African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 1

Transcription

1 African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 1

2 VANCOUVER MODEL UNITED NATIONS the fifteenth annual conference January 22-24, 2016 Dear Delegates, Jake Hauser Secretary-General Jason Liu Director-General Andrew Tsai Chief of Staff Claudia Wang USG General Assemblies Chris Pang USG Committees Alvin Tsuei USG Delegate Affairs 1 Eva Zhang USG Delegate Affairs 2 Ashley Ng USG Conference Evan Johnson USG Finance Isabelle Cheng USG Sponsorship Sunny Cui USG Marketing My name is Anna Yang and it is my distinct pleasure to welcome you to Vancouver Model United Nations 2016 s African Union. Having joined the Model United Nations club in my school at the beginning of my freshman year, it is without a doubt that I can proclaim that Model UN was one of the best choices I have made thus far in my education. The staff and I are excited to direct a committee that has such tangible impacts on the global community. We are excited to meet you all, and are looking forward to seeing the invigorating debate that is sure to take place over the course of this conference. The topics to be discussed this year are ones that seem to be on opposite ends of the spectrum, but are both integral to the success of all nations in the Union. They contain a variety of different spectrums, and require extremely impactful, precise resolutions. They are multi-faceted, and require the cooperation of all countries participating to have any substantive progress. I can only hope that you enjoy debating these topics as much as I did researching them. One of the largest issues in Africa today is the recent insurgency of radical religious terrorist groups, and so it is to no surprise that one of the most pressing conflicts in the AU and Africa as a whole is currently the group known as Boko Haram. Sustaining Nigeria s sovereignty, military reputation, and newly emerging democracy is difficult when faced with daily assaults on all fronts. It is important that delegates remember all actors when trying to fix the structural problems with Nigeria s government though they may seem unrelated, the fate of Nigeria is tied into the African Union s fate as a whole. On the topic of democracies, there arises a whole array of issues. Though many countries in the AU have made progress towards becoming democracies, there have been mountains of corruption and violence. From the fledgling democracies to the almost developed, to the totalitarian governments that still exist today, it is without a doubt that there is no black and white perfect democracy. Delegates must therefore create infrastructure and solutions that are all encompassing and selfsustainable. The staff and I wish you luck in your research and preparation for this committee. Should you have any questions or concerns about these topics, please don t hesitate to us at au@vmun.com. We look forward to seeing you! Sincerely, Anna Yang African Union Director l VMUN 2016 African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 2

3 African Union Position Paper Policy What is a Position Paper? A position paper is a brief overview of a country s stance on the topics being discussed by a particular committee. Though there is no specific format the position paper must follow, it should include a description of your positions your country holds on the issues on the agenda, relevant actions that your country has taken, and potential solutions that your country would support. At Vancouver Model United Nations, delegates should write a position paper for each of the committee s topics. Each position paper should not exceed one page, and should all be combined into a single document per delegate. For the African Union, position papers are mandatory, especially for a delegate to be considered for an award. Formatting Position papers should: Include the name of the delegate, his/her country, and the committee Be in a standard font (e.g. Times New Roman) with a 12-point font size and 1-inch document margins Not include illustrations, diagrams, decorations, national symbols, watermarks, or page borders Include citations and a bibliography, in any format, giving due credit to the sources used in research (not included in the 1-page limit) Due Dates and Submission Procedure Position papers for this committee must be submitted by midnight on January 8th, Once your position paper is complete, please save the file as your last name, your first name and send it as an attachment in an , to your committee s address, with the subject heading as your last name, your first name Position Paper. Please do not add any other attachments to the or write anything else in the body. Both your position papers should be combined into a single PDF or Word document file; position papers submitted in another format will not be accepted. Each position paper will be manually reviewed and considered for the Best Position Paper award. The address for this committee is au@vmun.com. African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 3

4 Table of Contents Combatting the Rising Influence of Boko Haram... 5 Overview... 5 Timeline... 6 Historical Analysis... 7 Current Situation... 8 Past UN/International Involvement... 9 Possible Solutions and Controversies Bloc Positions Western Powers Eurasian Powers Africa Discussion Questions Additional Sources References Democratic Values in the African Union Overview Timeline Historical Analysis Current Situation Past UN/International Involvement Possible Solutions and Controversies Bloc Positions Liberal Democracies Relatively Transparent Democratized Nations Semi-Transparent Democratized Nations Authoritarian/Dictatorial Nations Discussion Questions Additional Sources References African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 4

