judo contestants at different age, Archives of Budo, 2015, vol. 11, p K. Sterkowicz, Special fitness test in sports ju-jitsu, [in:] S. Sterkowicz, T. Ambroży (eds.), Sports ju-jitsu: Training process (coach s textbook), EAS, Kraków, 2003, p

99 A Proposal for Special Kickboxing Fitness Test The aim of this study is to evaluate validity and reliability of a new special kickboxing fitness test. The test can be also useful in such combat sports as karate, taekwondo, ju-jitsu and MMA. The aim of the development of the new test was to meet expectations of coaches who need objective, user-friendly tools with high reliability and validity to comprehensively examine the level of special fitness of kickboxers. The main barrier that makes it difficult to implement certain evaluation methods is the necessity to use specialized apparatus. For this reason, the tests have been mainly unavailable to the most of coaches, with particular focus on those who work with groups of young people. The special fitness test, which can be used to monitor kickboxing training, should be easy to perform during training using the most basic sports equipment. The description of the special physical fitness test for kickboxers Before the test is performed, one should perform a warm-up including 5 minutes of an easy run and around 10 minutes of general warm-up and stretching exercises. The following tools are necessary to perform the test: adhesive tape to mark distances on the mat, stopwatch to measure time, kick shields and punch shields, protocol for recording the results and sport tester (heart rate monitor). The athlete stands in the fighting stance and performs left and right straight punches to the shield held by the partner to the head level 9 (Fig. 1) without stopping for 30 seconds. After completion of this part of the test, the athlete runs along a 10 m straight line 10 to the next stand, where, for 30 seconds, he or she performs roundhouse kicks to the partner s shield from the fighting stance (Fig. 2): left roundhouse kicks and right roundhouse kicks to the head height 11. Next, the athlete runs back to the first shields and performs the left straight-right hook combination 9 Straight punches are the most frequent hand techniques used during a fight. 10 General regulations concerning boxing ring formats: Art. 2 Ring. 1. Fights are performed on the square boxing ring. The smallest dimensions of the boxing ring are 490 cm x 490 cm, whereas the biggest size is 720 cm x 720 cm, measured in the square formed by the lines. The distance of 10 metres used in the test corresponds to the diagonal of the biggest ring. 11 These are the most effective and the most frequent leg techniques; furthermore, the head level kicks ensure the selectivity of the test, causing that it is unavailable to athletes who do not follow regular special workout routines and do not show adequate flexibility. 99

100 Tadeusz Ambroży, Jarosław Omorczyk et at. with the fists for 30 seconds 12 to the head level (Fig. 3). After completion of this part of the test, the athlete runs for 10 metres to the partner holding the shield and performs roundhouse kicks for 30 seconds (alternately with the right and left leg) to the body trunk (Fig. 4). Therefore, the total time of sport-specific work during the test is 2 minutes (4x30s), which corresponds to the duration of a single round during a kickboxing match. Figure 5 presents the diagram of individual test tasks and direction of the athlete s movements. Correctly performed kicks and punches are counted in each of the four parts. Heart rate is measured directly after completion of the test and after 1 minute rest [bpm]. The aim of the special fitness test proposed in the study is to evaluate the technical level of athletes in terms of the most frequently used hand techniques (punches) and leg techniques (kicks), speed (number of punches and kicks performed per time unit) and special endurance (response of the circulatory system and number of punches and kicks) and coordination (combination of kicks and punches) and flexibility (kicking range). Fig. 1. Straight punch 13 Fig. 2. The roundhouse kick to the head 14 Fig. 3. Hook 15 fig. 4. Roundhouse kick to the body trunk The most effective hand technique (T. Ambroży, P. Snopkowski, D. Mucha, Ł. Tota. Observation and analysis of sports fights in boxing, Security Economy & Law. Scientific Journal for Students and PhD Candidates, 2015, vol. 4, p ). 13 K.W. Gradopołow, Boxing, Wyd. Sport i Turystyka, Warszawa K.W. Gradopołow, Boxing, Wyd. Sport i Turystyka, Warszawa

101 A Proposal for Special Kickboxing Fitness Test Fig. 5. Graphical diagram of the special physical fitness test for kickboxers Notes: SP- straight punches HRK roundhouse kick to the head/high roundhouse kick PC combinations of kicks and punches/punch combinations MRK roundhouse kick to body trunk/middle roundhouse kick Material and Methodology The study group was comprised of 25 athletes from the Klub Sportowy Gladiator sports club in Grybów, Poland, with the mean age of 19,2 years, body height of 173,6 cm and body mass of 71,1 kg. All the athletes were characterized by at least 4-year training experience and had participated in national-level elite tournaments with very high level of achievement. The group included a world champion in kickboxing, winners of medals of Polish championships, Polish Cups, European Cups and World Cups. The test was repeated for the same group on 15 July 2016, 31 July 2016 and 12 August 2016 in Grybów. The repetition of the test was aimed to eliminate random results and allow for evaluation of reliability. Resting heart rate [bpm] was also recorded on the test day. A physical capacity index was evaluated 17. Heart rate was measured using a heart monitor. 17 S. Sterkowicz, The Special Judo Fitness Test, Antropomotoryka, 1995, 12, 13, p ; Index = Final HR, immediately after completion of the test (bpm) + HR after 60 s rest kicks and punches number of kicks and punches = number of punches 1 set of 30 s + number of kicks with legs 1 set of 30 s + number of punches 2 set 30 s + number of kicks 2 set 30 s. 101

102 Tadeusz Ambroży, Jarosław Omorczyk et at. In order to evaluate test reliability, test results were compared to the results obtained by study participants in two special fitness tests proposed by Sterkowicz 18 : 1. Punching speed (frequency) test: combination of two punches performed with fists: left straight punch and right straight punch performed from the fighting stance for 30 times. 2. Kicking speed (frequency) test: performing 30 Chudan-mawashi-geri kicks from the fighting stance with the front leg to the shield held by the partner. Statistical Analysis The material collected was analysed statistically by calculation of mean measures and variability measures. Normality of distribution was verified by means of the Shapiro-Wilk test. Pearson s linear correlation coefficients were calculated to evaluate the validity of measurements. Furthermore, the intraclass correlation coefficients were calculated in order to evaluate the consistency (reliability) using the random model for the analysis of variance for dependent data (ICC 2.1. ). The significance of the study results was evaluated for the level of significance set at α=0.05. All the calculations were performed using the Statistica 12.5 PL software (StatSfot, USA). Results and discussion Measurement of the resting heart rate conducted on the test day revealed adequate adaptation of the kickboxers studied to physical exercise, with mean values being 58,6 bpm. Analysis of the test (Fig. 6) showed that mean number of hits in the first set (94,4) was substantially higher than in the second (77,8), which could have been caused by both fatigue and the hitting method. Combination of straight punches is easier and faster than the combination of straight punches and hooks, which are characterized by greater effectiveness in ju-jitsu and boxing 19. Furthermore, the number of kicks to the head was in 18 K. Sterkowicz, Special fitness test in sports ju-jitsu, [in:] S. Sterkowicz, T. Ambroży (eds.), Sports ju-jitsu: Training process (coach s textbook), EAS, Kraków, 2003, p S. Sterkowicz, T. Ambroży (eds.), Sports ju-jitsu: Training process (coach s textbook), EAS, Kraków 2003; T. Ambroży, P. Snopkowski, D. Mucha, Ł. Tota. Observation and analysis of sports fights in boxing, Security Economy & Law. Scientific Journal for Students and PhD Candidates, 2015, vol. 4, p

103 A Proposal for Special Kickboxing Fitness Test all three tests substantially lower in the first set (mean 34,2) than in the second set (mean 40,3), where the kicks were performed to the body trunk level. This finding seems to be interesting since the analysis of the ju-jitsu fight shows that the effectiveness and the number of performed leg techniques reduces with the time of the fight 20. It can be expected that, despite fatigue, the number of kicks was determined by the difficulty of performance of the techniques caused by the height of the kick. Fig. 6. Mean number of punches and kicks in individual series for all three tests The exercise during the test was of medium intensity since mean heart rate immediately following the completion of the exercise was 190,35 bpm, whereas after 60 seconds of rest, it declined to the mean value of 145,23 bpm. As results from the literature, in trained athletes, two minutes of intensive exercise based on the performance of combat sport techniques leads to the increase in minute heart rate ranging from 165 to 185 bpm 21, whereas its level after a 60 s rest can be bpm S. Sterkowicz, T. Ambroży (eds.), Sports ju-jitsu: Training process (coach s textbook), EAS, Kraków 2003; T. Ambroży, Structure of ju-jitsu training, Trenera, COS, Warszawa K.A. Matsushigue, K. Hartmann, E. Franchini, Taekwondo: Physiological responses and match analysis, The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2009, vol. 23, no. 4, p a.g. Diembo, Sports medicine, Fizkultura i Sport, Moskwa 1975; A. Ronikier, Sports physiology, Biblioteka Trenera, COS, Warszawa

