Dynamics of Political Development in Afghanistan

Transcription

1 Dynamics of Political Development in Afghanistan

2 Dynamics of Political Development in Afghanistan The British, Russian, and American Invasions Hafizullah Emadi

3 dynamics of political development in afghanistan Copyright Hafizullah Emadi, Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition All rights reserved. First published in 2010 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN in the United States a division of St. Martin s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe, and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number , of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave and Macmillan are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress. A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. Design by Scribe Inc. First edition: September

4 Dedicated to the memory of my brother Habibullah.

5 Contents List of Tables Preface Acknowledgments viii ix xi xiii Introduction 1 1 Reform and Rebellion in Postindependence 11 2 Dawn of Political Liberalization 49 3 Military Putsch and Regime Change 87 4 State, Imperialism, and Dissident Movements Mujahidin, Civil War, and the Taliban Post-Taliban Politics of Reconstruction 205 Glossary 249 Notes 253 Bibliography 267 Index 277

6 Tables 2.1 U.S. and USSR loan and economic assistance, (in millions of dollars) U.S. and USSR economic assistance to Afghanistan, (in millions of dollars) Major Sunni political parties in the 1980s and 1990s Major Shia Islamic parties in the 1980s and 1990s of worker strikes, of student strikes, Major revolutionary organizations active in Afghanistan s politics Results of presidential election, October 9, Results of parliamentary election, September 18,

7 Preface Since the formation of Afghanistan as a nation in the early eighteenth century, the state apparatus was touted as an institution that serves the interest of all people regardless of their social and class affiliations, however, it ignored the needs of tribal and ethnic communities in favor of serving the interests of the ruling class. The class character of the state and its dependence on alien powers for political, financial, and military support eroded the legitimacy of the state and its leadership. Since then, conflicts of interest among Pashtun rulers has led to the formation of political alliances with imperial powers for support against their rivals; this factor paved the way for British intervention in Afghanistan. The British supported and installed rulers who defended their interests and deferred to them a situation that lasted until Afghanistan gained its independence in Nonetheless, British influence, both direct and indirect, continued in the country s political affairs, manifested in support of authoritarian and despotic leaders supportive of its policies. In the post World War II period, the emerging superpowers the United States and the Soviet Union set out to carve their own spheres of influence in Afghanistan by providing economic and technical assistance as well as political support to individuals and groups within and outside the state bureaucracy that supported their politics and ideologies. The Soviet Union succeeded in establishing its domination over Afghanistan after its cliental party, Hizb-e-Demokratik-e-Khalq-e- Afghanistan (People s Democratic Party of Afghanistan [PDPA]), seized power in a military coup in April 1978 that facilitated the Soviet occupation of the country in December 1979 and spawned the anti-soviet war of national liberation. The Soviets continued to support the Kabul client regime after their defeat and withdrawal of troops in 1989 and until the disintegration of the Soviet empire in A lack of Russian financial and military support led to the collapse of the PDPA s rule and establishment of a theocratic state in

8 x Preface Islamic fundamentalists fought each other for domination of the country s political institutions a war that claimed the lives of thousands of innocent men, women, and children, destroyed civil and political institutions and economic infrastructures, displaced thousands of people inside the country, and forced many others to seek refuge in the neighboring countries of Iran and Pakistan and elsewhere. This situation continued until U.S. and NATO forces toppled the Taliban in late 2001 and backed the establishment of a cliental political system of governance. This study is a modest attempt to examine how dependent development and struggles for power within the state apparatus led to the formation of alliances with imperial powers and how the latter used these alliances to manipulate political development in Afghanistan to their own advantage. It also demonstrates how the failure of imperial powers to build a hegemonic project around a class faction within the state apparatus paved the way to their direct intervention in Afghanistan s internal affairs British engagement in Afghanistan prior to the country s independence in 1919, Russian occupation in the 1980s, and U.S. and NATO military intervention in late 2001.