5 African Union Topic A Combatting the Rising Influence of Boko Haram Overview Figure 1: Red areas indicate the areas in Nigeria where Boko Haram is most active 1. Boko Haram is a militant Islamic group based primarily in northern Nigeria. Its name literally translates to Western education is forbidden 2, which symbolizes its core ideology of the rejection of Western values. It was founded in 2002 by a group of young Islamic radicals in Maiduguri, the capital of Borno state with the goal of creating an Islamic state in Nigeria. The group believes that politics in Northern Nigeria have been overtaken by a group of corrupt, false Muslims. Thus, it wishes to wage a war against the Federal Republic of Nigeria, in an attempt to create a pure Islamic state ruled by Sharia law. The group has been responsible for multiple attacks and hundreds of casualties in its years of operations, but was only recently named a terrorist organization by the US Department of State in November The insurgents' main goal is to overthrow the Nigerian government by means of destabilization, and they attempt to do this through regular attacks on local populations and the targeting and kidnapping of unarmed civilians. Although Boko Haram has ties with Al-Qaeda and shares many similarities in its structure, the differentiating factor is that Boko Haram has very few interests outside of Nigeria. The success of the insurgency has been exacerbated by the largely ineffective efforts of the Nigerian government and military in combating Boko Haram; institutional challenges and corruption still serve as major blocks on the road to pushing back the rogue Islamic 1 Boko Haram activity in Nigeria. (n.d.). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Haram/images-videos/Areas-in-Nigeria-where-Boko-Haram-was-most-active/ Ross, K. (2014, May 16). Why Boko Haram Wages War Against Western Education - USNI News. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 3 A threat to the entire country. (2012, September 29). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 5

6 terrorist group. Despite these obstacles, however, small glimmers of hope can be seen on the horizon. Since February 7th, 2015, it has been allegedly reported by the Nigerian army that over 30 villages have been reclaimed from Boko Haram forces on the back of renewed regional cooperation with Nigeria's neighbors and the overall replenishing of demoralized Nigerian forces. Additionally, the recent election win by APC party leader and former military commander Muhammadu Buhari signals to many onlookers that change in Nigeria may be right around the corner; President Buhari has promised to continue the Nigerian counter-insurgency with vigor 4, and the ousting of previous incumbent Goodluck Jonathan through a fair and democratic election has renewed onlookers' beliefs that Nigeria's chances at both realizing its economic potential and defeating the Northern insurgency that has claimed thousands of lives may not be out of reach after all. Timeline July 26th - 29th, Years of religious conflict in Northern Nigeria culminate in three days of clashes between Boko Haram militia and Nigerian forces, officially sparking the Boko Haram insurgency. September 7th, Hundreds of inmates are freed from a prison in Bauchi 5. May 29, Bombings in several northern villages claim 15 lives as President Goodluck Jonathan is inaugurated in the other side of the country. December 25th, A year's worth of near-monthly bombings culminates in a series of Christmas attacks on Catholic churches all across the country. January 20th, A series of bombings on Christian institutions and businesses kills over 150 civilians and police officers. January - December, A headcount by the Associated Press shows nearly 800 lives claimed by Boko Haram throughout September 12th - 18th, A Nigerian army offensive kills over 150 Islamic insurgents 6. October 29th, Boko Haram raids on the Yobe state capital of Damataru leave over 100 Nigerian policemen and soldiers dead. April 15th, Islamic terrorists capture over 200 schoolgirls in the town of Chibok in Borno state. The kidnappings spark an international outrage and the ineffective response by the Nigerian government is followed with scrutiny. As of May 2015, despite the reclamation of many Boko Haram controlled territories by the Nigerian military, Nigerian forces have found none of the Chibok girls. A handful of captured girls that were able to independently escape tell horrific stories of rape and murder 7. 4 Cummings, R. (2015, June 22). New Nigerian President Inherits Same Boko Haram Violence. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 5 Muh'd Sani, S. (2010, September 8). Nigeria: Attack On Bauchi Prison - Boko Haram Frees 721 Inmates. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 6 Africa - Raid kills 150 Boko Haram Islamists, Nigeria says. (2013, September 18). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 7 Boko Haram freed Nigerian women tell of captivity horror. (2015, May 4). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 6