104 Tadeusz Ambroży, Jarosław Omorczyk et at. Much longer rest is needed in order for the heart rate to return to the standard level. In a ju-jitsu fight, which lasts for 3 minutes, with the first phase characterized by the use of techniques similar to kickboxing, an increase in heart rate ranges from 150 to 190 bpm (200 bpm in extreme cases), depending on the duration and intensity. The return to the standard heart rate depends on the fitness level and ranges from 50 to 60 minutes 23. Classification and pattern of physiological mechanisms used in human body during performing of the author s special fitness test is consistent with the pattern of a kickboxing fight. It should be emphasized that the direct energy source for muscular work is supplied by adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP resources in human body are not substantial (around 100g). Therefore, this compound has to be constantly recovered. The main source of ATP recovery is carbohydrates and fats, but if the exercise is extended, this compound is recovered at the expense of phosphocreatine. Another mechanism released by human body when the exercise is continued is to produce energy from glycolysis. In the first phase, it occurs in anaerobic conditions, which leads to the release of lactic acid 24. The highest contribution of anaerobic processes in meeting the energy demands is observed at the initial stage of the exercise, before aerobic transitions are activated in mitochondria, whereas the activity of the circulatory and respiratory systems reach the level that corresponds to the oxygen demand. This period is characterized by oxygen debt and usually takes several minutes. A kickboxing fight and the exercise performed by a person during the special fitness test discussed in this study can be also analysed within this period of time. This exercise can be qualified a high-intensity anaerobic glycolytic-lactic exercise that determines the level of anaerobic endurance of the athlete studied (see Tab. 1). The evaluation of the athletic-motor tests consists in searching for the relationships between the results of newly developed tests with the results of those previously developed, verified and found reliable t. Ambroży, Structure of ju-jitsu training, Biblioteka Trenera, COS, Warszawa J. Chmura, Dynamics of changes in physiological and psychomotor fitness following the physical exercise, AWF, Katowice 1994; A. Ronikier, Sports physiology, Biblioteka Trenera, COS, Warszawa M. Spieszny, Test of speed and strength abilities for team games and standards and point scores for training girls and boys ages 11 to 16 years, Monografie, no. 2, AWF, Kraków

105 A Proposal for Special Kickboxing Fitness Test Such reliable tests include the test of punching and kicking speed developed by 26. Table 1. Division and characterization of the work performed based on energy transitions 27 Anaerobic Processes Aerobic Processes Alactic Anaerobic System Alactic Anaerobic System Aerobic-Anaerobic System ATP+CP Glycogen-Lactic Acid Speed, Dynamic Strength Anaerobic Endurance Glycogen-Glucose Anaerobic-Aerobic + O 2 Endurance Aerobic System Fat + O 2 Aerobic Endurance The reliability of the special kickboxing fitness test was evaluated based on the relation expressed by the Pearson s linear correlation coefficient with two special fitness tests proposed by Sterkowicz 28. The correlation coefficient for the relationship between the total number of hits performed by each study participant in the special kickboxing fitness test and the test of speed of punches was r=0,9, whereas this correlation with the test of the speed of kicks was r=0,69. Both high correlation coefficients are statistically significant (p=0,001) and point to a high level of reliability of the two different tests. Figures 7 and 8 present the relationships between these variables. It should be emphasized that the results obtained in the study are satisfactory since they demonstrated the validity of the tests. Therefore, they can be used to measure the characteristics they were designed for, i.e. speed and special anaerobic endurance during performance of punches and kicks, which are the basic techniques used in kickboxing K. Sterkowicz, Special fitness test in sports ju-jitsu, [in:] S. Sterkowicz, T. Ambroży (eds.), Sports ju-jitsu: Training process (coach s textbook), EAS, Kraków, 2003, p J. Chmura, Training resources in the development of aerobic endurance, Zakład Motoryczności Gracza, AWF, Wrocław 2007 as cited in M. Fortuna, The fundamentals of the development and control of aerobic and anaerobic fitness level, Kolegium Karkonoskie w Jeleniej Górze, PWSZ, Jelenia Góra, 2008, p. 15, K. Sterkowicz, Special fitness test in sports ju-jitsu, [in:] S. Sterkowicz, T. Ambroży (eds.), Sports ju-jitsu: Training process (coach s textbook), EAS, Kraków, 2003, p l. Ufel, The world of kickboxing, Wyd. Sport i Turystyka, Warszawa

106 Tadeusz Ambroży, Jarosław Omorczyk et at. Fig. 7. Correlation between special kickboxing fitness test and the punching speed test 106

107 A Proposal for Special Kickboxing Fitness Test Fig. 8. Correlation between special kickboxing fitness test and the kicking speed test The consistency, i.e. the degree of reproducibility of the measurements, was evaluated based on the intraclass correlation coefficient determined in the random model of the analysis of variance for dependent samples. The results contained in Table 2 show a high consistency (reliability) of the measurements in each component of the special kickboxing fitness test (ICC>0,91), with the intraclass correlation coefficient for the total test result being 0,97. This level of consistency demonstrates the high reliability of the test. In conclusion, it should be emphasized that the proposed test allows for a comprehensive evaluation of the level of preparation in terms of special kickboxing fitness without the need for using specialized apparatus. However, it should be also stressed that the final level of achievement in a sports fight depends not only on physical fitness and technical excellence but also on mental preparedness and tactics used during the fight t. Ambroży, Structure of ju-jitsu training, Biblioteka Trenera, COS, Warszawa

108 Tadeusz Ambroży, Jarosław Omorczyk et at. Table 2. Coefficients of intraclass correlation for each component of special kickboxing fitness measured on 3 different days Variable Total of Punches or Kicks S1_Punch S1_Kick S2_Punch S2_Kick HR_final HR_after_ min ICC 0,97 0,97 0,94 0,96 0,92 0,91 0,97 Lower limit CI Upper limit CI CI confidence interval Conclusion 0,94 0,95 0,89 0,93 0,85 0,84 0,94 0,99 0,99 0,97 0,98 0,96 0,96 0,99 The analysis presented in this study leads to the formulation of the following conclusions: 1. The specific nature of the movements typical of the kickboxing fight justifies the introduction of the tests based on kicks and punches to the test battery that evaluates special fitness. 2. The new special fitness test proposed in this study can be effectively used for selection and interpretation of the achievements of kickboxers since it offers a reliable, valid and user-friendly research tool. Furthermore, the test is also based on the specific exercise that simulates the structure of the fight and the energy systems used. References 1. Ambroży T., Structure of ju-jitsu training, Biblioteka Trenera, COS, Warszawa 2008 [in Polish]. 2. Ambroży T., Snopkowski P., Mucha D., Łukasz T., Observation and analysis of sports fights in boxing, Security Economy & Law. Scientific Journal for Students and PhD Candidates, 2015, vol

109 A Proposal for Special Kickboxing Fitness Test 3. Chmura J., Dynamics of changes in physiological and psychomotor fitness following the physical exercise, AWF, Katowice 1994 [in Polish]. 4. Chmura J., Training resources in the development of aerobic endurance, Zakład Motoryczności Gracza, AWF, Wrocław 2007 [in Polish]. 5. Chwała W., Ambroży T., Sterkowicz S., Three-dimensional analysis of the ju-jitsu competitors motion during the performance of the ippon-seoinage throw, Archives of Budo Science of Martial Arts and Extreme Sport, 2013, vol Diembo A.G.,Sports medicine, Fizkultura i Sport, Moskwa 1975 [in Russian]. 7. Fortuna M., The fundamentals of the development and control of aerobic and anaerobic fitness level, Kolegium Karkonoskie w Jeleniej Górze, PWSZ, Jelenia Góra, 2008 [in Polish]. 8. Franchini E., Takito M.Y., Bertuzzi R.C.M., Morphological, physiological and technical variables in high-level college judoists, Archives of Budo, 2005 vol Gradopołow K.W. Boxing, Wyd. Sport i Turystyka, Warszawa 1969 [in Polish]. 10. Lech G., Tyka A., Pałka T., Krawczyk R., The physical efficiency and the course of fights and the sports level of judo contestants, Medicina Sportiva Practica, 2007, vol. 8, no Lech G., Chwała W., Tyka A., Pałka T., Jaworski J., Pilch W., Ambroży T., Mucha D., The use of k-means method for assessment of training and differences in motor abilities indices in judo contestants at different age, Archives of Budo, 2015, vol Lidor R., Melnik Y., Bilkevitz A., Falk B., The tenstation judo ability test: a test of physical and skill components, Strength Conditioning Journal, 2006, vol. 28, no Matsushigue K.A., Hartmann K., Franchini E., Taekwondo: Physiological responses and match analysis, The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 2009, vol. 23, no Pawluk J., Coaching journals, no 2, 3., PZJudo, Warszawa 1985 [in Polish]. 15. Ronikier A., Sports physiology, Biblioteka Trenera, COS, Warszawa 2001 [in Polish]. 109