9 Acknowledgments As an advocate of social justice and a member of the political movement for progressive social transformation in the 1970s and after, I became interested in the dynamics of political development in Afghanistan, with a view to affect positive change in the trend of development and produce relevant literature to serve as a guide to novice students of political science and the progressive movement in their struggle for justice. This study is a product of many years of intensive reading, research, and observation of developments in Afghanistan in the era of globalization of the capitalist system. Without the assistance and support of friends it would not have been possible to complete this book. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Mohamed Alibhai for his thoughtful comments on the final version of this book. I would also like to render thanks to Farooq Babrakzai for his cogent suggestions and comments on various aspects of development in his home country. I am equally grateful to Abbas Noyan, representative at the Shura-e-Milli (National Assembly) for sharing information on political developments during the legislative process. Most especially I thank my sisters Nigar and Sanam and my late brother Habibullah, School Superintendent in the Shibar district, Bamiyan Province, and their families who provided me with round-the-clock support during my stay in Afghanistan, which helped me focus on my research and writing. This study was also enhanced by the special part played by Khodayar Faiyaz, a distinguished figure in the liberation movement in Shibar, Bamiyan Province, in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Appreciation is expressed for the role played by Shah Mohammad Rais and Iraj Mohammad Rais of Shah Mohammad Book Company for providing me access to their collections and research materials during my stay in Kabul. It is impossible to express sufficiently my thanks to Lorilei, who consistently provided moral and material support during my research, locating and accessing materials in library archives and preparing an

10 xii Acknowledgments index for the book she did everything she could and always more than I asked. Last, but not least, I am particularly grateful to Palgrave Publishers for bringing this study of Afghanistan s politics and society to a wider audience.

11 1747 Ahmad Shah Abdali of the Sadozai Pashtun tribe is enthroned as king and rules Afghanistan for twenty-six years Death of Ahmad Shah Abdali and succession of his son Timur to the throne. Timur transfers the capital from Qandahar to Kabul and rules twenty years Britain s containment policy toward Afghanistan deters Afghanistan from invading India British envoy Mountstuart Elphinstone and King Shuja conclude a defensive pact that heralds the beginning of direct contact between Afghanistan and Britain Armed confrontation among the Pashtun ruling elites leads to the outbreak of civil unrest that lasts until Dost Mohammad, of the Mohammadzai Pashtun tribe and ruler of Ghazni, seizes Kabul First Anglo-Afghan War. The British install ex-king Shuja to power. 1841, December 23 British envoy Sir William Hay Macnaghten is assassinated in Kabul End of the First Anglo-Afghan War. 1843, December Dost Mohammad seizes power and rules the country for twenty years.

12 xiv 1857 An Anglo-Afghan treaty is concluded in Peshawar and the British agree to provide subsidy to Dost Mohammad. 1863, June 9 Dost Mohammad dies and Shir Ali seizes power Mohammad Afzal seizes power; Shir Ali flees to Qandahar Mohammad Afzal dies and is succeeded by his brother Mohammad Azam Shir Ali regains power Second Anglo-Afghan War King Shir Ali dies and is succeeded by his son Mohammad Yaqoob. Yaqoob abdicates the throne when the British invade Kabul The British recognize Abd al-rahman after he ascends to the throne Britain and Afghanistan sign the Durand Line Treaty, demarcating the southern boundaries between Afghanistan and British-controlled India Death of Abd al-rahman and succession of his son Habibullah to the throne Signing of an agreement between Afghanistan and Britain recognizing the validity of the 1880 and 1893 agreements between the two countries Declaration of neutrality by Afghanistan during World War I. 1919, February 20 Assassination of King Habibullah. 1919, February 25 Amanullah proclaims himself king. 1919, April 13 Amanullah declares Afghanistan s independence. 1919, May 4 Third Anglo-Afghan War starts. 1919, May 28 Britain and Afghanistan declare a ceasefire.

13 xv 1919, August 8 The British sign the Rawalpindi Peace Treaty with Afghanistan, recognizing Afghanistan s independence. 1923, April 9 Introduction of the constitution of Afghanistan. 1924, March Amanullah suppresses the Khost rebellion. 1927, April Anis, a fortnightly private paper begins publication and later becomes a daily paper. 1927, December 10 Amanullah embarks on a long journey to India, Egypt, and Europe. 1928, June 20 Amanullah returns home and initiates Western-style reforms. 1928, November The Shinwari Pashtun tribes rebel against Amanullah s reforms. 1928, December Habibullah, also known as Bacha-e- Saqaw (Water-Carrier Son) rebels against Amanullah. 1929, January 14 Amanullah abdicates the throne to Enayatullah and leaves Kabul for Qandahar and later Rome, Italy. 1929, January 18 Habibullah seizes Kabul and proclaims himself king. 1929, October 14 General Mohammad Nadir fights Habibullah, defeats him, and three days later declares himself king. 1929, November 3 Nadir arrests and executes Habibullah Nadir recognizes the validity of the 1921 and 1923 agreements signed with Britain. 1931, October 31 Constitution of Afghanistan approved. 1933, November 8 King Nadir is assassinated and is succeeded by his son Mohammad Zahir. 1934, February 16 Parliamentary election in Afghanistan. 1934, August 21 The United States extends formal recognition to Afghanistan. 1934, September 25 Afghanistan joins the League of Nations.