7 President Goodluck Jonathan reports that between the years of 2009 and 2014, Boko Haram extremists killed over 13,000 civilians. January 3rd - 7th, Large-scale destruction in Bogo state results in heavy casualties. Estimates on the overall headcount range from 200 civilians to over 2000 lives lost. The lack of both response and basic acknowledgement of the situation by then-president Jonathan draws heavy backlash from the international community 8. January 31st, The African Union pledges to send 7,500 troops to Nigeria to help combat Boko Haram, marking the beginning of a strong Nigerian counteroffensive. Additionally, Chadian forces claim the lives of over 100 Boko Haram forces during fighting in neighboring Cameroon 9. February 7th, The Nigerian government elects to postpone its general election for 6 weeks in order to launch an offensive against Boko Haram intended to reclaim most of the territory gained by the insurgency. March 28th - 29th, Muhammadu Buhari wins the Nigerian presidency in an open and democratic election, pledging to continue the recent counter-insurgency on Boko Haram. April 24th, Boko Haram's presence in Nigeria is allegedly reduced to the Sambisa Forests after months of city recapturing led by Nigerian forces. Historical Analysis Although Boko Haram has only recently been featured in international news, the group is not a new arrival on the scene. It has been a growing threat in Nigeria for over a decade and its deep roots in the country s social development goes back even further. Its growth is not something we can overlook and signals the emergence of a dangerous, militant religious movement that threatens Nigeria s survival on a whole. Boko Haram s story commences with a preacher named Mohammed Marwa, born in Although the British had originally exiled Marwa from Nigeria during colonial rule, he returned from exile in 1972 and gradually began to build his followership as a priest. His sermons were extreme and mostly focused on condemning Western culture and its popularity in Nigeria. He became so vehemently opposed to Western ideology that he became known as Maitatsine, meaning The one who damns. While the Nigerian government first ignored him, as his sermons grew increasingly anti governmental, the government decided to crack down. This culminated in an uprising in 1980, where Maitatsine s followers rioted against the government in a conflict that claimed over 4,000 lives, including that of Maitatsine. At the same time, Sharia law, a legal framework and system of those living under Islamic law, became increasingly buried as Nigeria moved towards independence in the 1960s. Under the settlement of , Nigerian Muslims legally traded away their right to practice under Sharia law in return for 8 Segun, M. (2015, January 14). Dispatches: What Really Happened in Baga, Nigeria? Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 9 Chad army says kills 120 Boko Haram militants in Cameroon. (2015, January 31). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 10 Ostien, P., & Fwatshak, S. (n.d.). Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 7

8 compensations of other sorts. In the years to follow, especially reaching a turning point in 1999, support for Sharia law and an anti-settlement movement gained fervor in Muslim communities in the north. These dissatisfaction leads to uprisings like that of Maitatsine, and it was the culmination of these ideas that lead to the birth of Boko Haram in Mohammed Yusuf, a passionate supporter of Sharia law, officially founded Boko Haram in Boko Haram s original mandate was to impose Sharia law throughout the country, thus transforming Nigeria into an entirely Islamic State. Although Boko Haram has always been radical, it only recently turned violent in 2009 following a clash with Nigerian police in riots that left over 800 civilians and Boko Haram members dead. Following this incident, Yusuf was detained by Nigerian security forces and executed without a trial by the government. Since gaining its new leader Abubakar Shekau, Boko Haram has taken a turn into aggressive terrorism 12 and furthered its connections with international terrorist organizations, like Al Qaeda. The connection between Boko Haram and Al Qaeda has grown increasingly strong as they receive training and tactics in terrorist attacks from one another. Additionally, with their newly careless attitude, Boko Haram has been able to strengthen their financial front. They employ increasingly radical tactics to rob banks and farm illegal underground activity, and have since 2009 been able to acquire much more sophisticated weaponry and artillery. In the past decade, Boko Haram has become incredibly radical and extremely well funded. Current Situation Figure 2: Chart delineates multiple different international terrorist bodies and their movements in Africa Hare, J. (2014, March 15). How Northern Nigeria's Violent History Explains Boko Haram. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 12 Hafiz, Y. (2014, May 9). Boko Haram: Facts, History, Leaders, And Origins Of The Terrorist Group. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 13 A rising tide. (2015, July 20). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 8

9 Considering the culture of distrust towards the government that has been deeply ingrained within Nigeria's cultural and political landscapes throughout its post-independence existence as both a military state and allegedly democratic republic, it is of little surprise that most of the efforts by the Nigerian government to quell Boko Haram s uprising to date have been as ineffective and corrupt as Nigeria's institutions themselves. All past history aside, however, today's Nigeria does in fact look significantly different from the earlier republics of years past, and progress has been made in creating democratic and accountable institutions in the state's government. Perhaps the best indicator of this movement towards a more accountable state is the recently held March election, where for the first time in Nigeria's history a serious opposition party in an open and fair election unseated an incumbent president. While Nigeria has certainly been yet to achieve the lucrative potential offered by its vast reserves of oil, the newly anointed President Buhari has already taken steps to get the country off its feet and move forward in the process of cracking down on corruption and creating economic development and market diversity 14. In a recent visit to the United States, Buhari reiterated that Nigeria was not in need of significant foreign aid, and the best way for the international community to help Nigeria was to help the country plug the porous loopholes through which various unaccountable officials have been able to siphon the country's great wealth of oil money. In regards to the conflict with Boko Haram specifically, Nigeria has also made significant ground in the fight to push back the radical Islamic group. The military offensive launched by the Jonathan administration in early February was successful in recapturing the majority of the Northern lands taken by Boko Haram, and in April, it was reported that the only territory still controlled by the Islamic insurgency was the isolated regions of the Sambisa forests 15. Despite these major losses in occupied land, however, Boko Haram has responded by reverting to guerrilla tactics. Recent analysis has shown that most of the organization's 6000 militants are still active, and may even have regrouped in the mountains along Nigeria's borders, and while Nigeria's army has been successful in retaking captured territory, it has found far less success in the field of counterinsurgency. Despite all of these positive changes, an increasing concern culminating in recent years is Boko Haram s ties with other international terrorist organizations, specifically ISIS and Al Qaeda. Though Boko Haram s attacks are centrally focused in Nigeria, with no interest in expanding internationally, Al Qaeda has sent in training and shared tactics with the group, causing many to fear the collaboration between the two groups. Boko Haram has recently pledged allegiance to ISIS, sharing similar views and goals. ISIS has responded by sending out a video purporting to welcome the support 16, and the potential of terrorism becoming more international and collaborative becomes increasingly likely with the widespread social media and internet access all around the globe. With these influences, as well as a steady increase in radicalization within the internal structure of the group, the amount of violence that has taken place in the past 3 years alone is more than triple that of the last three decades 17. Past UN/International Involvement 14 Nigeria: Economic priorities are clear here is what Buhari needs to do. (2015, April 7). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 15 Inside Nigeria's Sambisa forest, the Boko Haram hideout where kidnapped school girls are believed to be held. (n.d.). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 16 Ostebo, T. (2015, March 20). Boko Haram's Allegiance to ISIS Isn't Nearly as Scary As It Sounds. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 17 Deaths reported in Boko Haram raid in Nigeria. (2014, July 18). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 9

