The 1993 'Velvet Divorce' Re-visited
|
|
- Marian Carr
- 5 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 York University From the SelectedWorks of Jan Krouzil Winter December 12, 2012 The 1993 'Velvet Divorce' Re-visited Jan Krouzil, York University Available at:
2 The 1993 Velvet Divorce of Czechoslovakia re-visited As a matter of historical fact, the dissolution of Czechoslovakia on 1 January 1993 is an event that saw the self-determined separation of the federal state of Czechoslovakia. The Czech Republic and Slovakia, entities which had arisen in 1969 within the framework of Czechoslovak federalisation, became immediate subjects of the international law in The event is sometimes known as the Velvet Divorce, a reference to the bloodless Velvet Revolution of 1989 that led to the end of the rule of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and the formation of a democratic government. As an émigré to Canada from Czechoslovakia in 1970 I am still puzzled and troubled by the divisive trace of that historical event. While personally disappointed I also realize that perhaps the political and economic costs of keeping the country together would have been too high. Yet, seeing it as not entirely inevitable I still wonder why the so-called Velvet Divorce happened in the first place and whether it has since then yielded anything that can constructively be deemed of current relevance. In that unsettling state of inquisitive befuddlement, here I set out to decipher the multi-layered meaning of that historical event by way of an incomplete and partial personal story narrated with a sense of being 'neither here nor there'. From being here to being there Born in 1943 in the middle-part of Czechoslovakia called Moravia, my early childhood memories are shaped by idyllic, 'petty bourgeois' family experiences. In-formed by my parents life experiences and their recollections of the First Czechoslovak republic under the leadership of its celebrated political and intellectual 'liberator' Tomas Garrigue Masaryk I grew up somewhat sheltered in splendid detachment from socialist realities. On my part, those early experiences, extended later on in school and during the two year army service in the Sudetenland region, were blended, rather un-smoothly I must add, with the 'communist' regime's prescribed ideological flavors. Only a mind-opening glimpse into the open spectrum of western cultural values and liberal democratic ideas, gained from diligent reading of the early 1960s nascent sources such as the periodical World Literature and later on the samisdat literature, gave an awakening jolt to my intellectual slumber and enlarged my capacity to frame historical events in more worldly contexts. So it was not until a few years before the 1968 Prague Spring that I was able to articulate my experience of life under the socialist regime as starkly incompatible with my own, yet still maturing, political and moral awareness. That posture of self-assumed diffident resentment was strongly reinforced by the influence of Alexander Dubcek's vision of 'socialism with a human face' that raised the prospect of transformative change to be imminent or at least possible. As appalled by the abominable Soviet army-led invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 as I was, my decision in the spring of
3 to depart from the country was ridden with deep ambivalence about the future of my homeland and agony over severing my direct ties from its soil perhaps for good. Upon departing, however, I assured myself of having no reason to doubt the country s unified political continuity or of harboring any wish for a change in its status quo. Content on a personal level to leave with the tacit acknowledgment of genuine respect and a sense of true brotherhood toward my Slovak neighbors, I believed those affective ties to be mutual and hoped they would so remain intact for a long time to come. On a larger political scale, of course, while still living on the Czechoslovakian soil, I could not but be influenced by the media propagated renditions of the Czech-Slovak relations. While still firmly convinced that on balance what unites us is greater than what divides us it was with those partially internalized directly personal and mediated impressions that I embarked on my journey to Canada. From being there to being here Arriving in Canada in the spring of 1970 I found myself in a country convulsing at the brink of the FLQ crisis in Quebec. What a warm and unexpected welcome, I thought with a bit of irony. Little did I know at the time that the stormy event in the history of Canadian federalism awaits in a more innocuous form yet with an ominous outcome at stake for the very co-existence of my home country fellow co-habitants. Often introducing myself in Canada as being a Moravian from Czechoslovakia has felt like selfreferencing to being an (undocumented) alien coming from nowhere. Ironically, that in fact has formally turned out to be the case. While struggling to establish my own existence in Canada and working my way to eventually becoming employed at the lower-level ranks of academia, I confess that contact with the still politically precarious situation in my former homeland has been all but infrequent and sporadic. That, I hasten to add, has not been for a lack of interest since even my professional calling demands that I be informed. Separation Looking back, my sense is that even at the time of the separation in January of 1993 many Czechs and Slovaks desired the continued existence of a federal Czechoslovakia. As I try to briefly recall them in sequence, the rapid velocity of events has nevertheless prevailed in overwhelming the political status quo. At the outset of the separation debate, some major Slovak parties advocated a looser form of coexistence and the Slovak National Party complete independence and sovereignty. While new political parties emerged in the interim, Czech parties had little or no presence in Slovakia, and vice versa. In order to have a functional state, the government demanded continued control from Prague, while Slovaks continued to ask for decentralization. In 1992, the Czech Republic elected Vaclav Klaus and others who demanded either an even 2
4 tighter federation ("viable federation") or two independent states. Vladimir Meciar and other leading Slovak politicians of the day wanted a kind of confederation. The two sides opened frequent and intense negotiations in June. On 17 July, the Slovak parliament adopted the Declaration of independence of the Slovak nation. Six days later, Klaus and Meciar agreed to dissolve Czechoslovakia at a meeting in Bratislava. Czechoslovak presidentvaclav Havel resigned rather than oversee the dissolution which he had opposed; in a September 1992 poll, only 37% of Slovaks and 36% of Czechs favored dissolution. The goal of negotiations switched to achieving a peaceful division. On 13 November, the Federal Assembly passed Constitution Act 541 which settled the division of property between the Czech lands and Slovakia. With Constitution Act 542, passed on 25 November, they agreed to the dissolution of Czechoslovakia as of 31 December The separation occurred without violence, and was thus said to be "velvet", much like the Velvet revolution in 1989 which was accomplished through massive peaceful demonstrations and actions. Going separate ways From what I can gather many of those who pined for a united Czechoslovakia saw the division as the work of two men: Czech Prime Minister Václav Klaus and his Slovak counterpart Vladimír Mečiar. At the time, the state was a federation with one president Václav Havel but a prime minister for each