14 xvi 1936 Pashtu is declared Afghanistan s national language. 1939, September 3 Beginning of World War II. Afghanistan mobilizes its armed forces as a preparatory measure. 1940, August 17 Afghanistan declares neutrality during World War II Afghanistan ends the work of German and Italian nationals and expels them from Afghanistan because of demands by the Soviet Union and Britain. 1943, May 16 Establishment of Afghanistan s consulate in New York Kabul University, founded in 1933, becomes operational. 1946, May 9 Prime Minister Mohammad Hashim resigns. 1946, November 9 Afghanistan is admitted to the United Nations (UN) Afghanistan initiates broadcasting news to support the Pashtun struggle for autonomy in Pakistan. 1949, April 20 The United States appoints Louis G. Dreyfus as ambassador to Afghanistan. 1949, June 30 Opening of the seventh parliamentary session in Kabul. 1950, January 13 Afghanistan extends official recognition to the Peoples Republic of China. 1951, March 19 The United States appoints George R. Merrell as its ambassador to Afghanistan. 1953, September 6 Resignation of Prime Minister Shah Mahmood and the appointment of Mohammad Daoud as prime minister. 1955, January 19 The Peoples Republic of China and Afghanistan establish diplomatic ties at the embassy level.

15 xvii 1955, March 29 Afghanistan and Pakistan relations deteriorate due to Afghanistan s support for the Pashtuns and Baluchis residing in Pakistan for their right to self-determination. 1955, March 30 A progovernment crowd marches on the Pakistan embassy in Kabul in support of the Pashtuns and Baluchis struggle for self-determination. The next day an angry crowd marches on the Pakistan consulate in Qandahar. 1955, April 1 A progovernment crowd attacks the Pakistan consulate in Jalalabad. Pakistanis attack the Afghanistan consulate in Peshawar. 1955, May 13 Saudi Arabia mediates between Afghanistan and Pakistan to resolve differences between them. 1955, December 18 Soviet leader Nikita S. Khrushchev visits Kabul and promises economic aid for Afghanistan. 1958, January 8 The Soviet Union initiates the survey of oil deposits in the northern provinces of Afghanistan. 1958, June 30 Prime Minister Daoud visits the United States. 1959, August 24 Women of the ruling elite discard their veils during the anniversary of Afghanistan s Independence Day in Kabul. 1960, April 26 Death of former king Amanullah in Switzerland. 1961, September 3 Deteriorating relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan lead to border closures between the two countries. 1961, September 6 Afghanistan ends diplomatic ties with Pakistan. 1963, March 10 Prime Minister Daoud resigns and King Zahir appoints Mohammad Yousuf as prime minister four days later.

16 xviii 1963, May 29 Afghanistan-Pakistan joint communiqué confirms improvement of relations. 1963, July 20 Afghanistan opens its consulates in Peshawar and Quetta. 1963, August 12 Afghanistan and Pakistan exchange ambassadors. 1963, October Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev visits Afghanistan. 1964, October 1 The Loya Jirgah approves the constitution and the king endorses it. 1965, January 1 The pro-soviet Hizb-e-Demokratik-e- Khalq-e-Afghanistan (the People s Democratic Party of Afghanistan [PDPA]) is founded. 1965, October 25 A major student demonstration breaks out in Kabul and the day becomes known as Sayum-e-Aqrab because the incident occurred on the third day of the month of Aqrab. 1965, October 29 Prime Minister Yousuf resigns. 1965, November 4 Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal is appointed prime minister. 1967, October 11 Maiwandwal resigns. 1967, November 1 The king appoints Noor Ahmad Etemadi as prime minister. 1969, June 22 Continuing student protests cause the government to close schools. 1971, May 17 Etemadi resigns. 1971, June 8 King Zahir appoints Dr. Abdul Zahir as prime minister. 1971, August 22 A severe drought claims the lives of thousands of people throughout Afghanistan. 1972, December 5 Dr. Abdul Zahir resigns and a few days later King Zahir appoints Mohammad Musa Shafiq as prime minister. 1973, July 8 King Zahir goes to Rome, Italy.