10 In order to quell the rise of Boko Haram, the African Union has called for a regional five-nation force of 8,700 troops 18. The force will be made up of the four directly affected countries - Cameroon, Chad, Niger and Nigeria - along with Benin, and has received international approval. United Nation s Secretary General, Ban Ki Moon, has expressed his approval for the force, stating that "[he] welcome[s] the decision of the AU and regional countries to establish an MJTF [Multinational Joint Task Force] against Boko Haram," leading to speculations that AU s request for funding from the U.N. Security Council will be carried out. While the mission s structure and mandate still remains unclear, countries such as Iran and the United States have already pledged support. However, while a strong force may temporarily deter the militants and aid to stabilize Northern Nigeria and it s bordering countries, there are multiple issues with the regional plan. First, it runs the risk of regionalizing a largely domestic insurgency 19. Second, it does not address the root of the issue, which are the conditions that gave rise to Boko Haram. Boko Haram (and other similar movements) had rampant success because of the large ethnic and cultural divides throughout Nigeria. Though there is currently a democratically elected president, a large part of the populace have completely different political and religious affiliations; therefore, there is still domestic support for Boko Haram. In addition to support from the African Union, since the April 2014 kidnapping of around 200 girls in Chibok, international support and attention has also been called 20. Numerous international powers have offered to aid Nigeria find and free the captives. Nigeria has accepted help from the US, China, UK, France and Israel to deal with the crisis, but only in this specific circumstance.. The aid offered by these countries varies. Some of them have sent specialist teams, including hostage negotiators and soldiers, while others like the United States, have sent in communications intelligence and technology. Possible Solutions and Controversies While considering the numerous potential ways of dealing with the Boko Haram insurgency, it will be important for delegates to take into account both the effectiveness of the Nigerian government and the stability of the Western African region as a whole. Throughout its four-republic history, Nigeria has built its reputation on unaccountability. In its existence, the Nigerian military has been both ineffective and corrupt, and a general lack of discipline and training has characterized the long struggle that the Nigerian Armed Forces has faced against Boko Haram. Nigeria's problems run deeper than its Armed Forces, too; up until 2015, Nigeria's elections have been corrupt and unsupervised, human rights violations conducted both by Nigerian forces and international soldiers for hire have symbolized a multi-year struggle between the Royal Dutch Shell and the Nigerian citizenry, and to this day billions of dollars in oil revenue are swept up in the wind, inevitably ending up in the bottomless pockets of corrupt officials. In regards to foreign military aid against Boko Haram, the Nigerian government has outright rejected any potential offers. The only major instance of aid in this sector came in 2014, when several members of the international community pledged to join the search for the 200 schoolgirls kidnapped by Boko Haram forces in Chibok. In regards to cooperation between regional powers and bordering African states, however, Nigeria has been far more welcoming to the idea of military cooperation, especially in recent times. At the end of January, 2015, the African Union pledged to send more than 8000 troops to Nigeria for the sole purpose of combating Boko Haram, and both the late 18 Joselow, G. (2015, January 30). AU Endorses 7,500 Troops to Fight Boko Haram. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 19 Matfess, H. (2015, February 7). OPINION: African Union forces may exacerbate Boko Haram threat Al Jazeera America. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 20 Boko Haram, Nigerian group that kidnapped schoolgirls, put on UN terror sanctions list. (2014, May 23). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 10