Republic. On assuming power in 1992, Klaus and Mečiar tried to negotiate the terms of the federation. Mečiar was angling for a looser federation. Klaus apparently found the demands surprising; despite the fact Mečiar had been quite open about his desires. But it wasn t just nationality which divided the men. Klaus was and remains an advocate of free-market economics (at least in theory). Mečiar wanted to retain some level of state support for the Slovak economy. Havel, who wanted to keep the federation, resigned in July 1992 when separation looked inevitable. Given the supposed unpopularity of the decision to split at the time, it is tempting to see the separation as due to the actions (or ineffectiveness) of these men. Through 1991 and 1992, support for a united federation remained high, especially in the Czech lands. In Slovakia, it had majority support in 1991 but waned by July No wonder the two leaders were against a referendum. Though the view is tempting, it ignores the cultural differences and points of conflict between the two nations. While Czech and Slovak relations were not on the whole marked by the ethnic tension seen in other post-communist states, the level of discontent was both immediate and long reaching. Slovaks worried about Czech privatization and wild capitalism which, in hindsight, were well-founded given the scandals that emerged over the voucher system. Some Czechs resented supporting Slovakia and saw shedding Slovakia as a means of getting into Europe. Ironically, it was Slovakia which integrated more fully, joining the Eurozone in 2009 while the 3
5 majority of Czechs are against joining. This is not the only matter in which Czechs have changed their mind. Reasons for the division Many different reasons are given for the split of Czechoslovakia. Debates around the reason for the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, as far as I can follow them, centre around inevitability versus events that occurred between the Velvet Revolution of 1989 and the end of the joined state in Those who see the split as inevitable, point to the stereotypes between the two nations, problems with the shared state during communism, the failure of the communist state in Czech lands and its success in the Slovak lands, and the 1968 constitution that had a minority veto. Others, who argue for the salience of events between 1989 and 1992, point to international factors such as the breakaway of the Soviet satellite nations, the lack of unified media between the Czech and Slovak republic, and most importantly the actions of the political leaders of the two nations. Given my incomplete and partial recollection I confine myself to briefly recounting only what I take to be the four most salient reasons. The first reason refers to mutual historical grievances. The Slovaks did not embrace the concept of Czechoslovakism, which was advocated by Czech leaders after Although many appreciated economic and educational assistance that the Czech lands offered during the first republic (and before), they were critical of the patronizing attitudes of many Czech leaders and the unwillingness of Czech political elites to grant Slovakia more autonomy. The Czechs, on the other hand, never forgot what they saw as a betrayal on part of Slovakia in 1939, when Slovakia formed a state of its own under Nazi protection. Later, the fact that after WWII the Slovaks did not show enough gratitude for not ending up on the list the defeated nations because Slovakia was included in Czechoslovakia again was also occasionally criticized. During the era of communism, many Czechs believed that the Czech lands were paying through huge transfers for the economic development of Slovakia. Many also did not see the creation of the Czechoslovak federation in 1968 favorably. Common wisdom had it that the Slovaks were punished much less after the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 and that, in fact, Slovakia benefited from the invasion. The era of normalization was closely associated with Gustav Husak, a Slovak. A political asymmetry was created in the form of the Slovak Communist Party that had no counterpart in the Czech Republic. The Slovaks, on the other hand, complained of Prago-centrism, which did not diminish even during the communist era. The second key reason points to the asymmetrical nature of a two-state federation. A federation consisting of two states of unequal size would be a difficult concept even for highly developed democracies. The Federal Assembly, as created by the constitutional amendment of 1968, was 4
6 set up in a way that was bound to produce serious problems once the country has regained democracy. The deficiencies of a two-state federation were suppressed by the centralized communist rule between 1968 and However, once the federal institutions were able to work in a politically free environment, they began producing problems. First, there was initially a serious lack of clarity with regard to the division of powers between institutions on the republican level and federal institutions. Second, the upper house of the Federal Assembly the House of Nations could in effect block meaningful reforms. The growing inability of the Federal Assembly to pass necessary federal laws was perhaps the most visible symbol of a growing decision-making paralysis. At the same time, power was gradually shifting from the federal government to the republican governments. The authority of the country s president was also gradually shrinking. The third salient reason stems from the incompatible political spectrums after the 1992 elections. Soon after the fall of communism certainly after the June 1990 elections it became obvious that the two republics were developing different political spectrums. Slovakia s spectrum was shifted more to the left, and Slovak political parties accentuated more openly national demands or even an outright nationalist agenda. While in the Czech Republic the Communist Party did not reform itself, and the Social Democratic Party was newly (re)created from below, the Slovak democratic left was represented by the reformed Communist Party. In the 1992 elections, political parties that described themselves as center-right prevailed in the Czech Republic, while leftist and nationalist parties were the winners in Slovakia. It became virtually impossible to create a functioning federal government. The fourth key reason involves the strands of Czech and Slovak nationalism. Although much has been said and written about Slovak nationalism, there was also a version of Czech nationalism. The Czechs seemed to identify much more than the Slovaks with the idea of Czechoslovakia, but it can be argued that Czechoslovakia was more acceptable for them, among other reasons, because the Czechs had a privileged position in the two-state federation, in which the other nation was half the size of the Czech nation. While Slovak nationalism was active an expression of nation-building in a country that had not had the kind of historical experience with its own statehood that the Czechs had, Czech nationalism was defensive. In other words, while no significant Czech political parties actively strove for independence or greater autonomy, many Czech politicians were intellectually invested in the idea of Czechoslovakia in which the Czechs by definition are the more senior nation. Some Czech politicians also believed that Slovakia is an economic burden for the Czechs. This version of Czech nationalism was based on the belief that the Czechs are superior more advanced, more urbanized, and therefore, better equipped to cope with market reforms. 5