17 xix 1973, July 17 Former prime minister Mohammad Daoud organizes a coup, seizes power, and declares Afghanistan a republic. 1975, July 28 Islamic fundamentalists attack government installations in Panjshir. 1977, January 30 Daoud convenes a Milli Jirgah to approve the constitution. 1977, February 14 The Milli Jirgah approves the constitution. 1977, February 24 Daoud endorses the constitution. 1977, November 16 Minister of Planning Ali Ahmad Khoram is assassinated in Kabul. 1978, April 17 Mir Akbar Khayber, a founding member of the PDPA, is assassinated in Kabul. 1978, April 19 The PDPA participates in the funeral procession denouncing Khayber s murder. 1978, April 26 Daoud arrests senior PDPA leaders. 1978, April 27 The PDPA launches a coup, seizes power, and declares Afghanistan a democratic republic. 1978, April 30 The Revolutionary Council elects the head of the PDPA, Noor Mohammad Taraki, as president and prime minister. 1978, August 18 State security arrests Minister of Defense Abdul Qadir on charges of a coup attempt. 1979, January 28 An armed struggle to overthrow the pro- Soviet regime in Kabul begins in regions close to the Pakistan border. 1979, February 14 Armed men kidnap the U.S. ambassador, Adolph Dubs, in Kabul. He is killed when state security forces try to rescue him. 1979, March 16 The army crushes an uprising in Herat, killing thousands of people. 1979, March 21 A rebellion against the regime begins in Nooristan and Kunar. 1979, March 27 Hafizullah Amin, minister for foreign affairs, is appointed prime minister.

18 xx 1979, June 23 The Shia Hazaras in the Chindawul ghetto of Kabul rebel against the pro-soviet regime. 1979, August 5 Army officers at the Bala Hisar Fort loyal to Sazman-e-Rahay-e-Afghanistan (Afghanistan Liberation Organization [ALO]) and Hizb-e-Islami-e-Afghanistan (Islamic Party of Afghanistan) rebel against the pro-soviet regime. 1979, September 16 Amin removes Taraki from the party and state leadership and murders him. 1979, October 10 Radio Afghanistan announces that Taraki died from an illness. Amin releases a list containing the names of twelve thousand prison inmates and condemns Taraki for murdering them. 1979, December 27 Soviet paramilitary troops stationed in Kabul storm the palace, kill Amin, and install Babrak Karmal as head of state. 1980, February 25 Anti-Soviet protests continue and stores and shops remain closed. 1980, February 26 Security forces arrest hundreds of people during a search and mopping-up operation. 1980, April 21 A major anti-soviet student demonstration occurs in Kabul and continues for several days. 1980, April 27 Government forces fire on student demonstrators, killing three female students. 1980, May 24 Anti-Soviet protesters march in streets of Kabul. 1980, June 8 The Soviet-backed government executes Abdul Majid Kalakani, head of Sazmane-Azadi-Bakhsh-e-Mardom-e-Afghanistan (SAMA; People s Liberation Organization of Afghanistan). 1981, August 12 The Soviet-backed regime rescinds the decree that restricted landownership.

19 xxi 1982, March 10 U.S. President Ronald Reagan declares solidarity with the people of Afghanistan, marking March 21 as Afghanistan Day. 1985, October 23 The Soviet-backed regime issues an injunction that men up to age forty must serve in the army for a three-year term. 1986, May 4 Karmal is forced to resign from his post as secretary-general of the PDPA and is replaced by Najibullah, former director of the intelligence agency known by its acronym KHAD (Khedamat-e-Aittilaate-Dawlat [State Information Agency]). Karmal is removed from his post as president in November and is sent into exile in Moscow. Najibullah becomes head of state and secretary-general of the PDPA. 1987, February 4 Assassination of Meena, founder of the Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA), by a member of Hizb-e-Islami of Gulbuddin Hikmatyar in Quetta, Pakistan. 1987, November 29 The Soviet-backed regime convenes a Loya Jirgah to endorse the constitution. 1987, November 30 The Loya Jirgah confirms Najibullah as president. 1988, February 23 Islamic fundamentalists declare the formation of the Afghanistan Interim Government (AIG). 1988, April 14 Afghanistan and Pakistan sign the Geneva Accords regarding the Soviet decision to withdraw their troops from Afghanistan. The Soviet Union and the United States sign the document as guarantors. 1988, May 15 The Soviet Union begins troop withdrawals from Afghanistan. 1989, February 15 The last contingent of the Soviet army leaves Afghanistan.