11 Jonathan and current Buhari administrations have been welcoming to military forces from neighboring Chad and other closely located states in the fight against Islamic extremism. Foreign Aid The simple solution of foreign aid provides the benefits of respecting Nigeria s national sovereignty, but lacks basic effectiveness. Although the newly instituted president Buhari looks towards correcting the corrupt government, the system as a whole has proven to be unprincipled; therefore, all foreign aid sent has a large possibility of being used corruptly or never even making it to the people. Because of this, the largest providers of foreign aid in the world, namely western powers are reluctant to send out aid. Nonetheless, foreign aid (regulated and controlled) is still a valuable possible solution to consider. When looking at aid, there is a plethora of different types of aid to consider; food aid, educational aid, development aid, and military aid all have varying effects in combatting Boko Haram. Food aid and development aid have the obvious effects of alleviating the responsibilities of the government, while military aid leads to more efficient and effective troops. The interesting card to note here is educational aid - a large part of Boko Haram s narrative is making the government out to be incompetent and unable to provide for its citizens. Boko Haram makes itself out to be a legitimate alternative option for the governing of Nigeria. By providing foreign aid, specifically educational aid, the government is able to work towards destroying that narrative and start eliminating the Boko Haram propaganda that has been veiled over the citizens. Military Intervention Military intervention poses two major problems, both of which are large enough that there has been no such intervention on a large enough scale to date. The Nigerian government has indicated its distaste towards intervention and help from large western powers like the United States and allies. Thus, the only intervention they d welcome with cooperation is intervention from surrounding African countries and the African Union. While the African Union has intervened and attempted to send in regional troops, this plan lacked efficiency and did little to make tangible differences in taking down Boko Haram. Evidently, the best-equipped intervention would come from western countries, as surrounding African countries generally don t have the resources to successfully intervene. Largely, any intervention on the part of the international community would meet protestation and no cooperation from the military because of the violation of national sovereignty. Additionally, the implications of western intervention on democracy as a whole in Africa are important to remember. Nigeria is one of the few democratic countries in Africa; therefore, charging in with western troops and western guns has negative implications on democratization in the region as a whole. As Africa has been making progressions towards moving away from colonial governments and into democracies, this fragility needs to be noted and taken into consideration. Bloc Positions Western Powers As a general note, most western powers are reluctant to send in military aid because of the likelihood of corruption on a national level. Most western powers are for military intervention as an alternative, as that maximizes the potential for efficient resource allocation. African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 11

12 United States: Although the United States was one of the first foreign powers who offered intelligence and surveillance assistance to help find the abducted schoolgirls in April 2014, with the Islamist insurgency increasing in intensity and violence and the girls nowhere to be found, diplomatic ties have become strained. This is because the Nigerian government does not wish to accept the mediums of help that United States has offered, wishing only to receive help in forms of weapons. The Nigerian government has thus been persistent in demanding for weapons from the United States, feeling dissatisfied with the scope of the United States help. However, due to the horrid track record of human rights violations accumulated by the Nigerian army, the United States has found it difficult to acquiesce to the Nigerian government s demands 21. Because of this difference in opinions, the diplomatic connection between Nigeria and America has been put at risk, with Nigeria going as far as to refuse to accept further training of their troops by the United States. However, the United States has donated 5 million dollars to the Multinational Joint Task Force to boost the military operation against the Boko Haram insurgency. United Kingdom: Of the 1.7 m that United Kingdom allocated to humanitarian aid and civil protections programs in 2014, the budget for Nigeria was one of the biggest internationally, at around 250m. And after light of recent events, United Kingdom has only amped up their efforts to help quell the Boko Haram and find the missing schoolgirls 22. The United Kingdom has started preparing to send "hundreds" of soldiers into Iraq to train Iraqi and Kurdish forces, accompanied by a military "protection" unit. France: While France may be the best-positioned Western nation to assist in the regional fight against Boko Haram, it is also the most vulnerable to being roped into an open-ended war. Therefore, despite it having the most opportune geographical location to help out, France insists it will limit itself to "indirect support" of the growing African movement to combat Boko Haram. Eurasian Powers China: Chinese Premier Li Keqiang has pledged to assist Nigeria in its fight against Boko Haram 23, which is a departure from China's traditional stance in Africa of non-intervention in political or security matters. With China s help, this could be a rare anti-terror operation jointly conducted by the United States, European powers and China. China has offered to provide satellite imagery and equipment such as night vision goggles that would greatly aid the Nigerian military to monitor nocturnal activity in the 21 Cooper, H. (2015, January 24). Rifts Between U.S. and Nigeria Impeding Fight Against Boko Haram. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from 22 Farmer, T. (2014, December 20). British troops to help fight against Boko Haram as SAS target Isil. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Haram-as-SAS-target-Isil.html 23 China offers help against Boko Haram. (2014, May 9). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from btopic=international relations&u=1&pid= &oid= &uid=1 African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 12