110 Tadeusz Ambroży, Jarosław Omorczyk et at. 16. Sertić H., Vidranski T., Segedi I., Construction and Validation of Measurement Tools for the Evaluation of Specific Agility in Karate, IDO MOVEMENT FOR CULTURE. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology: Ido Ruch dla Kultury 2011, vol. 11, no Sozański H. (ed.), Fundamentals of the training theory, Biblioteka Trenera, COS, Warszawa 1999 [in Polish]. 18. Spieszny M., Test of speed and strength abilities for team games and standards and point scores for training girls and boys ages 11 to 16 years, Monografie, no. 2, AWF, Kraków Sterkowicz K., Special fitness test in sports ju-jitsu [in:] S. Sterkowicz, T. Ambroży (eds.), Sports ju-jitsu: Training process (coach s textbook), EAS, Kraków Sterkowicz S., The Special Judo Fitness Test, Antropomotoryka, 1995,12,13, pp [in Polish]. 21. Sterkowicz S., Ambroży T. (eds.), Sports ju-jitsu: Training process (coach s textbook), EAS, Kraków 2003 [in Polish]. 22. Sterkowicz S., Franchini E., Testing motor fitness in karate, Archives of Budo, 2009, vol Ufel L., The world of kickboxing, Wyd. Sport i Turystyka, Warszawa 1991 [in Polish]. Cite this article as: T. Ambroży, J. Omorczyk, A. Stanula, A. Kwiatkowski, W. Błach, D. Mucha, A. Kędra, A Proposal for Special Kickboxing Fitness Test, Security Dimensions. International and National Studies, 2016, no 20, p , DOI /SD/20/5. 110

111 SECURITY DIMENSIONS International & National Studies NO. 20; 2016 ( ) DOI /SD/20/6 Assessment the Risk of Falls Versus Postural Stability of the Elderly, Using a Stabilographic Platform Grzegorz Mańko Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, POLAND Izabela Kocot Ośrodek Rehabilitacji Narządu Ruchu «Krzeszowice» SP ZOZ, POLAND Magdalena Pieniążek Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, POLAND Angelika Sosulska Studenckie Koło Naukowe Fizjoterapii UJCM, Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, POLAND Henryk Piwowar Centrum Sportowo Edukacyjne SPARTA, POLAND ABSTRACT Aim: The purpose of this study was to show the characteristics of postural stability in the aging process of elderly people, using the stabilography method and risk assessment of falling occurring in this age group. Materials and methods: The overall study included 36 people engaged in the therapeutic process in Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation Centre in Krzeszowice ORNR. Their average age was 69,42 (± 7,12) years. The test consisted of unconstrained standing on the stabilograph platform for 30 seconds in different experimental conditions: (1) Unconstrained standing with open eyes, (2) Unconstrained standing with closed eyes, (3) Unconstrained standing with open eyes after 6 revolutions on the Barany s chair. Results: This research showed that the posture of elderly people is characterized by higher values of displacement/cop lean in the sagittal plane rather than frontal plane.

112 Grzegorz Mańko, Izabela Kocot et al. Furthermore, it demonstrated that limitations in impulses from sensory inputs (vestibular and visual system) result in an increase of oscillations of the stabilogram graphic curve. However, no strong link between the values of individual measurements (stabilogram) and the occurrence of fall was established. Conclusions: This study showed the usefulness of the stabilography method in describing the stability of the human body. Yet, in order to determine the objectivity of this method, further tests need to be done on larger sample groups and norms regarding people of different ages have to be elaborated. The results obtained in this research might however contribute towards the development of modern accident prevention programs. ARTICLE INFO Article history Received: Accepted Key words falls, balance, stabilographic method Introduction The ability to maintain a stable posture and safe locomotion in the ontogenesis is under change with different kind level and direction. The relatively early improvement of the body balance goes into long-term stability after sixty years of age to undergo dynamic changes involutionary 1. This is the result of significant degenerative processes occurring in the central nervous system but also its peripheral ranges. In atrial organ, as a result of aging, comes to reducing the excitability of the peripheral and sensory function of body position 2. Then it comes to reducing the level of physical fitness in every manifestation of human motorics. This condition favours the random and uncontrollable situations falls, which may result in serious loss of health or even loss of life 3. 1 K. Berg, Clinical and laboratory measures of postural balance in an elderly population, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 1992: Vol. 73, p ; J. W. Błaszczyk, L. Czerwosz, Stabilność posturalna w procesie starzenia, Gerontologia Polska, 2005: Vol. 13,1, p K. Galus, J. Kocemba, MSD Podręcznik geriatrii, Urban & Partner, Wrocław 1999, p e. Czerwiński, P. Borowy, B. Jasiak, Współczesne metody zapobiegania upadkom z wykorzystaniem rehabilitacji, Ortopedia, Traumatologia, Rehabilitacja, 2006: 4 (6) Vol. 8, p ; E. Czerwiński, A. Kumorek, A. Milert, P. Borowy, Przyczyny upadków u kobiet w populacji krakowskiej, Ortopedia, Traumatologia, Rehabilitacja, 2008: 10, p ; J. C. Davis, M. G. Donaldson, M. C. Ashe, K. M. Khan, The role of balance 112

113 Assessment the Risk of Falls Versus Postural Stability Żurek and Resel examine the consequences of falls in three categories: physical, psychological and socio-economic 4. Among the physical consequences leading to the patients disability is dominated by fracture (5 6%), most of the proximal femur. It should also be mentioned: injuries in the joints (sprains, dislocations), as well as soft tissue injuries (lacerations, hematomas), and burns. Moreover, the need to immobilize the fracture can cause the development of many diseases and organ systems, including: deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, dehydration, infections, pressure sores and contractures in the joints. Following these complications, the patient is no longer hospitalized, often becomes dependent on the environment and even die prematurely 5. As for the effects of mental impairment is calculated self-confidence, deterioration of comfort and well-being, increasing the fear of another incident and the resulting post-fall syndrome ; leading to a reduction in physical activity. This in turn causes muscle weakness decreased mobility in the joints and impaired self-service capabilities. Secondary impairment of physical function due to deterioration in quality of life associated with the avoidance of leaving home by patients. Thus, in the social sphere, the main problem is isolation and loss of social roles. The collapse may lead to prolongation of hospital stay, and inability to return to an earlier life, which is always associated with increased costs of treatment and care 6. Stable posture determines movements made by humans. Therefore, an important element of the assessment of physical activity is to assess postural stability. This study classifies patients into groups with the problem of postural instability or a group of people at risk of collapse, determines imbalance and allows you to select the correct therapy and assess the effectiveness of its and agility training in fall reduction. A comprehensive review, Eura Medicophys, 2004: 40, p G. Żurek, J. Resel, Ocena ryzyka upadków osób starszych z problemami neurologicznymi, zamieszkujących w domach pomocy społecznej Rehabilitacja w praktyce, 2010: 2, p a. Skalska, M. Fedyk-Łukasik, J. Walczewska, Upadki w wieku podeszłym przypadek czy objaw choroby, Medycyna Specjalistyczna, 2003: 2 (3), p ; M. Żak, A. Skalska, T. Ocetkiewicz, Upadki osób w starszym wieku ocena zmiany ryzyka dokonywana po roku od upadku, Rehabilitacja Medyczna, 2004:8 (3), p r. G. Cumming, G. Salkeld, M. Thomas, G Szonyi, Prospective study of the impact of fear of falling on activities of daily living, Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 200: 55, p