20 xxii 1989, June 16 Nine Shia political organizations form Hizb-e-Wahdat-e-Islami-e-Afghanistan (Islamic Unity Party of Afghanistan). 1990, June 27 The PDPA is renamed Hizb-e-Watan (Homeland Party). 1992, April 16 Najibullah is prevented from leaving the country for India and seeks refuge at the UN compound in Kabul. 1992, April 27 The Soviet-backed government collapses and the next day Sebghatullah Mojaddadi, head of Jabha-e-Milli-e-Nijat-e- Afghanistan (National Salvation Front of Afghanistan) becomes president, declaring Afghanistan an Islamic state. 1992, June 28 Burhanuddin Rabbani, head of Jamiat-e- Islami-e-Afghanistan (Islamic Society of Afghanistan) becomes head of state. 1993, February 11 Abd al-rab Rasoul Sayyaf and Ahmad Shah Masoud launch a military offensive on the Hazara settlement in Afshar, Kabul, killing hundreds of innocent people, destroying their homes, molesting their women and girls, looting their property, and taking young boys and girls as captives. 1993, March 11 Leaders of the Islamic fundamentalists meet in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, signing a peace accord that is countersigned by the head of the host country, King Fahd. 1994, November 5 Taliban militias seize Qandahar and establish their headquarters there. 1995, February 10 Taliban seize control of Maidan Shahr, Wardak Province. 1995, March 6 Masoud attacks Hizb-e-Wahdat bases in Kabul and Hizb-e-Wahdat allies Abdul Rashid Dostam and Hikmatyar are defeated by the Taliban, causing Hizbe-Wahdat to surrender its bases to the Taliban.

21 xxiii 1995, March 13 Taliban militias capture Abdul Ali Mazari, head of Hizb-e-Wahdat, and murder him. 1995, September 5 The Taliban defeat Mohammad Ismail and capture Herat. 1995, September 7 The Taliban capture Ghor. 1996, April 3 About one thousand clerics declare allegiance to Taliban leader Mullah Mohammad Omar, calling him Amir al-mominin (Commander of the Believers). 1996, September 27 The Taliban seize Kabul, enter the UN compound, pull out Najibullah, and execute him. 1996, November 5 Former minister of defense Shah Nawaz Tanai declares his support for the Taliban. 1996, December 3 Karmal dies at age sixty-seven in Moscow and is buried in Hayratan in northern Afghanistan. 1997, May 25 Pakistan, the United Arab Emirates, and Saudi Arabia establish diplomatic ties with the Taliban. 1998, August 8 The Taliban massacre an estimated two thousand to five thousand Shia Hazaras after capturing Mazar, Balkh Province. They also murder eleven Iranian diplomats there. 1998, August 20 The United States launches cruise missiles at Afghanistan to flush out terrorist training centers operated by Osama bin Laden. 1998, September 13 The Taliban captures Bamiyan Province. 2001, February 26 The Taliban destroy the Buddha statues in Bamiyan Province. 2001, September 11 Supporters of Al-Qaeda attack the World Trade Center buildings in New York and the Pentagon. 2001, October 7 The United States initiates military assaults on the Taliban.