13 desert terrain of Nigeria. Other forms of help that China has offered includes military training and hardware. Russia: As relations between Nigeria and Western states grow increasingly fraught, the government has turned towards assistance from Russia and China in training its troops and the acquisition of military hardware. Russia, not wanting to lose Nigeria as a large trading partner in oil, has shown its support for the anti-boko Haram movement in arming Cameroon in the military field and providing specialized military training 24. Enjoying much better relations than the previous bloc, Russia and Nigeria are cooperative in combatting Boko Haram. Africa Nigeria and its four neighboring nations, being the most heavily affected by Boko Haram s actions, have pledged to deploy 8,700 troops, police and civilians as part of a regional effort to fight Boko Haram militants. This announcement came out of a three-day summit that focused on organizing the force that will battle Boko Haram. However, while the force has already garnered international support and funding, it may be some time before this goes into action as respective countries must settle budget and troop allocations. Fortunately, many international powers have pledged support to the joint force, promising to send troops and equipment as well as donating money. Discussion Questions 1. What measures can be taken to ensure that foreign aid to Nigeria will be used effectively? 2. What can be done to promote further regional cooperation between African states in the fight against Boko Haram? 3. What measures can be taken to ensure that the Nigerian Armed Forces will be both better armed and better disciplined in the fight against Boko Haram? 4. How can the Nigerian Armed Forces deal with the guerrilla warfare tactics that have been recently employed by Boko Haram? 5. What institutional changes can be made within Nigeria to achieve a greater level of accountability from the Nigerian government to its citizenry? 6. What measures can be taken by the Nigerian government so that a greater role can be played in being proactive in preventing future Boko Haram bombings and other terrorist activities? 7. How can Nigeria regain foreign interest in investment? Additional Sources Great general research guide, provides good and accurate overview of Boko Haram. Adamowski, J. (2015, January 20). Russia To Arm Cameroon Against Boko Haram. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 13

14 More in depth look at Boko Haram s structure and history. Very detailed analysis of the creation of Boko Haram. Regularly updated current events specific to Boko Haram. Analytical document discussing possible solutions to Boko Haram. NCE_ATTACKS_IN_NIGERIA_AND_POSSIBLE_SOLUTIONS References A rising tide. (2015, July 20). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from A threat to the entire country. (2012, September 29). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Adamowski, J. (2015, January 20). Russia To Arm Cameroon Against Boko Haram. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Africa - Raid kills 150 Boko Haram Islamists, Nigeria says. (2013, September 18). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Boko Haram activity in Nigeria. (n.d.). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Boko Haram freed Nigerian women tell of captivity horror. (2015, May 4). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Boko Haram, Nigerian group that kidnapped schoolgirls, put on UN terror sanctions list. (2014, May 23). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from hnvh3- Chad army says kills 120 Boko Haram militants in Cameroon. (2015, January 31). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 14

15 China offers help against Boko Haram. (2014, May 9). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from =Forecast&subsubtopic=International relations&u=1&pid= &oid= &uid=1 Cooper, H. (2015, January 24). Rifts Between U.S. and Nigeria Impeding Fight Against Boko Haram. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Cummings, R. (2015, June 22). New Nigerian President Inherits Same Boko Haram Violence. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Deaths reported in Boko Haram raid in Nigeria. (2014, July 18). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from html Farmer, T. (2014, December 20). British troops to help fight against Boko Haram as SAS target Isil. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Hafiz, Y. (2014, May 9). Boko Haram: Facts, History, Leaders, And Origins Of The Terrorist Group. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Hare, J. (2014, March 15). How Northern Nigeria's Violent History Explains Boko Haram. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Inside Nigeria's Sambisa forest, the Boko Haram hideout where kidnapped school girls are believed to be held. (n.d.). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Joselow, G. (2015, January 30). AU Endorses 7,500 Troops to Fight Boko Haram. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Matfess, H. (2015, February 7). OPINION: African Union forces may exacerbate Boko Haram threat Al Jazeera America. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Muh'd Sani, S. (2010, September 8). Nigeria: Attack On Bauchi Prison - Boko Haram Frees 721 Inmates. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Nigeria: Economic priorities are clear here is what Buhari needs to do. (2015, April 7). Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Ostebo, T. (2015, March 20). Boko Haram's Allegiance to ISIS Isn't Nearly as Scary As It Sounds. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 15

16 Ostien, P., & Fwatshak, S. (n.d.). Sharia Implementation in Northern Nigeria. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Ross, K. (2014, May 16). Why Boko Haram Wages War Against Western Education - USNI News. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from Segun, M. (2015, January 14). Dispatches: What Really Happened in Baga, Nigeria? Retrieved July 28, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 16

17 African Union Topic B Democratic Values in the African Union Overview Figure 1: Red areas indicate full democracies, dark orange indicate flawed democracies, light orange indicate hybrid regimes, yellow indicate authoritarian 25. Following the fall of the Soviet Union and the departure of imperialism in sub-saharan Africa, the democratization of the continent has become an increasingly heated issue of debate across the global political sphere. The governmental instabilities brought by the post-cold War era in the early 1990s offered western democratization ideals an opportunity to be imposed in all around the world, most significantly in Africa. The current weaknesses in African democracies can very possibly be linked back to the fragile premise under which democracy was established in the first place; many cases of foreign aid and loans, primarily from the IMF and the World Bank, came contingent on democratization 26 therefore rendering the authoritarian-democracy switch inorganic and unsustainable. Nevertheless, democracy is seen as an international objective good; the African Union acknowledges the importance of civil society in a democratic state. 39 out of the 54 countries in the AU have signed the African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance (ACDEG) 27, a treaty created by the AU in 2007 as a guideline of sorts to facilitate democratization and legitimate elections. 25 Morgan, M. (2013, September 26). Can democracy deliver for Africa? - BBC News. Retrieved August 30, 2015, from 26 Elkin, M. (2012, March 1). Loans to Egypt Hinge on Democracy Issues. Retrieved August 30, 2015, from 27 T. Ebobrah, S. (2007, May 1). THE AFRICAN CHARTER ON DEMOCRACY, ELECTIONS AND GOVERNANCE: A NEW DAWN FOR THE ENTHRONEMENT OF LEGITIMATE GOVERNANCE IN AFRICA? Retrieved August 30, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 17