7 Both Czech politicians and the public did not abandon the traditional Czech paternalism in attitudes toward Slovakia after Some Slovak demanded for example, modifications in the name of the country were ridiculed by the Czech media and understood as petty by Czech politicians, who did not appreciate the symbolism of such steps for the Slovaks. Some of the most important Czech politicians, including President Vaclav Havel, did not read the situation in Slovakia well, partly owing to the fact that they, as former dissidents, maintained contacts mainly with their dissident counterparts, who were predominantly pro-federalist. The final key reason adduced here to explain the Velvet divorce is due to a lack of democratic experience in both countries. Perhaps the growing Czech-Slovak rift could have been solved by giving the Slovaks more autonomy, or by transforming the federation into a confederation. The Belgian or the Canadian models of coexistence (however imperfect) of two nations within one state could have been used, but problems in the Czech-Slovak relations took place at a time when there were many other pressing tasks to solve. Also, Czech and Slovak politicians were only learning the basics of democracy. Hence, there was a natural proclivity on both sides to accelerate the process. Democratic solutions were not explored to the utmost. In order to situate the reasons contextually, it might be useful to provide a bit of historical background. Both the Czech and Slovak nations were part of Austria-Hungary and after World War I they managed to establish the first Czechoslovakia. As the Czech part had always been more industrialized, being under Austrian jurisdiction before, it was only natural that the Czechs had a more developed economy and that they were also able to provide more intellectuals who would come to Slovak schools and help the Slovak regions. However, it might be somewhere there that the Slovaks started to feel as something lesser, as the little, less capable brothers of the Czechs. As the relationship developed, this became more obvious. Slovaks began to feel that the Czechs and the Czech part of the republic were being privileged; as if the Slovaks were put in second place. For all instances, let me mention the so called hyphen war' in which the Slovaks insisted on calling the republic Czecho-Slovakia or Czecho-Slovak Federative Republic instead of Czechoslovakia, thus emphasizing the same position of Slovaks and their uniqueness as a nation. In other words, the Czechs were in this sense perceived as the arrogant ones who thought of Slovaks as something lesser and of the Slovak region as good only for its mountains. It may be argued that this was among the primary reasons why the two split. Yet had there been a referendum, the majority of Slovaks would never have agreed with the split. It remains a widely held belief that it was the political decision of the two prime ministers at the time - Mečiar and Klaus, who did not ask for people's consent. This creates a favorable feeling that the people have always got along well, which I dare suggest would be supported by the majority of Slovaks if they were asked. Furthermore, as Slovakia and the Czech Republic are in the EU, the differences there might have been could now more plausibly be disregarded. The eager cooperation appears even exemplified by the political leaders who come to support their counterparts at political 6
8 rallies and often are reported saying that now that both countries are in the EU, it is almost as if they had never split. The process of dissolution In the end, the dissolution of Czechoslovakia can be deemed a success in terms of the mechanisms and procedures used. It was a peaceful, negotiated process that did not produce any of the upheavals and bloody conflicts as witnessed in the former Yugoslavia or some parts of the Soviet Union. The main point of contention was and still remains, as far as I can tell, the question of whether Czechoslovakia was to hold a referendum. It is possible today to argue that the decision not to hold a referendum was fortunate. First, in a country consisting of two nations of unequal size, one referendum, on a federal level only, would not work. Holding two referendums, one in each republic, was also problematic, however, as no one seemed to know what would happen if one republic voted in favor of the country s split and another would be against it. Aside from the issue of a referendum there were also very different ideas about what kind of a common state Czechoslovakia should be if it survived. Public opinion and politicians were divided: some people supported the idea of a federation, some campaigned for a confederation, and others even advocated the renewal of a unitary state. There were also proposals to turn Czechoslovakia into a three-state federation, consisting of Bohemia, Moravia-Silesia, and Slovakia. It seems something of a historical achievement that the Federal Assembly in the end approved the dissolution of the federation (and itself), and that the two sides agreed on a civilized division of federal assets (and eventually) also the split of the monetary union. What about today? On balance it seems that the split of Czechoslovakia has worked better for Slovakia than for the Czechs. Many Czechs accepted the dissolution of Czechoslovakia as something of a defeat, a partial loss of their national identity. The split has provoked a strange brand of Czech nationalism, which is a mixture of the idea of Czech exceptionalism, on the one hand, and the provincial xenophobia of a small nation, afraid of a large neighbor, on the other. Much of the anti-european rhetoric in Czech politics today appears driven either by the belief that we could do it better than Europe or by the fear of Europe, especially Germany. The Slovaks, on the other hand, appear to be, at least at this point, a more confident nation, although Slovakia suffers from its own version of provincialism and, lately, also the belief in its own exceptionality. In my incomplete and partial view it seems, in comparative terms, that Slovakia is ahead in forming social consensus about the state direction. It has developed a consensually-based view of 7
9 its future in the EU. The Czechs appear lagging behind not only in that they have a different trajectory, but in that by seeking to detach themselves from the EU they go in the opposite direction. In view of the politically unlikely prospect of territorial re-unification or, of at least normatively more plausible mutual reconciliation, I consider this divergence in foreign policy and in the choice of strategic objectives of the two states as unfortunate, if not ominous. I say this because despite of being neither here nor there I still consider the relationship between the Czechs and the Slovaks as truly special. Out of all the neighbors they have, the Czechs and the Slovaks are the closest. This is so, I still believe, not only because of the proximity of Czech and Slovak languages, but above all because of the historical and affective ties and the way in which our two nations are culturally interconnected. In March 1920 Tomáš Masaryk had the Hussite or, better said, Biblical inscription The Lord s Truth Wins written on the presidential banner. He said that it does not necessarily mean that he will speak Czech. Jan Krouzil December 11,
(Re)creating a market economy: the case of the Czech Republic
Karel Dyba (notes for the lecture), 30.1.2018 (Re)creating a market economy: the case of the Czech Republic 1. Historical background 2. What happened after 2 nd World War 3. Transformation policies and
More informationHavel the Intellectual Friend or Enemy of Slovakia?