114 Grzegorz Mańko, Izabela Kocot et al. application. One method of dealing with quality control assessment of attitudes is stabilography 7. Stabilography is a modern, non-invasive and easy to use tool used in the diagnosis and therapy, the specific application is in orthopaedic and neurological diseases. Due to the ease of measurement indicators for the COP is designed to assess the attitude control system, imbalance detection and risk assessment of falls and postural rehabilitation monitoring the impact on the ability to control posture Aim of the research The assumptions of the research project required from authors formulating two basic research aims. In the first place the description and analysis of changes in parameter values of stabilographs under the influence of interference of sensory inputs (visual organ and balance organ), controlling the standing posture should have been done. Then the risk of falls in older people, maintaining a balance in a standing position, based on changes in the stabilograph image during the test on stabilograph platform were assessed. 2. Material and methods The study involved 36 subjects aged years, admitted for rehabilitation on a daily basis at the Centre for Rehabilitation of Organ Movement in Krzeszowice. Groups of patients undergoing testing had 19 women and 17 men. The average age of study participants was 69,42 years (± 7,12). During recruitment of patients, being held based on the purposeful selection of qualified, persons representing pathological conditions essential for a given age bracket were selected. These were musculoskeletal disorders such as degenerative joint-production of peripheral and spinal arthritis, osteoporosis and condition after joint replacement of peripheral joints, spine pain syndrome, status post-traumatic arthritis (fractures, dislocations, sprains, bruises). In addition, the study allowed people with cardiovascular disease (hypertension, coronary artery disease) stabilized pharmacologically. In order to develop the results of the study group was divided into experimental group (experiencing falls) and control (no falls). 7 J. W. Błaszczyk, Biomechanika kliniczna, PZWL, Warszawa 2004, p t. Ocetkiewicz, A. Skalska, T. Grodzicki, Badanie równowagi przy użyciu platformy balansowej- ocena powtarzalności metody, Gerontologia Polska, 2006: 14 (1), p

115 Assessment the Risk of Falls Versus Postural Stability A questionnaire assessing the risk of falls in older people, for whom assumed the form of questionnaires. It consists of 22 questions about fitness and physical activity, difficulty in performing activities of daily living, social-professional activity, the occurrence of complaints from the systems that affect balance, the overall perception of their own health and the characteristics of previous falls a place of his accession, subjective causes and effects the collapse. Stabilography tests performed on the platform balance/tensometric Zebris German production, using computerized measuring system evaluating the distribution of forces. During the experiment used a static module (Stance) software, which allowed to analyze the pressure distribution of the feet on the ground during free standing test and assess the balance of static observing parameters such as location of the center-line pressure on the foot platform settings and load asymmetry (right left foot, forward backward). A key component of the measurement of the experiment was to analyze swinging COP. For this purpose, the following parameters were measured: Confidence elipse area statokinesiogram area. By combining the boundary lines of the extreme points (plotted by the COP path length) is obtained irregularly shaped polygon; CoF total track lenght path length, the total COP path they travelled in a given time (here: 30 seconds), expressed in mm; CoF horizontal deviation average COP excursion in the frontal plane (lateral direction) of the point 0, which is calculated geometric center of gravity of the test, expressed in mm; CoF vertical deviation average COP excursion in the sagittal plane (towards the anterior-back), expressed in mm; Confidence Elipsewidh the width of the ellipse of confidence set by moving the COP, otherwise range swinging range, or extreme/maximum deviation of the COP along the X axis (in the lateral direction) from the point 0, expressed in mm; Confidence elipse height amount of confidence ellipse area designated by the moving COP, or extreme/maximum deviation of the COP along the Y axis (in the anteroposterior direction of the back), expressed in mm moving COP, or extreme/maximum deviation of the COP along the Y axis (toward the anterior-back), expressed in mm. 115

116 Grzegorz Mańko, Izabela Kocot et al. The study included three trials, where the patient stayed 30 seconds on the platform in the free standing: 1. Trial free both legs standing with eyes opened; 2. Trial free both legs standing with eyes closed (covered); 3. Trial free both legs standing with eyes opened after 6 turns (in 12s) on Barany ego chair. Velocity of the turns: 0,5 turns per sec. 3. Analysis of the research results 3.1. Analysis of changes in the stabilographs under the influence of external disturbances of the balance organ Total value of the COP path in the study group, expressed in mm is presented in Table 1. Tab. 1. Total value of the COP path in the study group, expressed in mm [Own elaboration] Eyes opened Eyes closed After turns M 734,55 923,46 855,72 sd 144,41 236,00 254,69 min 435,00 415,20 467,00 max 1163, , ,00 Range projection of the total road excursion of center of gravity of respondents showed large variations: with open eyes in the range ,10 mm, after turning off the visual inspection 415, mm, while on the cochlea work swinging disorder range from 467 to 1421 mm. Figure 1 shows the COP path length changes depending on the conditions of the study. 116

117 Assessment the Risk of Falls Versus Postural Stability Fig. 1. Averaged values of the total COP excursion path across trials research [Own elaboration] Total path length COP [mm] ,46 855,72 734,55 Eyes opened Eyes closed After turns Assuming that the outcome of the first test is 100%, the second attempt (after closing the eyes) the mean value of the total distance the COP excursion increased by 25,72%, while in the third with 16,50%. Tab. 2. The values of the surface area of the COP in the study group, expressed in mm 2 [Own elaboration] Eyes opened Eyes closed After turns M 86,84 194,89 235,83 sd 82,72 205,01 299,70 min 12,50 7,60 11,60 max 326,10 796, ,50 In an attempt to eyes closed there was an increase of the value of 124,5% compared to the first attempt. The surface area plotted by the COP in the third attempt (after the turnover on the Barany`s chair) raised as much as 172% relative to the first (Fig. 2). 117

118 Grzegorz Mańko, Izabela Kocot et al. Fig. 2. Averaged values of the surface area of the COP in the individual trials research [Own elaboration] Surface area COP 250 [mm 2 ] ,84 194,89 235,83 0 Eyes opened Eyes closed After turns It is worth noting that under visual control off the value of the minimum surface area of the COP has been one of the individuals significantly lower than during the test under normal conditions without causing interference of external sensory inputs. The following table presents values of correlation coefficients calculated for the variability of average values. Tab. 3. The values of correlation coefficients calculated for the variability of average values (path length and total surface area) between the COP attempts (1 3) [Own elaboration] Measurement parameters Following trials Total path length COP 0,74* 0,72* 0,55* Surface area COP 0,65* 0,54* 0,38 Correlation coefficients marked with (*) show a statistically significant relationship at p 0,05. Dependence has been demonstrated at a high level of total COP path between the sample with open eyes, and attempt with closed eyes, as well as between the sample with open eyes, and an attempt at speed. Among other attempts at the correlation coefficient is slightly lower. 118

119 Assessment the Risk of Falls Versus Postural Stability Average values of deflections in the frontal and sagittal plane are showed in table 4 and 5. Tab. 4. Average values in the frontal plane deflections in mm [Own elaboration] Eyes opened Eyes closed After turns M 3,77 5,52 5,87 sd 1,96 3,11 3,47 min 0,90 0,90 0,90 max 9,30 14,00 14,60 In the second and third attempt increase of the percent in average COP excursion relative to the first trial is at a similar level: with eyes closed it increased by 46,42%, and after disrupted of the vestibular system by 55,7%. Interestingly, the minimum value of the average COP articulation in the coronal plane for each test is at the same level and is 0,90 mm. Tab. 5. Average values of deflections in the sagittal plane in mm [Own elaboration] Eyes opened Eyes closed After turns M 4,93 7,77 5,87 sd 2,08 3,38 3,52 min 2,30 2,80 2,80 max 11,00 15,00 21,30 In the sagittal plane average values of COP articulation increased: in the test with the eyes closed, by 57%, while in the sample after the turnover of only 19,06% relative the first attempt. Showed an increase in the average values of deflections in both axes after a disturbance of sensory inputs that control standing posture. It is worth noting that the greatest impact on the growth of deflections in the sagittal plane took off a visual inspection. Strong disorder of balance center most influenced the swing in the frontal plane, but in this test in both axes an equal level of inclinations was reported (Fig. 3). 119