18 Amidst all the controversies, it is clear that there is an international trend towards democratization as a means of development, and sub-saharan Africa is no exception to this. Since post-imperialism, the amount of African democracies has evidently augmented, but there are still long ways to go before they become as legitimate as those found in the western sphere. Despite valiant efforts, a majority of African states continue to be ruled by authoritarian regimes, a majority of which earning legitimacy through control of the state s military power. With more than 148 billion dollars lost in corruption every year 28, there are clear problems with the election process and governmental structure put in the so-called democracies. According to the Economist s Democracy Index, there are only two (flawed) democracies in the entire continent 29 ; the rest are either hybrid or authoritarian regimes. Exorbitant amounts of violence occur during electoral processes, and state coercion culminates in the legitimization of authoritarian regimes or illegal transfers of power. Lack of free speech, censorship, and police brutality all contribute to the democratic rollback and many hybrid regimes we see taking place, in lieu of tangible change. The African Union, despite having taken many steps to try and facilitate democratization, conclude that action must be taken to secure civil, political, and socio-economic rights for the safety of citizens. Timeline White women are allowed to vote in South Africa, but people of color are still barred from elections European Countries find it difficult to continue justifying colonisation whilst African nationalists ramp up their efforts of calling for change Libya is the first African Nation to gain independence from Italy s colonial rule establishing a monarchy Suez crisis; the UK and France try to regain control from Egypt but fail Ghana is the first South-Saharan African country to gain independence, gaining it from the United Kingdom The Organization for African Unity is founded, setting the basis and foundation for the African Union. June 30, Paul Biya is declared Prime Minister of Cameroon, serving under president Ahmadou Ahidjo. 4 November 1982-Present - President Ahidjo resigns as President and Biya is declared President, he continues to serve as President to this day. 28 More than 148 billion dollars is lost to corruption-au Report. (2013, March 11). Retrieved August 30, 2015, from 29 Kekic, L. (2007). The Economist Intelligence Unit s index of democracy. Retrieved August 30, 2015, from 30 "African Timeline." Archives New Zealand. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Aug "A Political History of Africa since Interactive." The Guardian. N.p., 11 July Web. 29 Aug "African Timeline." Archives New Zealand. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Aug "The Failure of Democracy in Africa." Taki's Magazine. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Aug African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 18

19 Mauritius is the first African nation to have democratic elections leading to a change in perspective and leadership for the island nation Soviet Union collapses and the Russian Federation becomes independent The Central African Republic hold its first democratic elections under intense pressure from the international community The Central African Republic holds a second round of elections destabilizing the current government and forcing the new government to be a coalition 35. April 27, South Africa holds its first democratic election, moving the country closer to a new social and political system. May 10, Nelson Mandela, leader of the African National Congress party in South Africa is inaugurated as South Africa s first democratically elected president The Organization for African Unity is disbanded and is replaced with the African Union, with the aim of a unified and peaceful Africa A movement commonly referred to as the Arab Spring takes place in Northern Africa leading to the fall of multiple dictatorships and setting the stage for new democracies. Historical Analysis In the late 1800s and early 1900s, European colonial occupation in Africa disrupted many of the natural political systems already held in place. At this point in history, systemic racism was still rampant throughout the world, and Europeans therefore debased African culture and innovation whether they believed that it fit into the approximated European ways or not. This wave of imperialism saw the establishment of colonial rule all over Africa; the governors were either military officials or career public servants, and they held little regard for African politico-cultural traditions and values 37. These governors were permitted to use whatever means necessary to bring the African population under control, making the regimes extremely dictatorial and abhorrent to the people. With this unsustainable system of absolute rulers and foreign governors, any existing indigenous democratic values that may have grown into democracies in sub-saharan Africa were completely destroyed and replaced by colonial dictatorial values. This also meant that governors could create random positions and officials if it suited them 38, creating an extremely corrupt and arbitrary election process. As the campaigns for independence grew following the end of World War II, however, colonizers began to lean more towards democracy and free market/capitalist economies. There is no clear reason as to why this shift occurred; however, it is undeniable that the western need to battle against communism and neo-colonialism were large factors. As communism in Asia and Eastern Europe rose, the West combated this with the promotion of multiparty politics and free elections in their African territories. During the Cold War, the United States and its generally Western allies propagated democracy worldwide. Simultaneously, however, they turned a blind eye to the undemocratic practices carried out in Africa; ignoring the human rights violations made by regimes 34 "It's Progress, Even If It's Patchy." The Economist. The Economist Newspaper, 01 Oct Web. 30 Aug Ibid. 36 "Timeline 20 Years of Democracy 1994 to 2014." Leander. N.p., 17 Apr Web. 29 Aug Bankole Ijewereme, O. (2015, June 4). Anatomy of Corruption in the Nigerian Public Sector. Retrieved August 30, 2015, from 38 Nigeria. (2007). Retrieved August 30, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 19