Havel the Intellectual Friend or Enemy of Slovakia? Ivan Hampel ivan.hampel@vsm-student.sk ENG 290 Advanced Writing and Research Miles White, Ph.D. Response Essay January 28, 2012 Havel the Intellectual
More informationThe Role of Political Elites in Devolution (or Split Up) of the States in Comparative Perspective
The Role of Political Elites in Devolution (or Split Up) of the States in Comparative Perspective Blanka Říchová, Czech Republic In order to compare three case studies it is vital to clearly define the
More informationEthnicity and Nationalism in Contemporary Czechoslovakia
Ethnicity and Nationalism in Contemporary Czechoslovakia Zdenek Salzmann, Department of Anthropology, Northern Arizona University Historical background The forefathers of contemporary Czechs and Slovaks
More informationThis is an Open Access document downloaded from ORCA, Cardiff University's institutional repository:
This is an Open Access document downloaded from ORCA, Cardiff University's institutional repository: http://orca.cf.ac.uk/102668/ This is the author s version of a work that was submitted to / accepted
More informationCENS 2017 PAPER SERIES. The Role and Status of the Visegrad Countries after Brexit: the Czech Republic
CENS 2017 PAPER SERIES The Role and Status of the Visegrad Countries after Brexit: the Czech Republic Zuzana STUCHLÍKOVÁ EUROPEUM Institute for European Policy November, 2017 This paper was delivered in
More informationTHE EASTERN EUROPE AND THE USSR
THE EASTERN EUROPE AND THE USSR After the defeat of Germany in World War Two Eastern European countries were left without government. Some countries had their governments in exile. If not, it was obvious
More informationWORLD HISTORY WORLD WAR II
WORLD HISTORY WORLD WAR II BOARD QUESTIONS 1) WHO WAS THE LEADER OF GERMANY IN THE 1930 S? 2) WHO WAS THE LEADER OF THE SOVIET UNION DURING WWII? 3) LIST THE FIRST THREE STEPS OF HITLER S PLAN TO DOMINATE
More informationGermany in Europe: Franco-Czech Reflections
Germany in Europe: Franco-Czech Reflections Thursday, October 18, 2012 Mirror Hall, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Prague, Czech Republic Introduction/Welcome Speeches Petr Drulák, Director, Institute of
More informationEUROBAROMETER 71 PUBLIC OPINION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION SPRING
Standard Eurobarometer European Commission EUROBAROMETER 71 PUBLIC OPINION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION SPRING 2009 Standard Eurobarometer 71 / SPRING 2009 TNS Opinion & Social Standard Eurobarometer NATIONAL
More informationNations in Upheaval: Europe
Nations in Upheaval: Europe 1850-1914 1914 The Rise of the Nation-State Louis Napoleon Bonaparte Modern Germany: The Role of Key Individuals Czarist Russia: Reform and Repression Britain 1867-1894 1894
More informationThe differences between Czechs and Slovaks!
ESL ENGLISH LESSON (60-120 mins) 25 th February 2011 The differences between Czechs and Slovaks! What s the difference between a Czech and a Slovak? This is not a joke! It could be but for now it is a
More informationThe 1960s ****** Two young candidates, Democrat John F. Kennedy and Republican Richard M. Nixon ran for president in 1960.
The 1960s A PROMISING TIME? As the 1960s began, many Americans believed they lived in a promising time. The economy was doing well, the country seemed poised for positive changes, and a new generation
More informationSlovak-United States Relations: Optimism for the Future
Slovak-United States Relations: Optimism for the Future Thomas P. Melady Senior Diplomat in Residence, Institute of World Politics United States Ambassador to the Holy See, 1989-1993 United States Ambassador
More informationPEOPLE VS POWER / TNP SUMMER 2011
PEOPLE VS POWER / TNP SUMMER 2011 What Can be Changed? The introduction of direct presidential elections is, from the perspective of standard constitutional engineering, a tool for solving or achieving
More informationVa'clav Klaus. Vdclav Klaus is the minister of finance of the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic.
Public Disclosure Authorized F I PROCEEDINGS OF THE WORLD BANK ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS 1990 Y KEYNOTE ADDRESS A Perspective on Economic Transition in Czechoslovakia and Eastern Europe
More informationV4 between Germany and Russia
V4 between Germany and Russia The twenty-fifth anniversary of the Visegrad Group V4 - (begun as the V3) calls for measuring how this group of four Central European states has stood up over time, how it
More informationChallenges to Soviet Control and the End of the Cold War I. Early Cold War A. Eastern European Soviet Control 1. In the early years of the Cold War,
Challenges to Soviet Control and the End of the Cold War I. Early Cold War A. Eastern European Soviet Control 1. In the early years of the Cold War, Eastern European nations (Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania,
More informationA Great Realignment of Political Parties in Quebec
SPECIAL EDITION THE CRIC PAPERS A Great Realignment of Political Parties in Quebec Maurice Pinard MARCH 03 A Great Realignment of Political Parties in Quebec Maurice Pinard Emeritus Professor, McGill University
More informationDO WE KNOW EACH OTHER? Public opinion surveys about the historical memory in V4
DO WE KNOW EACH OTHER? Public opinion surveys about the historical memory in V4 Oľga Gyárfášová Institute for Public Affairs, Bratislava, www.ivo.sk Prepared for the international academic conference My
More informationA Conversation with a Communist Economic Reformer
Hungarian Studies Review, Vol. IX, No. 2 (Fall 1982 A Conversation with a Communist Economic Reformer John Komlos interviews Rezso Nyers In 1968, when Hungary diverged from the main road of Socialism to
More informationThe future of Europe - lies in the past.