22 xxiv 2001, November 9 The Northern Alliance (NA) seizes Mazar as U.S. B-2 bombers force the Taliban to surrender. 2001, November 13 The NA enters Kabul and seizes power after the Taliban abandon the city. 2001, November 27 December 6 The United States organizes the Bonn Conference in Germany, inviting representatives of Islamic fundamentalist and other political groups to discuss power sharing in the post-taliban period. 2001, December 6 The Taliban surrender Qandahar to Hamid Karzai and their ringleader Mullah Omar and others flee. 2001, December 9 The Taliban rule ends and Karzai enters Qandahar. 2001, December 15 The United States opens its embassy in Kabul. 2001, December 18 U.S. bombing of the Taliban ends. 2001, December 22 The United States installs Karzai as head of the interim administration. 2002, February 14 Abdul Rahman, minister of aviation and tourism, is assassinated in Kabul. 2002, June A Loya Jirgah composed of 1,650 representatives endorses Karzai as the head of the Transitional Authority. 2002, July 6 Former warlord and vice president Haji Abdul Qadir is assassinated in Kabul. 2003, May 1 Donald Rumsfeld, U.S. secretary of defense, visits Kabul and assures the government of continued U.S. support in the war against terrorism. 2003, November 3 The government unveils the constitution. 2003, December 13 The constitutional Loya Jirgah comprising 502 representatives, including 50 appointed delegates, is inaugurated in Kabul.

23 xxv 2004, January 4 The constitutional Loya Jirgah approves the constitution. 2005, December 19 The National Assembly comprising two chambers the House of Representatives (249 members) and the House of Elders, or Senate (102 members) is inaugurated. 2006, January 31 Delegates from seventy countries gather in London for a two-day conference, the Afghanistan Compact, to chart out a five-year plan regarding national development strategy and security in Afghanistan. 2006, March 1 U.S. President George Bush visits Kabul and inaugurates the U.S. embassy there. 2007, February 20 The senate endorses general amnesty for warlords and warring factions that committed crimes against humanity during the two decades of civil war. 2007, March 12 The first meeting of the Regional Peace Jirgah between Afghanistan and Pakistan is held in Islamabad. 2007, April 3 Afghanistan becomes the eighth member of the South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SARC), founded in , June 4 Pakistan Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz addresses the Enabling Environment Conference: Effective Private Sector Contribution to Development in Afghanistan held in Kabul on June , July 23 Ex-king Mohammad Zahir (October 15, 1914 July 23, 2007), who ruled the country for forty years ( ) dies in Kabul. 2007, August 9 12 Afghanistan-Pakistan Joint Peace Jirgah is held in Kabul. 2007, August 14 Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, president of Iran, visits Kabul and discusses bilateral relations between the two countries.

24 xxvi 2008, March 30 Thousands of Hazaras in Kabul stage a protest rally demanding the government and the UN stop intrusion of the Kochis into Hazarajat. 2008, April 27 The Jalaluddin Haqqani network allied with the Taliban opens fire at a military parade in Kabul in observance of the anniversary of seizure of power by Islamic fundamentalist; Karzai escapes unhurt. 2008, October 27 A two-day mini-jirgah is held between Afghanistan and Pakistan. 2008, November Kabul University students organize a demonstration demanding that the university s name include the Persian word Danishgah in addition to the Pashtu word Pohantoon and its English-equivalent word, Kabul University. 2008, December 15 Karzai presents a medal of honor to President Bush after his visit to Iraq on December 14. A local journalist, Muntather Zaidi, expresses his disgust with Bush by flinging his shoes at him. 2009, February 7 The National Assembly approves a new law for Shia Muslims in Afghanistan (Shia Personal Status Laws, sponsored by Shia cleric Mohammad Asif Mohsini) and later Karzai endorses it. 2009, March 31 The International Conference on Afghanistan: A Comprehensive Strategy in a Regional Context is held in The Netherlands. 2009, August 20 Presidential and provincial council elections held in Afghanistan. 2009, November 2 Independent Election Commission declares that there will not be a runoff election on November 7 and proclaims Karzai the victor after his rival Abdullah Abdullah withdraws from the race.

25 xxvii 2010, January 25 Karzai meets with Asif Ali Zardari, president of Pakistan, for a one-day summit held in Istanbul by Turkish president Abdullah Gul to discuss cooperation in such areas as economy and security, intelligence, and the fight against terrorism and drug trafficking. 2010, January 28 A one-day international conference hosted by Britain, the UN and the government of Afghanistan is held in London. Foreign ministers and delegates from seventy countries attend to chart a plan for the future of Afghanistan and to integrate the Taliban into the government. 2010, March 28 U.S. President Barack Obama makes a surprise visit to Kabul and meets with U.S. troops and Karzai. The presidents discuss corruption in the Afghanistan government, the fight against narcotics traffickers, and the use of a merit-based system for appointing senior government officials.