20 such as Kenya and Sudan 39, they made no large-scale attempts until the collapse of the Soviet Union to tackle colonialism in the region. Following the demise of the Soviet Union and subsequently communism in the 1990s, the attitude of the West shifted significantly. This era offered democratization its prime opportunity to spread throughout sub-saharan Africa; many foreign aid and loans, specifically from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, came contingent on democracy and the reassessment of politico-economic crises. During this time period, we saw countries such as Ghana, South Africa, and Kenya become relatively successful in their new governments, and Sierra Leone, Cote d Ivoire, Lesotho, Guinea, and Malawi make great efforts towards democratization 40, Sierra Leone and Cote d Ivoire after civil wars that threatened the very existence of their states. It was made very evident during this era that democracy would never be as clear-cut and simple as it had seemed in the West; there were and are varying degrees of functionality to the seemingly stable democracies in the African Union. Regardless of their successfulness, this proliferation had much to do with the rapid democratization that would take place in the years to come. The second large wave of democratization to occur in Africa began on December 18th, 2010, with the rise of the Arab Spring. The Arab Spring brought many new democracies and subsequently many new challenges to Africa on a whole, but specifically in Tunisia, Morocco, Libya and Egypt. These nations toppled their oppressive dictatorships and have been trying ever since to install democracies, with, of course, varying degrees of success. Generally, the protests in these countries aim at receiving more legitimate elections and higher respect for democratic values; driven by a population dissatisfied by the democratic processes currently having taken place, the Arab Spring movement has been instrumental in constructing the democracies we see in Africa today. Egypt, for example, has voted in two presidential elections since the overthrow of former President Hosni Mubarak in Additionally, after the toppling of Col Muammar Gaddafi in Libya, the country experienced its first free elections in World Report l (2013). Retrieved August 30, 2015, from 40 Rakner, L., & A. Skage, I. (n.d.). The Legacy of Africa s Pro-democracy Movements. Retrieved August 30, 2015, from 41 Libya country profile - Overview - BBC News. (2015, June 9). Retrieved August 30, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 20

21 Current Situation Figure 2: Nigerian President Goodluck (left), and APC main opposition party s presidential candidate Mohammadu Buhari (right) shake hands under the eyes of Chariman of the Abuja Peace Accord former Head of State General Abdulsalami Abubakar (center), after signing the renewal of promises for peaceful elections 42. Unfortunately, regardless of all of this progress, African nationalists and post-independence African leaders such as Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Arap Moi of Kenya, and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana adopted the dictatorship and brutality of the foreign colonial governors. Like the brutal reigns of the past, these leaders regarded any form of criticism against their governance as treason, and mass censorship was seen across the continent. Democracy is still not implemented sustainably, and a lack of a transparent multi-party system and governmental control of the opposition can still be observed. Compared to decades ago, however, much has changed. The pure numerical amount of democratized African nations has very evidently increased, yet not all of them can be considered full-fledged operative democracies. Worldwide, scales like the Economist s Intelligence Unit (EIU) or the Freedom house Index (FHI) are currently measuring democracy. Disregarding the levels of subjectivity found in both units of measure, they have both conclusively found that in 2012, about half of AU member states were classified in the worst performing group, whereas on the other hand, less than ten qualify for the best performing group on both indicators 43. Additionally, sustainability is mixed and no country shows consistency in improving democratic performances. Following the Arab Spring, many African nations are attempting to re-stabilize yet also take advantage of the wave of democratization that has descended through the Middle East and had reverberations in Africa as well. Mali experienced a military coup in 2012 wherein a democratically elected government was toppled, and the AU took steps to help establish a transition government, leading to free elections in Even with this progress, there are countries such as Zimbabwe and Cameroon that are still clinging to the ways of their old governments. Religious and ethnic conflicts tear through the new 42 Will Saturday s Election Change Anything In Nigeria? (2015, March 26). Retrieved August 30, 2015, from 43 Kekic, L. (2007). The Economist Intelligence Unit s index of democracy. Retrieved August 30, 2015, from 44 New Crises Seize Security Council's Attention in 2012 as Continuing Change around Arab World Sparks Second Year of Tumultuous Transitions Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. (2013, January 14). Retrieved August 30, 2015, from African Union VMUN 2016 Background Guide 21