The future of Europe - lies in the past. This headline summarizes the talk, originally only entitled The future of Europe, which we listened to on our first day in Helsinki, very well. Certainly, Orbán
More informationIn Mark Kurlansky s Nonviolence: the History of a Dangerous Idea, he argues that it
1 By Lucas Edmond In Mark Kurlansky s Nonviolence: the History of a Dangerous Idea, he argues that it requires a great deal more imagination to devise nonviolent means than to use force (Kurlansky 6).
More informationInternational History Declassified
Digital Archive International History Declassified digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org March 24, 1959 Resolution of the 42nd Meeting of the Czechoslovak Communist Party Politburo, Regarding Talks with Representatives
More informationIntroduction: Political Dynamics in Post-Communist Romania
Südosteuropa 63 (2015), no. 1, pp. 1-6 The Romanian Political System after 1989 Sergiu Gherghina Introduction: Political Dynamics in Post-Communist Romania The contributions to this special issue describe
More informationIntroduction to the Cold War
Introduction to the Cold War What is the Cold War? The Cold War is the conflict that existed between the United States and Soviet Union from 1945 to 1991. It is called cold because the two sides never
More informationVáclav Klaus, Europe: the Shattering of Illusion. London, UK:: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, pp. Hardcopy, ISBN
BOOK REVIEWS 131 Václav Klaus, Europe: the Shattering of Illusion. London, UK:: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2011. 180pp. Hardcopy, ISBN 9781408187647. Klaus Europe: the Shattering of Illusion provides a
More informationPetr Vágner Russians and Czechs: Under Influence of Past and Present Perception of Russians in the Czech Republic
Petr Vágner Russians and Czechs: Under Influence of Past and Present Perception of Russians in the Czech Republic The approach of Czechs to Russians has gone through various periods when relations have
More informationMonetary and fiscal policy in a newly independent Scotland: lessons from the dissolution of Czechoslovakia?
Monetary and fiscal policy in a newly independent Scotland: lessons from the dissolution of Czechoslovakia? Frantisek Brocek, Department of Economics, University of Strathclyde Abstract: This paper looks
More informationGlasnost and the Intelligentsia
Glasnost and the Intelligentsia Ways in which the intelligentsia affected the course of events: 1. Control of mass media 2. Participation in elections 3. Offering economic advice. Why most of the intelligentsia
More informationThe 1960s ****** Two young candidates, Senator John F. Kennedy (D) and Vice-President Richard M. Nixon (R), ran for president in 1960.
The 1960s A PROMISING TIME? As the 1960s began, many Americans believed they lived in a promising time. The economy was doing well, the country seemed poised for positive changes, and a new generation
More informationREPORT LUSTRATION: THE EXPERIENCE OF HUNGARY. by Prof. Dr. Andras Zs. VARGA (Judge at the Constitutional Court of Hungary, Member, Hungary)
Strasbourg, 19 November 2015 CDL-PI(2015)026 Engl. only EUROPEAN COMMISSION FOR DEMOCRACY THROUGH LAW (VENICE COMMISSION) in co-operation with THE INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS PRAGUE IIR funded
More informationInternational History Declassified
Digital Archive International History Declassified digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org May 06, 1987 Report on Meeting between Minister Chnoupek with the General Secretary of the Afghan People s Democratic
More informationWorld History Unit 12 Lesson 1 The Congress of Vienna
Unit 12 Lesson 1 The Congress of Vienna After the Napoleonic Wars, Europe faced many problems: 1) Many countries leaders had been replaced by Napoleon. 2) Some countries had been eliminated. 3) The liberalism
More informationPolicy Brief: The Working Group on the Western Balkans
Policy Brief: The Working Group on the Western Balkans Although the EU and the US agree that the long-term goal for the Western Balkans is European integration, progress has stalled. This series of working
More informationCollapse of the Soviet Union & Changes to European Borders
Collapse of the Soviet Union & Changes to European Borders Enduring Understanding: Since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the world s attention no longer focuses on the tension between superpowers.
More informationAmericans, Japanese: Mutual Respect 70 Years After the End of WWII
Americans, Japanese: Mutual Respect 70 Years After the End of WWII April 7, 2015 Neither Trusts China, Differ on Japan s Security Role in Asia Adversaries in World War II, fierce economic competitors in
More informationReading Essentials and Study Guide A New Era Begins. Lesson 2 Western Europe and North America
Reading Essentials and Study Guide A New Era Begins Lesson 2 Western Europe and North America ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS What motivates political change? How can economic and social changes affect a country?