120 Grzegorz Mańko, Izabela Kocot et al. Fig. 3. Averaged mean values of COP excursion in the individual trials research [Own elaboration] Averaged mean values of COP [mm] frontal plane 7,77 sagittal plane 5,52 5,87 5,87 4,93 3,77 Eyes opened Eyes closed After turns In an attempt to second and third percent increase average COP excursion is the first attempt at a similar level: with closed eyes is increased by 46,42%, and the disturbance of balance center of 55,7%. The average values of the sagittal plane COP excursion increased: in the sample with the eyes closed by 57%, while turnover in the sample after only about 19.06% compared to the first attempt (Tab. 6). Tab. 6. The values of correlation coefficients calculated for the variability of average values of COP excursion between the individual trials (1 3) Analysis plane Following trials frontal 0,59* 0,55* 0,46 sagittal 0,43 0,57* 0,67* Correlation coefficients marked with (*) show a statistically significant relationship at p 0, Analysis of the impact of changes in the stabilograph image on the occurrence of falls The only parameter showing the relationship with the occurrence of the collapse was total COP path. This result indicates a moderate correlation (Table 7). 120

121 Assessment the Risk of Falls Versus Postural Stability Tab. 7. The values of correlation coefficients between the values of individual parameters (path length and surface area of the COP) and the onset of collapse [Own elaboration] Measurement parameter trial Fall occurrence Total path length COP [mm] Area surface COP [mm 2 ] 1 0,51* 2 0,20 3 0,43* 1 0,37 2 0,32 3 0,12 There was no correlation between the front-side and side body inclination and the occurrence of a fall. The only parameter indicating the relationship with the onset of fall turned out to be the way of the COP. This result indicates moderate dependence (Table 8). Tab. 8. The values of correlation coefficients between the average measurement values at certain levels and the onset of collapse [Own elaboration] Planes analysis Fall occurrence Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 frontal 0,38 0,20 0,15 sagittal -0,23 0,06-0,14 Negative values mean deflections in the sagittal plane show the randomness of the fall. Presenting the percentage difference in the size of the individual stabilogram parameters between the experimental group (those who experienced a fall), and control, it was assumed that the result swinging in the control group is 100%. Reduce the value in the experimental group was recorded for a single parameter, average deflections in the sagittal plane. On the basis of comparative analysis for the other parameters were observed to increase the size of the measurement in the experimental group. Specific swinging increase, over 81%, concerned the COP area. 121

122 Grzegorz Mańko, Izabela Kocot et al. Tab. 9. Differences in rates calculated for various values of the stabilogram parameters in the first attempt (eyes open) between the experimental group (experiencing falls) and controls (without falling) [Own elaboration] Measurement parameter Total path length COP [mm] Surface area COP [mm 2 ] Average inclination in sagittal plane [mm] Average inclination in frontal plane [mm] Experimental group Control group Percentage difference 789,84 655,3 21,90 103,46 55,88 85,15 4,46 5,60 20,36 4,25 3,23 31,58 4. Discussion Development of knee-jerk reactions that are essential to maintain upright posture of man, clearly visible is in infancy and the first few years of life. Organ of the central nervous system, which is the vestibular organ, is evolving as one of the first brain structures. It develops already around the sixteenth week of fetus life. To full fitness capacity reaches equilibrium relatively quickly, by various authors between 12 and 16 years old, would then hold for many years in a state of stability. It has been said that we are aware of the manifestation of such a function of the human body when the effects of disorder are disorders of balance multi-centre structures or resulting from the processes involutional. One method of assessing the efficiency of the body balance ability is posturography. In many scientific studies explored the relationship between the size of the deflections of individual parameters and the presence of various stabilogram disturbance of equilibrium. A significant number of scientific reports in question concern the role of capacity and level of its manifestation in sport. It is understood that the specific conditions of certain sports require specific performance from the players balance function. Therefore the issue is still taken to assess the level of efficiency and 122

123 Assessment the Risk of Falls Versus Postural Stability ability to shape the balance in sports, where the training is the basis for coordinating human motorics sphere 9. Another aspect of the sports discussion concerns the impact of various levels of manifestation of efforts to body balance ability 10. There are studies, which indicate that the body has adapted to the effort in conditions of postural responses when the load on a higher level than at the test conditions of resting. An important range of issues of research with the use of posturografic research is to analyze the level of body balance manifestation off the sense of sight 11. This analysis led by Henryk Sienkiewicz who finished with a description of body balance in young, healthy and able-bodied people 12. Sienkiewicz stresses that in the regulation of human posture used afferent information from many sources, mainly: sensomotoric system, vestibular and nerve. Sienkiewicz observations were confirmed in our study. Recalling the external disturbances of sensory inputs for the control of standing by restricting incoming information into the CSN caused the expected im- 9 f. Asseman, O. Caron, J. M. Cremieux, Are there specific conditions which expertise in gymnastics could have an effect on postural control and performance?, Gait Posture, 2008: 27 (1), p ; T. Aydin, Y. Yildiz., C. Yildiz, S. Atelsap, T. A. Kalyon, Proprioception of the ankle: a comparison between female teenage gymnasts and controls, Foot Ankle Int, 2002: 23 (2), p ; A. R. Calavalle, D. Sisti, M. B. L. Rocchi, Postural trials: expertise in rhythmic gymnastics increases control in lateral direction, European Journal of Applied Physiology, 2008: 104 (4), p ; C. D. Davlin,, Dynamic balance in high level athletes, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 2004: 98 (3), p e. Kioumourtzoglou, V. Derri, O. Mertzanidou, G. Tzetzis, Experience with perceptual and motor skills in rhythmic gymnasts, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1997: 84 (3), p ; W. Starosta, D. Fostiak, D. Kruczkowski, Competitors in sport dancing, [in:] New ideas in fundamentals of human movement and sport science: current issues and perspectives: 10th Sport Kinetics Conference Belgrade, Serbia, University Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, 2009, p ; M. Taniewski, W. Zaporożanow, K. Kochanowicz, D. Kruczkowski, Ocena czynności układu równowagi sportowców na podstawie badania odruchów przedsionkowo-rdzeniowych i przedsionkowo-ocznych, Medycyna Sportowa 2001, nr 6 (119), p ; N. Vuillerme, F. Danion, L. Marin, A. Boyadjian, J. M. Prieur, I. Weise, V. Nougier, The effect of expertise in gymnastics on postural control, Neuroscience Letters, 2001: 303 (2), p J.W. Błaszczyk, Biomechanika, p ; J. Dornan, G. R. Fernie, P. J. Holliday, Visual input: It s importance in the control of postural sway, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 1978: Vol. 2 (4); T. Ocetkiewicz, A. Skalska, T. Grodzicki, Badanie równowagi, p H. Sienkiewicz, Porównanie przebiegów stabilogramów u człowieka utrzymującego równowagę po wyłączeniu funkcji niektórych receptorów, Człowiek i ruch, 2001: 2 (4), p

124 Grzegorz Mańko, Izabela Kocot et al. pairment of balance. This deterioration reflects the stability of a significant increase in the size of each parameter stabilogram. Comparing the ability to body balance maintaining with a full visual inspection, and after it switched off for the surface area of the COP, there were significantly greater percentage increase up 124,42% than for the other measures stabilogram. Kuczynski et al. indicates the specific differences between the measured values in samples with the eyes open and closed 13. In the frontal plane, when you close your eyes amplitude COP displacements increased by 47% in the older group (54 72 years) and 24% in the younger group (29 53 years). Research results Kuczynski permits to conclude that over the years, the stability of equilibrium in the coronal plane is particularly vulnerable to loss of performance. Different measurement results obtained in our study. On their basis, after closing the eyes were slightly greater increase in COP excursion in the sagittal plane than in front. The amplitude of the COP swinging after disabling visual inspection, for the frontal plane was 41%, while the sagittal plane about 9% more. Medium tilt showed similar dependence. In the frontal plane was recorded: 46% and 58% of the sagittal plane. Specific vestibular organ working dysfunction with kinetic stimulus (turnover in the Barany`s chair) used in the experiment was to enrich knowledge about his role in the system of balance. Submission of the vestibular organ exposure to external interference caused the expected deterioration of balance control, as evidenced by an increase in all core stabilogram during the third attempt. The biggest increase in value under the influence of these disturbances was recorded for the surface area of the COP. The results of their own, on the one hand show an increase in the range s COP winging under the influence of external disturbances, on the other hand, testify to the occurrence of compensatory mechanisms involving the mutual complementarity of sensory systems. Tracing the dynamic changes in the maximum deflections of the COP in the frontal plane, it was observed that the system vestibular disorder causes only a slight increase in the value of this parameter. This reflects the acquisition of its functions by the other circuits that control posture while standing and is a significant proof of the cooperation of these systems. In the present study therefore demonstrated, confirming the results of other authors 13 M. Kuczyński, E. Dean, A. Jones, The viscoelastic model of standing balance control: preliminary norms and clinical implications, Human Movement, 2002: 1 (5), p

