Chapter III Human Development of Tribal People in India

Transcription

1 Chapter III Human Development of Tribal People in India 39

2 3.1 Human Development: A Concept 3.2 Changing Dimensions of Human Development 3.3 Characteristics of Tribals Economy 3.5 The Major Tribes 3.5 Demographic Trends and Present Status 3.6 Growth 3.7 Education 3.8 Literacy Rate of Total Population and Scheduled Tribes Population and Gap in Literacy Rate 3.9 Health Status 3.10 Life Expectancy at birth 3.11 Sex Ratio 3.12 Indicators of Backwardness 3.13 Tribal Development Programmes to promote Human development 3.14 History of Tribal Development: Changing Approaches & Models 3.15 Integrated Tribal Development Programme 40

3 Map 3.1: State Wise ST Population in India 41

4 3.1 Human Development: A Concept The UNDP published Human Development Report has defined human development as the process of enlarging people s choices. The most critical ones are to lead a long healthy life, to be educated and to enjoy a decent standard of living. Additional choices include political freedom, other guaranteed Human Rights and various ingredients of self respect. Human development is thus a process of widening people s choices as well as raising the level of well being. Human development has two sides; the formation of human capabalities- such as improved health, knowledge and skills- and the people make use of their acquired capabalities- for leisure, productive purposes or being active in cultural, social and political affairs.if the scale of human development do not finely balance the two sides, considerate human frustration may result. Development must, therefore, be more than just the expansion of income and wealth. Its focus must be people. The economic growth model of development was contested by the UNDP in its first Human Development Report 1990, which reiterated that people, not things, are Wealth of Nations, and it is they, who should be the focus of a development directed to expanding their choice. Three basic capabilities were identified as prerequisites to a life that is rich with potential and the fulfillment of one s aspiration: the capacity to lead long and healthy lives, access to knowledge and the limitless vistas that it opens to the questing mind, and the ability to ensure for oneself a reasonably good standard of living. Without these resources, people s choices are restricted and life s opportunities are out of reach. Human development is the process of building these capabilities to enable people to lead fulfilling and productive lives. The concept of Human development introduced by UNDP in 1990s is now accepted worldwide. Building human capabilities is fundamental to expanding choices, human development is about creating an environament in which people can develop their full potential and lead productive, creative lives in accordance with their needs and interest (UNDP HDR 2001). 3.2 Changing Dimensions of Human Development The simple truth is that there is no automatic link between growth and human progress. The concept of human development is much broader than what the convential theories of economic development suggest. Economic growth models, for example, concern themselves with expanding GDP rather than improving the quality of people s lives.while GDP growth 42

5 is necessary, it is not sufficient for human development.again theories of human capital formation, human resourses development treat people mainly as means rather than as ends, as instruments to produce more goods.but people are more important than capital goods; they are also the ultimate ends and beneficiaries of this process of development. The concept of human capital formation captures only one side of human development. Similarly welfare approaches look at human being as beneficiaries rather than as agents of change or participants in the development process. Finally, the basic needs approach concentrates more on providing material goods and services to deprive population groups rather than on enlarging human choices in all fields. Human Development Index of India: The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has prepared an Index- HDI for measuring the progress of nations. The HDI is a composite index of three basic components of human development: longevity, knowledge and standard of living. The Table 3.1 below gives an over all picture of the HDI in India from 1990 to Year Life Expectancy at birth (years) Table -3.1 Human Development Index of India Adult Literacy Rate (%) Mean years of schooling 43 Real GDP per capita (PPP$ ) HDI Value HDI * * * * * *