More informationWade Danis. Institute of International Business J. Mack Robinson College of Business Georgia State University. May 2009
Overview of the Czech Republic Wade Danis Assistant Professor Institute of International Business J. Mack Robinson College of Business Georgia State University May 2009 Agenda The Czech Republic at a glance
More informationLessons from the Cold War,
Lessons from the Cold War, 1949-1989 Professor Andrea Chandler Learning in Retirement/April-May 2018 Lecture 3: Cold War Crises LIR/Chandler/Cold War 1 What is a Cold War crisis? An event which heightened
More informationCongressional Gold Medal ceremony address
1 / 5 Congressional Gold Medal ceremony address Date : October 17, 2007 His Holiness the Dalai Lama addresses the audience during the Congressional Gold Medal Awards Ceremony in the United States Capitol
More informationEU the View of the Europeans Results of a representative survey in selected member states of the European Union. September 20, 2006
EU 2020 - the View of the Europeans Results of a representative survey in selected member states of the European Union September 20, 2006 Editors: Armando Garcia-Schmidt armando.garciaschmidt@bertelsmann.de
More informationConstitution of the Czech Republic. of 16 December 1992
Constitution of the Czech Republic of 16 December 1992 Constitutional Law No. 1 / 1993 Coll. as amended by Act No. 347/1997 Coll. 300/2000 Coll., 448/2001 Coll. 395/2001 Coll., 515/2002 Coll. and 319/2009
More informationPaul W. Werth. Review Copy
Paul W. Werth vi REVOLUTIONS AND CONSTITUTIONS: THE UNITED STATES, THE USSR, AND THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN Revolutions and constitutions have played a fundamental role in creating the modern society
More informationThe Differences Between the 2 Sides Under Soviet communism, the state controlled all property & economic activity In capitalistic America, private
Although the US and Soviet Union had been allies in WWII, they emerged as rival superpowers They had very different ambitions for the future These differences created an icy tension that plunged the 2
More informationCEEP CONTRIBUTION TO THE UPCOMING WHITE PAPER ON THE FUTURE OF THE EU
CEEP CONTRIBUTION TO THE UPCOMING WHITE PAPER ON THE FUTURE OF THE EU WHERE DOES THE EUROPEAN PROJECT STAND? 1. Nowadays, the future is happening faster than ever, bringing new opportunities and challenging
More informationScottish Independence Media Briefing. Thursday 5 th July
Scottish Independence Media Briefing Thursday 5 th July The Economic Consequences of Scottish Independence Political Studies Association Breakfast Briefing on Scottish Independence, 5 July 2012 Introduction
More informationFactors in the Soviet Decision to Invade Czechoslovakia Antony Kalashnikov
Factors in the Soviet Decision to Invade Czechoslovakia Antony Kalashnikov This essay describes the factors in the Soviet decision to invade Czechoslovakia and argues that the principle motive was to prevent
More informationby the brief unity of the two major ethnic groups: the Czechs and Slovaks. Czechoslovakia, as
Czech Republic, The History To understand the country what we call today the Czech Republic, it is vital that we look at its history first. A country with a relatively short history, Czechoslovakia was
More informationTUSHNET-----Introduction THE IDEA OF A CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER
TUSHNET-----Introduction THE IDEA OF A CONSTITUTIONAL ORDER President Bill Clinton announced in his 1996 State of the Union Address that [t]he age of big government is over. 1 Many Republicans thought
More informationThe Constitution of the Czech Republic
The Constitution of the Czech Republic dated December 16, 1992 Constitutional Act no. 1/1993 Coll. as amended by Constitutional Act no. 347/1997 Coll., 300/2000 Coll., 448/2001 Coll., 395/2001 Coll., 515/2002
More informationTEXTS ADOPTED. Evaluation of activities of the European Endowment for Democracy (EED)
European Parliament 2014-2019 TEXTS ADOPTED P8_TA(2015)0274 Evaluation of activities of the European Endowment for Democracy (EED) European Parliament resolution of 9 July 2015 on the EU s new approach
More informationMaster s Thesis. Dissolution of Czechoslovakia, Exploring the Velvet Divorce from Critical Studies Perspective
University of West Bohemia Faculty of Philosophy and Arts Master s Thesis Dissolution of Czechoslovakia, Exploring the Velvet Divorce from Critical Studies Perspective Ognjen Mrđa Pilsen 2017 University
More informationZimbabwe s Movement for Democratic Change: Do weak systems lead to weak parties?
African Security Review 15.1 Institute for Security Studies Zimbabwe s Movement for Democratic Change: Do weak systems lead to weak parties? Chris Maroleng* Observers of Zimbabwean politics have often
More informationConstitution of the Czech Republic
Constitution of the Czech Republic Of December 16, 1992. Amended by Act No. 347/1997 Coll., Amended by Act No. 300/2000 Coll., Amended by Act No. 448/2001 Coll., Amended by Act No. 395/2001 Coll., Amended
More informationI am a Brit talking at an international conference. So, of course, I am here to talk about one thing.
Guy Platten Remarks to ICS conference Ladies and Gentlemen it s a great honour to be addressing you today. Thank you to the ICS for asking me to speak to you and thanks also for organising this excellent
More informationUnification of Italy & Germany. Ideologies of Change: Europe
Unification of Italy & Germany Ideologies of Change: Europe 1815 1914 Creation of Italy and Germany Revolutions reverberated throughout Western Europe: Failures did not diminish impact: To what extent
More informationSTATEMENT BY. H.E. Mr. LUBOMÍR ZAORÁLEK Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic
STATEMENT BY H.E. Mr. LUBOMÍR ZAORÁLEK Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic General Debate of the 69 th Session of the General Assembly of the United Nations New York, September 27 th, 2014
More informationPath of Democratization: Circuitous in Slovakia But Not in the Czech Republic
Taiwan Journal of Democracy, Volume 2, No.1: 131-136 Book Review: Kevin Deegan-Krause, Elected Affinities: Democracy and Party Competition in Slovakia and the Czech Republic (Stanford, CA: Stanford University
More informationPrintquelle: unveröffentlichtes Manuskript zur Ringvorlesung Tschechien, nach dem Ende des Kalten Krieges,
Oldřich Tůma The End of the Communist Régime in Czechoslovakia Before attempting a comparison and including Czechoslovak events in the broader context, I should like to recall some of the basic facts related
More informationEXPERT INTERVIEW Issue #2
March 2017 EXPERT INTERVIEW Issue #2 French Elections 2017 Interview with Journalist Régis Genté Interview by Joseph Larsen, GIP Analyst We underestimate how strongly [Marine] Le Pen is supported within
More informationStrategies for Combating Terrorism
Strategies for Combating Terrorism Chapter 7 Kent Hughes Butts Chapter 7 Strategies for Combating Terrorism Kent Hughes Butts In order to defeat terrorism, the United States (U. S.) must have an accepted,
More informationHow will the EU presidency play out during Poland's autumn parliamentary election?