125 Assessment the Risk of Falls Versus Postural Stability that the scope of the operation of the receptor, despite their large severance, to some extent overlap, which causes the disorder, or even disable one of them leads only to minor imbalances 14. It is worth noting that on the basis of stabilographic measurement used in the experiment it is possible to determine only the effects of impaired balance control. COP signal does not provide information on what level problems with which the signs of receptor systems on deregulation and what is their cause. Universally recognized indicator of stability is the extent of human COP excursion in the sagittal plane and frontal 15.Numerous research results also confirm that while maintaining a standing position, in individuals over 60 years of age (Which is characterized by reduced stability of the attitude) rocking the COP is significantly higher compared with young, healthy. However, as the notes Blaszczyk increased COP excursion range may not always be the result of impaired postural control system 16. Often as high amplitude COP swinging is observed even in those very able-bodied. In their studies Slobounov and Newell compared the results with values for stabilograms gymnasts and athletes jumping from the tower to the control group students of Physical Education 17. Unexpected, they reported higher values of COP excursion experimental group individuals trained. Thus, the increased range of involuntary movements of the COP does not necessarily indicate a deterioration of the efficiency of systems controlling the attitude of standing 18. Lee and Deming by examining the maximum deflection of the body in the sagittal plane in the elderly have come to similar conclusions 19. They claim as that reported in people in this age group 14 Z. Najsarek, Analiza reakcji ruchowych stojącego człowieka na narastającą w czasie i utrzymującą się zakłócająca siłę poziomą, Człowiek i ruch, 2001: 2 (4), p. 47; H. Sienkiewicz, Porównanie przebiegów, p W. Błach, Amplituda maksymalnych swobodnych wychyleń ciała zawodników dżudo i studentów AWF w płaszczyźnie strzałkowej, Człowiek i ruch, 2001: 2 (4), p ; M. Golema, Stabilność pozycji stojącej, Studia i monografie, AWF, Wrocław 1987, p J. W. Błaszczyk, Biomechanika, p ; M. Kuczyński, E. Dean, A. Jones, The viscoelastic, p. 5 13; T. Ocetkiewicz, A. Skalska, T. Grodzicki, Badanie równowagi, p S. Slobounov, K.M. Newell, Postural dynamics as a function of skill level and task constraints Gait&Posture, 1994: H. Sienkiewicz, Porównanie przebiegów, p W. A. Lee, L. Deming, Corelation between age and the size of the normalized static support base while standing. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the North American Society of the Psychology of Sport and Psychical activity,

126 Grzegorz Mańko, Izabela Kocot et al. decreased the maximum deflection of the body, are the result of leaving a wider safety margin 20. The same aspect applies to the publication of sheet (2001), who studied the process equivalent of judo athletes. He noted the reduced amplitude deflections (front-rear) and a smaller maximum deflection of the body in the back of judo athletes compared with untrained. Due to the fact that the falls were the most common reason given by the patients treated in ORNR in Krzeszowice, it was decided to examine whether there is a relationship between the occurrences of falls, and increased the amplitude of fluctuations in each parameter as an expression of impaired stabilogram postural control. Blaszczyk and Czerwosz of key importance in the regulation of standing attribute distances as they move the COP 21. Evidenced by the nearly twenty-second the percentage difference in the COP path length between the experimental group (those who have suffered the fall), and controls. Statistical analysis in this study showed that the path length is the most sensitive indicator of stabilogram postural stability. In summary, the results of this study indicate the usefulness of the application of stabilograph stability in the characteristics of the human body. Stabliographic method that was used in this experiment is excellent for the diagnosis, allowing early detection of disorders of balance. Becomes the basis for a modern program of risk assessment and prevention of falls. No standards describing the balance of the body in an upright position, which makes it difficult to assess whether the results are within physiological limits or exceed them to the symptom. Still another and perhaps even more fundamental problem is the origin and nature of these symptom. A symptom, after all, is a fragment of behavior that points to a state of the brain. If the fragment points to a disrupted phase in the mind/brain state, then behavior as a whole is a symptom or expression of the brain state as a whole. This implies that the relation of the symptom to the disturbed fragment is a nucleus of the relation of any behavior to the mind/ brain state that generates it. The symptom is only pathological when it is deviant. In neuropsychology, a symptom is a fragment of unexpected (deviant) performance in an otherwise normal behavior J. W. Błaszczyk, Biomechanika, p J. W. Błaszczyk, L. Czerwosz, Stabilność, p J. W. Brown, M. Pąchalska, The symptom and its significance in neuropsychology, Acta Neuropsychologica, 2003: 1 (1), p

127 Assessment the Risk of Falls Versus Postural Stability The results obtained in this study need to be verified on a larger group of respondents, while remaining a valuable resource and a basis for further research on postural stability. Conclusions Stabliographic method allows precise measurement of gravity wave displacements (COP), its interpretation is difficult-cop signal does not give insight into the actual mechanisms of balance. Standing posture in the elderly (over 60 y.o.) is characterized by involuntary movements of larger values of the COP in the sagittal plane than in the frontal plane. Reducing the flow of information from any of the sensory inputs (vestibular layout and visual) significantly impair the process of control in the elderly. The results obtained in this study could provide a source for a modern program of prevention of falls. To determine the objectivity of stabliographic in the risk assessment of falls, must be verified to more numerous sample inference researches. It should also develop standards for the assessment of human balance for different age groups of coherent developmental characteristics. References 1. Asseman F., Caron O., Cremieux J. M., Are there specific conditions which expertise in gymnastics could have an effect on postural control and performance?, Gait Posture, 2008: 27 (1). 2. Aydin T., Yildiz Y., Yildiz C., Atelsap S., Kalyon T. A., Proprioception of the ankle: a comparison between female teenage gymnasts and controls, Foot Ankle Int, 2002: 23 (2). 3. Berg K., Clinical and laboratory measures of postural balance in an elderly population, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 1992: Vol Błach W., Amplituda maksymalnych swobodnych wychyleń ciała zawodników dżudo i studentów AWF w płaszczyźnie strzałkowej, Człowiek i ruch, 2001: 2 (4). 5. Błaszczyk J. W., Czerwosz L., Stabilność posturalna w procesie starzenia, Gerontologia Polska, 2005: Vol. 13,1. 6. Błaszczyk J. W., Biomechanika kliniczna, PZWL, Warszawa

128 Grzegorz Mańko, Izabela Kocot et al. 7. Brown J. W., Pąchalska M., The symptom and its significance in neuropsychology, Acta Neuropsychologica, 2003: 1 (1). 8. Calavalle A. R., Sisti D., Rocchi M. B. L.,Postural trials: expertise in rhythmic gymnastics increases control in lateral direction, European Journal of Applied Physiology, 2008: 104 (4). 9. Cumming R. G., Salkeld G., Thomas M., Szonyi G., Prospective study of the impact of fear of falling on activities of daily living, Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 200: Czerwiński E., Borowy P., Jasiak B., Współczesne metody zapobiegania upadkom z wykorzystaniem rehabilitacji, Ortopedia, Traumatologia, Rehabilitacja, 2006: 4 (6) Vol Czerwiński E., Kumorek A., Milert A., Borowy P., Przyczyny upadków u kobiet w populacji krakowskiej, Ortopedia, Traumatologia, Rehabilitacja, 2008: Davis J. C., Donaldson M. G., Ashe M. C., Khan K. M., The role of balance and agility training in fall reduction. A comprehensive review, Eura Medicophys, Davlin C. D., Dynamic balance in high level athletes, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 2004: 98 (3). 14. Dornan J., Fernie, G. R., Holliday, P. J., Visual input: It s importance in the control of postural sway, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 1978: Vol. 2 (4). 15. Galus K., Kocemba J., MSD Podręcznik geriatrii, Urban & Partner, Wrocław Golema M., Stabilność pozycji stojącej, Studia i monografie, AWF, Wrocław Kioumourtzoglou E., Derri V., Mertzanidou O., Tzetzis G., Experience with perceptual and motor skills in rhythmic gymnasts, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1997; 84 (3). 18. Kruczkowski D., Jaszczur-Nowicki J., Zdolność zachowania równowagi ciała w warunkach po obciążeniu wysiłkiem fizycznym, Antropomotoryka, 2008: 18 nr Kruczkowski D., Investigation of balance in trials specific to artistic gymnastics. Research Yearbook: studies in physical education and sport, Academy of Physical Education and Sport, 2007: 13, (1). 128