6 Sources : Compiled from various Human Development Reports ( ). *Combined first, second and third level gross enrollment rations, Education Index from 1995 onwards. In the table it is clear that the three indicators of HDI are showing improvement over1990 to 2010.LEB which was 59 years in 1990 has increased to 64.4 years in 2010 Adult literacy which was 43% in1990 incresed to 68.3% by Though the GDP per capita slightly declined in and 1992, it recoved later and started to show improvement. The HDI value has slightly declined during 1992 later showing a continous increase and it was in 2010.India s HDI, though improved a lot, as far as its ranking is concerned, it is deteriorating over period.it was 123 in 1990 declined slowly over the time and has got 199 th position in 2010 as for as UNDP report is concerned.this is possibly due to the negligence shown towards health sector and overall poverty level in the country. Inter State Comparison of Human Development in India: As for India is concerned there is a wide disparity between states when it comes to their Human Development Index.The below table picturises this disparity for which it has considered 1991 and Table-3.2 Inter State Comparison of Human Development Index in India As per NHDR methodology As per UNDP methodology 2001 States Value HDI GDI value value 1. Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat Haryana Karnataka Keala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal India Sources: 1) National Human Development Reports, 2002, Planning Commission Government of India, 2) Karnataka Human Development Reports, 2005, Government of Karnataka 44

7 Though the NHDR computed the HDI of 15 major states for 2001,the methodlogy followed in the NHDR is some what different from that of UNDP.The states,by and large, have maintained their relative ranks on the basis of both methods of HDI computation (NHDR and UNDP) : for example, Kerala is first in place,tamil Nadu is in third place,karnataka is in seventh place,west Bengal eighth place, Madhya Pradesh in twelth place and Bihar is fifteenth,whether we use the NHDR or UNDP methology.however Punjab slipped from second and to fourth place,whereas Maharashtra s position went up from fourth to second place based on UNDP methodlogy.there is no change in the ranking of Karnataka either way. Human Development versus GNP ing in India India in 1990 ranks 123 out of 130 countries.when it comes to GNP its position is little bit better; it takes 111th rank. This ranking has shown lot of fluctuations over years. The HDI ranking declined year after year and the GNP ranking also showed the same trend. HDI declined from 123ed position to 119 th position where as GNP ranking increased from 111 to 205.But more number of countries have come under scruitiny over years. Between 2007 and 2009 we find no difference between HDI as well as GNP ranking of India with refrence to 169 countries. Year HDI GNP Table-3.3 Human Development versus GNP ing in India Out of Countries (HDI) (GNP ) (HDI ) 45 Remarks GNP (PPP) HDI GNP (PPP) HDI GNP (PPP) HDI GNP (PPP) HDI GNP (PPP) HDI * Real GDP per capital HDI Real GDP per capital HDI Real GDP per capital HDI Real GDP per capital HDI Real GDP per capital HDI Real GDP per capital HDI Real GDP per capital HDI

8 Real Real GDP per capital HDI Real Real GDP per capital HDI Real Real GDP per capital HDI Real Real GDP per capital HDI Real Real GDP per capital HDI Real Real GDP per capital HDI Real Real GDP per capital HDI Real Real GDP per capital HDI Real Real GDP per capital HDI Sources : Compiled from various Human Development Reports ( ). *1995 onward (Real GDP per capital PPP-HDI ). Gender Related Development Index and Gender Empowerment Measure The Social status of women is a reliable index of the general empowerment of the society. Empowerment implies the overall positive change in the physical quality of life, this positive change for the better encompasses economic as well as social aspect. Empowerment with women is the central issue that has been pervading the development debate since eighties. Improving their status and empowering them would go a long way in accomplishing egalitarian gender relations in society. Women who are hitherto constrained by their social structure for their self-expression constitute the target of most of the development programs, which aim at bringing them into the mainstream of the development process. Giving women access to credit would be a step towards empowering them. The Global conference of Women s empowerment (1998) highlighted empowerment as the surest way of making women partners of development. The Food and Agricultural Organisation has also emphasized on strengthening and motivating women at the grass roots. The HDR of the UNDP Report published annually has also declared that women empowerment is crucial if developmet has to be sustainable. Both the World Bank Report 1991 and the Fourth World Conference on Women held at Beijing in 1995 declared that women are central to the success of the poverty alleviation effort; hence the importance of women s empowerment and their full participation on the basis of equality in all spheres of society is crucial. Empowerment is the best means to solve 46