How will the EU presidency play out during Poland's autumn parliamentary election? Aleks Szczerbiak DISCUSSION PAPERS On July 1 Poland took over the European Union (EU) rotating presidency for the first
More information2. Why did the U.S. enter World War I and why was neutrality so difficult to
History 1493: Midterm 2 Studyguide Study Questions: 1. Who were the Progressives and what was the nature of their movement? What changes in American life gave rise to this protean movement and what were
More informationDublin City Schools Social Studies Graded Course of Study American History
K-12 Social Studies Vision Dublin City Schools Social Studies Graded Course of Study The Dublin City Schools K-12 Social Studies Education will provide many learning opportunities that will help students
More informationUnit 3.1 Appeasement and World War II
Unit 3.1 Appeasement and World War II 3.1.1 Pan-Germanism: German nationalist doctrine aiming at the union of all German-speaking peoples under German rule. Pan-Germanists were especially interested in
More informationNo 16 INSTYTUT SPRAW PUBLICZNYCH. Analyses & Opinions. Analizy i Opinie. Yes to Visegrad. Mateusz Fałkowski Patrycja Bukalska Grzegorz Gromadzki
No 16 INSTYTUT SPRAW PUBLICZNYCH T H E I N S T I T U T E O F P U B L I C A F F A I R S Analyses & Opinions Analizy i Opinie Mateusz Fałkowski Patrycja Bukalska Grzegorz Gromadzki 2 Mateusz Fałkowski, Patrycja
More informationProspects for the Code of Conduct in the South China Sea after Hague decision
Prospects for the Code of Conduct in the South China Sea after Hague decision by Richard Q. Turcsányi, PhD. On 12 July 2016, the Permanent Arbitration Court in The Hague issued the final decision in the
More informationFEATURES OF INTERCONNECTIONS BETWEEN INTERWAR CZECHOSLOVAK- HUNGARIAN RELATIONS AND THE CURRENT STATE OF SLOVAK-HUNGARIAN DIALOGUE
ISBN 978-9955-12-958-5 (ONLINE) ISBN 978-9955-12-959-2 FEATURES OF INTERCONNECTIONS BETWEEN INTERWAR CZECHOSLOVAK- HUNGARIAN RELATIONS AND THE CURRENT STATE OF SLOVAK-HUNGARIAN DIALOGUE ALIAKSANDR PIAHANAU
More informationThe Fall of Communism
The Fall of Communism Turmoil in the USSR The USSR had over 100 ethnic groups living within. This created problems because the different nationalities began to call for freedom. The nationalities (being
More information治 大 學. 7. Case Analysis 1 The Oka crisis
7. Case Analysis 1 The Oka crisis The Oka crisis was the outcome of over two hundred and fifty years of land disputes between the Mohawks of the Oka region and the white settlers (Govier, 1997: 199 and
More informationEPRDF: The Change in Leadership
1 An Article from the Amharic Publication of the Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) ADDIS RAYE (NEW VISION) Hamle/Nehase 2001 (August 2009) edition EPRDF: The Change in Leadership
More informationThe End of Bipolarity
1 P a g e Soviet System: The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics [USSR] came into being after the socialist revolution in Russia in 1917. The revolution was inspired by the ideals of socialism, as opposed
More informationAnalysis of public opinion on Macedonia s accession to Author: Ivan Damjanovski
Analysis of public opinion on Macedonia s accession to the European Union 2014-2016 Author: Ivan Damjanovski CONCLUSIONS 3 The trends regarding support for Macedonia s EU membership are stable and follow
More informationRADIO FREE EUROPE/RADIO LIBERTY, PRAGUE, CZECH REPUBLIC
RADIO FREE EUROPE/RADIO LIBERTY, PRAGUE, CZECH REPUBLIC RFE/RL Poland, Belarus, and Ukraine Report Vol. 5, No. 7, 25 February 2003 A Survey of Developments in Poland, Belarus, and Ukraine by the Regional
More informationTopic 3: The Rise and Rule of Single-Party States
Topic 3: The Rise and Rule of Single-Party States NAME AND AUTHOR OF THE PACKET READING: Chapter 27 by Brian Crozier 1968: The Prague Spring and Beyond Major Theme: Origins and Nature of Authoritarian
More informationCambridge International Examinations Cambridge International Advanced Subsidiary and Advanced Level. Published
Cambridge International Examinations Cambridge International Advanced Subsidiary and Advanced Level HISTORY 9389/12 Paper 1 MARK SCHEME Maximum Mark: 40 Published This mark scheme is published as an aid
More informationName: Period: Date: UNIT 9: TOTALITARIANISM Reading Guide 61: Perestroika
Directions: Complete each question after reading. 33.5: The Cold War Thaws UNIT 9: TOTALITARIANISM Reading Guide 61: Perestroika Objective A: Analyze Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and the Soviet
More informationEKOS 25 th Anniversary Poll. November 12,
EKOS 25 th Anniversary Poll November 12, 5 www.ekos.com Methodology Telephone survey of the general public - 1275 interviews with a national random sample of Canadians 18 years of age and older Interview
More informationPolitical Science 2331
Political Science 2331 Central and East European Politics Spring 2015 Tuesday and Thursday, 11:10am-12:25pm 1957 E Street Room 212 Professor Sharon Wolchik Office Location: Elliott School, 1957 E Street,
More informationBring Back Egypt s Elected Government
JEFFREY D. SACHS Jeffrey D. Sachs, Professor of Sustainable Development, Professor of Health Policy and Management, and Director of the Earth Institute at Columbia University, is also Special Adviser to
More informationThe Communist government of Czechoslovakia was ousted in the socalled
Journal of Economic Perspectives Volume 5, Number 4 Fall 1991 Pages 171 177 The Economic Transition of Czechoslovakia from Plan to Market Josef C. Brada The Communist government of Czechoslovakia was ousted
More informationPERFECT COMPLEMENTS: IS REGIONALISM THE WAY FORWARD FOR EUROPE?