129 Assessment the Risk of Falls Versus Postural Stability 20. Kuczyński M., Dean E., Jones A., The viscoelastic model of standing balance control: preliminary norms and clinical implications, Human Movement, 2002: 1 (5). 21. Lee W.A., Deming L., Corelation between age and the size of the normalized static support base while standing, Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the North American Society of the Psychologu of Sport and Psychical activity. 22. Najsarek Z., Analiza reakcji ruchowych stojącego człowieka na narastającą w czasie i utrzymującą się zakłócająca siłę poziomą, Człowiek i ruch, 2001: 2 (4). 23. Ocetkiewicz T., Skalska, A., Grodzicki, T., Badanie równowagi przy użyciu platformy balansowej ocena powtarzalności metody, Gerontologia Polska, 2006:14 (1). 24. Sienkiewicz H., Porównanie przebiegów stabilogramów u człowieka utrzymującego równowagę po wyłączeniu funkcji niektórych receptorów, Człowiek i ruch, 2001: 2 (4). 25. Skalska A., Fedyk-Łukasik M., Walczewska J., Upadki w wieku podeszłym przypadek czy objaw choroby, Medycyna Specjalistyczna, 2003: 2 (3). 26. Slobounov S., Newell K. M., Postural dynamics as a function of skill level and task constraints, Gait&Posture, 1994: Starosta W., Fostiak D., Kruczkowski D., Competitors in sport dancing, [in:] New ideas in fundamentals of human movement and sport science: current issues and perspectives: 10th Sport Kinetics Conference Belgrade, Serbia, University Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, Taniewski M., Zaporożanow W., Kochanowicz K., Kruczkowski D., Ocena czynności układu równowagi sportowców na podstawie badania odruchów przedsionkowo-rdzeniowych i przedsionkowo-ocznych, Medycyna Sportowa, 2001 nr 6 (119). 29. Vuillerme N., Danion F., Marin L., Boyadjian A., Prieur J. M., Weise I., Nougier V., The effect of expertise in gymnastics on postural control, Neuroscience Letters, 2001: 303 (2). 30. Żak M., Skalska A., Ocetkiewicz T., Upadki osób w starszym wieku ocena zmiany ryzyka dokonywana po roku od upadku, Rehabilitacja Medyczna, 2004: 8 (3). 129

130 Grzegorz Mańko, Izabela Kocot et al. 31. Żurek G., Resel J., Ocena ryzyka upadków osób starszych z problemami neurologicznymi, zamieszkujących w domach pomocy społecznej Rehabilitacja w praktyce, 2010: 2. Cite this article as: G. Mańko, I. Kocot, M. Pieniążek, A. Sosulska, H. Piwowar, Assessment the Risk of Falls Versus Postural Stability of the Elderly, Using a Stabilographic Platform, Security Dimensions. International and National Studies, 2016, no 20, p , DOI /SD/20/6. 130

131 Security Technologies

132 SECURITY DIMENSIONS International & National Studies NO. 20; 2016 ( ) DOI /SD/20/7 Possibility of the Evaluation of Injuries of an Unbelted Passenger in a Vehicle and the Need for Special Procedures while Inspecting the Site of the Accident MUDr. Nikita Bobrov, CSc. The Forensic Institute of UPJŠ Medical Faculty, the Forensic and Pathological Unit of the Health Care Office in Košice, Slovakia Ing. Jan Mandelík, Ph.D. The University of Security Management in Košice, Slovakia Ing. Peter Havaj, Ph.D. The University of Security Management in Košice, Slovakia Ing. Vlastimil Rábek, Ph.D. Expert from the Department of Transport, Olomouc, Czech Republic Assoc. Prof. Juliusz Piwowarski, Ph.D. University of Public and Individual Security APEIRON in Cracow, POLAND ABSTRACT Article concerns the issue of car accident scene investigation. An example of modern forensic techniques usage is given, with potential for implementing the FORTIS system as an element of trail. ARTICLE INFO Article history Received: Accepted Key words car accident, forensics, FORTIS

133 Possibility of the Evaluation of Injuries of an Unbelted Passenger Annotation: The issue of traffic accidents, their documentation and a subsequent clarification represents a complex activity of not only investigative procedures and operations but also a number of other expert activities. The goal of the study is to describe a forensic relevant event Traffic accident in the context of the process of documentation, searching and securing forensic relevant clues as well as to show on a particular example not only the necessity of use of investigative-tactic and technical methods in the documentation and clarification process, but also its importance for the quality of expert evidence and concurrent options of the use of modern technologies and procedures for the stated activities while clarifying traffic accidents, and last but not least the quality of searching and securing tracks, complexity and completeness of the documentation for further process of expert examination and the overall investigation outcome. A car accident is as an extraordinary and undesired event in the traffic, not only in terms of the technical clarification, legal assessment and environmental care 1, a special, complex and in individual operations indivisible issue, whereby the result of the clarification and assessment directly depends especially on the quality and completeness of primary operations performed directly on the scene of the accident, by which the accident site is documented and tracks are secured and on the methodology used by the experts in the evidence. To assess the complete and complex procedures in the process of the accident site documentation in order to document it and secure tracks and the resulting outcome of the expert evidence as well as other forensic relevant events, it is most suitable to use a model situation. 1 Comp. M. Orinčák, Overenie účinnosti sorpčných materiálov pri zneškodnení chemických látok, Krízový manažment: vedecko - odborný časopis Fakulty bezpečnostného inžinierstva Žilinskej univerzity v Žiline, 2016, Roč. 15, č. 1, p ; M. Orinčák, Chemical decontamination of selected hazardous chemical substances, [in:] Advances in fire, safety and security research 2015: scientific book, Fire Research Institute of the Ministry of interior SR, Bratislava 2015, p ; M. Orinčák, J. Franer, Aplikácia vyhodnocovacieho programu CAMEO Software Suite a TerEx na vybraté chemické nebezpečné látky v praxi, Krízový manažment: vedecko - odborný časopis Fakulty bezpečnostného inžinierstva Žilinskej univerzity v Žiline, 2015, Roč. 14, č. 2, p

134 Nikita Bobrov, Jan Mandelík et al. Situation: The accident happened at night as follows a driver under the influence of alcohol while passing a right-hand bend did not adapt driving speed to condition and nature of the road, the vehicle properties and other circumstances. Consequently, while passing the right-hand bend he drove to the opposite direction to the roadside and then back to his driving direction. After that he drove to right off the road where he crashed into a ditch. Consequently the vehicle turned upside down several times resulting in a severe injury of the passenger with a treatment time and sickness absence of 2 months. The policemen performed a breath test on the driver which detected the alcohol level of 0,20 MG/L. Photo documentation from the accident site (informative selection): 134

135 Possibility of the Evaluation of Injuries of an Unbelted Passenger Due to the injury it was obvious that in this case it was necessary to classify the accident as a criminal offence. In order to document it properly, to clarify it and to precisely define its causes as well as the responsibility in terms of the applicable legislation the accident site inspection was carried out on the spot. It is obvious from the file documentation as well as from the photo documentation of the accident site that it was performed after the accident at night under unfavourable light conditions (using the artificial light too). Due to the fact that the first inspection was performed at night, additional inspection of the accident site was performed on the following day during which the photo documentation was prepared (see the selection): 135

136 Nikita Bobrov, Jan Mandelík et al. By evaluating the processed record from the accident site inspection we can say that these basic data were obtained and documented: The accident happened at night. The driver driving a vehicle under the alcohol influence while passing a righthand bend did not adapt the speed to condition and nature of the road, the vehicle properties and other circumstances. Consequently, while passing the right-hand bend he drove to the opposite direction to the roadside and then back to his driving direction. After that he drove to right off the road where he crashed into a ditch. Consequently the vehicle turned upside down several times resulting in a severe injury of the passenger with a treatment time and sickness absence of 2 months. The policemen performed a breath test on the driver which detected the alcohol level of 0,20 MG/L. The centre of the railway overpass was chosen as BMP (Basic measurement point). A metal telephone mast 315,0 m far from BMP was chosen as AMP (auxiliary measurement point). In the distance 65,02 m from AMP and 6,5 m from the curb the tracks started, directed parallely, next to one another. In the distance 84,1 m from AMP and 6,3 m from the curb the right track entered the road and was directed across, where in the distance 103 m from AMP and 3,1 m crossed the central line and continued within 111,1 m from AMP, where it left the road. 136