86 PERFECT COMPLEMENTS: IS REGIONALISM THE WAY FORWARD FOR EUROPE? AN INTERVIEW WITH NICOLA MCEWEN & ROCCU GAROBY There is a kind of nationalism in Europe that is not only progressive, but has the potential
More informationOrdering Power: Contentious Politics and Authoritarian Leviathans in Southeast Asia
Ordering Power: Contentious Politics and Authoritarian Leviathans in Southeast Asia Review by ARUN R. SWAMY Ordering Power: Contentious Politics and Authoritarian Leviathans in Southeast Asia by Dan Slater.
More informationIvan Krastev The populist moment
Ivan Krastev The populist moment Unlike the extremist parties of the 1930s, new populist movements worldwide do not aim to abolish democracy: quite the opposite, they thrive on democratic support. What
More informationIdentity of non-self-evident nation: Czech national identity after the break-up of Czechoslovakia and before accession to the European Union n
Nations and Nationalism 15 (2), 2009, 254 279. Identity of non-self-evident nation: Czech national identity after the break-up of Czechoslovakia and before accession to the European Union n KLA RA VLACHOVA
More informationHungary. Basic facts The development of the quality of democracy in Hungary. The overall quality of democracy
Hungary Basic facts 2007 Population 10 055 780 GDP p.c. (US$) 13 713 Human development rank 43 Age of democracy in years (Polity) 17 Type of democracy Electoral system Party system Parliamentary Mixed:
More informationMr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen,
PC.DEL/1170/04 30 November 2004 STATEMENT delivered by H.E. Mr. Andrei STRATAN, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Moldova at the Special Meeting of the Permanent Council of the OSCE (Vienna,
More informationUkraine and Russia: Two Countries One Transformation 1
Ukraine and Russia: Two Countries One Transformation 1 Gerhard Simon 2 Introduction and background Ukraine made a significant contribution to the fall of the USSR. Without Ukraine, it was inconceivable
More informationResolving Regional Conflicts: The Western Sahara and the Quest for a Durable Solution
Resolving Regional Conflicts: The Western Sahara and the Quest for a Durable Solution November 6, 2013 presentation Bernabe Lopez-Garcia Professor of Contemporary History of Islam, Autónoma University
More informationBell Work. Describe Truman s plan for. Europe. How will his plan help prevent the spread of communism?
Bell Work Describe Truman s plan for dealing with post-wwii Europe. How will his plan help prevent the spread of communism? Objectives Explain how Mao Zedong and the communists gained power in China. Describe
More informationTHE EARLY COLD WAR YEARS. US HISTORY Chapter 15 Section 2
THE EARLY COLD WAR YEARS US HISTORY Chapter 15 Section 2 THE EARLY COLD WAR YEARS CONTAINING COMMUNISM MAIN IDEA The Truman Doctrine offered aid to any nation resisting communism; The Marshal Plan aided
More informationSOME ASPECTS OF POLITICAL REGIONALIZATION OF VISEGRAD COUNTRIES
Section Political Sciences SOME ASPECTS OF POLITICAL REGIONALIZATION OF VISEGRAD COUNTRIES Dr Olga Gubová VŠB-Technical University of Ostrava, The Social Science Department, Ostrava, Czech Republic ABSTRACT
More informationVideo Transcript for Overview of Japanese Politics Online at
Video Transcript for Overview of Japanese Politics Online at https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/multimedia/overview-japanese-politics Phillip Y. Lipscy Assistant Professor, Political Science, Stanford University;
More informationInternational conference Uncertain Transformations: New Domestic and International Challenges (November , Riga)
International conference Uncertain Transformations: New Domestic and International Challenges (November 9-12 6, Riga) Introduction Integration with EU viewpoint of Russians in Estonia and in Russia Comments
More informationMay 31, 1972 Conversation between Park Chung Hee and Pak Seongcheol
Digital Archive International History Declassified digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org May 31, 1972 Conversation between Park Chung Hee and Pak Seongcheol Citation: Conversation between Park Chung Hee and
More informationthe Cold War The Cold War would dominate global affairs from 1945 until the breakup of the USSR in 1991
U.S vs. U.S.S.R. ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR After being Allies during WWII, the U.S. and U.S.S.R. soon viewed each other with increasing suspicion Their political differences created a climate of icy tension
More informationThe Significance of the Republic of China for Cross-Strait Relations
The Significance of the Republic of China for Cross-Strait Relations Richard C. Bush The Brookings Institution Presented at a symposium on The Dawn of Modern China May 20, 2011 What does it matter for
More informationTHE AUTONOMY OF SLOVAKIA S CENTRAL BANK THE MAIN CHALLENGES
THE AUTONOMY OF SLOVAKIA S CENTRAL BANK THE MAIN CHALLENGES by Jana Kubicová 1 and Bruno S. Sergi 2 Introduction This decade is already proving to be the beginning of a new historical era in Europe. Western
More information