137 Possibility of the Evaluation of Injuries of an Unbelted Passenger In the distance 91,8 m from AMP and 6,3 m from the curb the left track entered the road and was directed across the road, where in the distance 108,3 m from AMP and 3,1 m from the curb it crossed the central line and continued within 115,4 m, where it left the road and continued within 117,3 m from AMP and 2,6 m from the curb off the road, where it stopped. The width of the ditch was 1,8 m. In the distance 141,4 m from AMP and 21,2 m from AMP there was the LF corner of the vehicle and in the distance 145,8 m from AMP and 21,0 m from the curb off the road there was the RR corner of the vehicle. No other tracks were found out and localised on TA site. These basic information obtained from the accident site inspection record as well as information obtained from the prepared photo documentation were then used to develop the accident site plan at an appropriate scale as a part of the investigative documentation of the accident in question during its inspection. Within investigation of the stated accident, following the resulting effect, a forensic expert from the transport field was then brought up. The result of the whole investigation and evidencing process was the following calculation of vehicle movement developed by the expert based on the found facts: In the course of the following operations the driver, who did not have any injuries in the accident, started to challenge the accuracy and completeness of investigation results in terms that the injury of the passenger was caused mainly due to the fact he was not wearing a safety belt at the time the accident happened. In order to clarify the above, a decision was made to develop another expert opinion, at assigning of which the expert stated their incompleteness for the purpose of the requested evidence, whereby he showed the incompleteness of the primary inspection through the following facts: 137

138 Nikita Bobrov, Jan Mandelík et al. the shape of the terrain off the road was not found out, the spot of the first fall of the vehicle was not localised, the vehicle movement trajectory before it stopped in the final position was not defined and localised, a contact point on the vehicle when it hit the ditch wall and in the corn field was not defined, the tracks in the spot where the vehicle hit the ditch were not documented in detail, the track dimensions of the vehicle contact with the terrain were not recorded, the tracks of the passenger movement in the terrain were not identified, no tracks of the passenger s contact with the vehicle interior were defined and marked, the place where the remains of the right front (RF) door glass were found was not defined and localized, the weight and height of the driver and the passenger was not found out, the final position of the passenger was not found out and localized, the condition of safety belts in the vehicle after the accident was not checked. Taking into account the deficiencies found during the primary inspection and further inspection and a need for an additional evidence in the matter of the vehicle movement on the surface and the movement of its crew, a decision was taken to elaborate an expert opinion by the experts of the forensic medicine and traumatology department using the Fortis system in cooperation with an expert in the field of transport, thus using the knowledge about the passenger s injuries to prove the course of the accident. If we go back to the fact of inviting a forensic expert and initial findings, so on the basis of the statement, these facts were purposely found out in connection with the marking of the final position of the passenger s body: the injured body after the accident was lying on the ground approx. 3 m far from the vehicle (not less than 3 and not more than 5 m) on the back, i.e. facing the sky, more or less straight, as if it got from the passenger s seated position to the lying position in the same direction as a seated passenger only straightened to a lying position. The statement was accompanied with a photograph with a marked additionally indicated approximate final position of the passenger. 138

139 Possibility of the Evaluation of Injuries of an Unbelted Passenger Forensic evaluation of the passenger s injuries the knowledge enabling to precise the calculation of the vehicle and crew movement Basic injury to health (ZPZ): Polytrauma a traffic injury of the passenger: skin abrasions and bruising on the head, trunk and abdomen (localisation and extent are not stated in the medical records), a contusion of the abdominal cavity wall (localisation and extent are not stated in the medical records), multiple serial fractures of the 3rd 8th rib on the right, a closed fracture of the right clavicle with a movement of splinters, a contusion of the right lung, a focal contusion of the brain stem in the midbrain (according to the results of an MRI examination), diffuse axonal brain injury (according to the results of an MRI examination). The view of the localization of injuries to a passenger incurred in an accident performed in FORTIS program (Forensic Traumatology Injury Scale) 139

140 Nikita Bobrov, Jan Mandelík et al. FORTIS forensic individual signature of injuries of a passenger incurred in an accident Value of injury severity according to Fortis: 22,8 140

141 Possibility of the Evaluation of Injuries of an Unbelted Passenger For the further expert investigation of a probable vehicle movement in the terrain it was possible to use, besides the aimed facts, also the performed localization of the passenger s injuries and determination of severity of his/her injuries in the form of a signature of injuries prepared in FORTIS system, a detailed technical evaluation of the vehicle damage extent and way based on the submitted photo documentation, an approximate arrangement of unlocalised tracks of the vehicle movement in the terrain a determination of a technical possibility of the passenger s body movement into its final position in the terrain The evaluation of the documented damage of the vehicle as a part of the expert s analysis: RF fender pressed, RR fender pressed, RF door broken glass, RR door broken glass 141

142 Nikita Bobrov, Jan Mandelík et al. The front part of the vehicle the front part undamaged a deformation of the LF fender and headlamp R bumper shifted to the L side the R hood flattened on the R side MH the left A pillar undeformed the right A pillar a deformation by a collision with the windshield pressed inwards LR fender deformed 142

143 Possibility of the Evaluation of Injuries of an Unbelted Passenger From the position of the passenger s safety belt it is obvious that the belt was not active during the course of the accident a deformed latch of the LF door handle a deformed RR wheel and a damaged tire of the LF wheel 143

144 Nikita Bobrov, Jan Mandelík et al. The glass remains trapped in the guide seal of the RF door The glass remains trapped in the guide seal of the RR door 144

145 Possibility of the Evaluation of Injuries of an Unbelted Passenger Tracks detected in the terrain The tracks of the vehicle movement in the terrain (the ditch and crop) (it is not possible to rule out the additional tracks in the crop caused by the movement of people during the realization of TA (traffic accident)) Other findings, evaluations and estimations: the impact of the crop undergrowth on the vehicle movement: little, the impact of the crop undergrowth on the passenger movement in the terrain: big, in case the passenger did not move above the crop undergrowth in the terrain or directly behind the sliding vehicle, a not stated finding of the broken glass shards, undetected according to the photo documentation (the glass panels of the RF, RR doors and the windshield may not have been broken at the same time), the vehicle did not have the contact with the terrain directly by its front or rear part. The calculation of the vehicle movement in the terrain The vehicle movement was derived from the localised and detected tracks, detected approximate shape of the terrain surface in the driving corridor of the vehicle, final vehicle position and detected vehicle deformations, whereby the calculation was verified consequently using the FOR- TIS system results developed by the forensic doctors. 145

146 Nikita Bobrov, Jan Mandelík et al. According to their importance it was possible to consider the stated documents as correct (the localised tracks and final vehicle position) applicable (the tracks detected on the road and curb, vehicle deformation, statements, approximate shape of the terrain) relatively additional (the tracks detected in the terrain next to the vehicle) control the signature of localisation and severity of the passenger s injuries (Fortis) On the basis of the documents the corresponding vehicle movement on the road, on the road edge and in the terrain was calculated see the view in the ground plan and in the 3D virtual reality including the trajectories of the wheel movement: The calculation of the crew movement the passenger with an unfastened seat belt 146

147 Possibility of the Evaluation of Injuries of an Unbelted Passenger The movement of the vehicle crew and the passenger on the RF seat (the yellow figure) according to the calculation:

148 Nikita Bobrov, Jan Mandelík et al

149 Possibility of the Evaluation of Injuries of an Unbelted Passenger A complete view of the vehicle movement and the unbelted passenger at the interval of 0,5 s. The calculation of the crew movement the passenger with a fastened seat belt A complete view of the vehicle movement and the unbelted passenger in the terrain at the interval of 0,5 s. 149

150 Nikita Bobrov, Jan Mandelík et al. The view in the direction of the vehicle movement The view opposite the direction of the vehicle movement The data obtained from the calculation of the crew movement the physical effects affecting the individual parts of the passenger s body in case he was not using a seat belt and in case he was using a seat belt an output example 150

151 Possibility of the Evaluation of Injuries of an Unbelted Passenger 151