9 problems, which cannot be resolved by legal procedures. The Beijing platform states unequivocally that women empowerment is fundamental for achieving equality, development and peace. The place of gender analysis in policies and programmes that are intended to balance the pressures for economic growth with the needs of human development has been recognized, almost from the inception of the U.N. Human Development Reports. The development of specific indices such as the gender development index (GDI) and the gender empowerment measure (GFM) mark this recognition. It is well known that high HDI ranking may not always be matched by a correspondingly high GDI ranking. However, low performance on gender indicators almost always goes hand-in-hand with poor human development indicators overall. Unequal gender relations, exacerbated by disparities of income and caste, can contribute significantly to a lowering of the overall HDI, simply because women constitute almost half the population. Table-3.4 Gender Related Development Index Years HDI HDI GDI GDI Life Expectancy at Birth (years) Adult Literacy Rate Combined P, S, & T Level of Enrollment Ratio Share of Earned Income (%) Value Value Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male

10 Sources: Compiled from various Human Development Reports ( ) *Note: The HDI rank used in the column are GDI-HDI and are those recalculated for 146 countries with the GDI value. A positive figure indicates that GDI rank is higher than HDI rank and negative the opposite. P- Primary, S-Secondary, T-Teritary. 3.3 Characteristics of Tribal Economy The Socio-economic structure in tribal communities is markedly different from that of the non-tribals or advanced groups of people. They have a very simple technology which fits well with their ecological surroundings and conservative outlook. Moreover, their economy can be said to be subsistence type, they practice different types of occupations to sustain themselves and live on Marginal Economy. The tribals of India belong to different economic stages, from food gathering to industrial labour, which present their overlapping economic stages in the broader frame work of the state economy. And the last important point to be emphasized is that a tribe is usually considered as an economically independent group of people having their own specific economy.the first and foremost characteristic of the tribal economy is the close relationship between their economic life and the natural environment or habitat, which is in general, the forest. Tribal communities live in about 15% of the country s areas, in various ecological and geo-climatic conditions ranging from plains and forest to hills and inaccessible area. Tribal groups are at different stages of social, economic and educational development. While some tribal communities have adopted a main stream way of life, at the other end of the spectrum, there are certain Scheduled Tribes, 75 in number known as Particulary Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PTGs), who are characterized by:- a. Pre-agriculture level of technology, b. Stagnant or declining population, c. Extremely low literacy, and d. Subsistence level of economy. While the tribal population in some States is low when calculated as the percentage of the total tribal population of India but it constitutes the majority within the State or UT itself (e.g.in Lakshadweep, Mizoram, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunchala Pradesh and Dadra & Nagar Haveli). 48

11 3.4 The Major Tribes There are over 700 Scheduled Tribes notified under Article 342 of the Constitution of India, spread over different States and Union Territories of the country. Many tribes are present in more than one State. The largest number of scheduled tribes is in the State of Orissa (i.e. 62%). The synonyms of these 700 or so tribes also vary many a times and are listed in the schedule. An examination of the list of scheduled tribes shows that there are many tribes which are scheduled in more than one state or territory. Further, there are some cases where for the same tribes; the sub-tribes notified in the list are different. For example, Gond with its subtribes namely, Arakh, Agaria, Asur etc., is scheduled in Madhya Pradesh. In Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra Gond including Naikpod and Rajgond is scheduled. The following table shows the concentration of major tribes and sub-tribes with synonymous names in different states of India. Table-3.5 Major tribes and their concentration in different states Sl. Name of the Tribe No. 1. Bhil comprising (i) Bhil (ii) Bhil, Bhil Garasia (iii) Bhilala (iv) Bhilas and Bhilas (v) Bhil Mina 2. Gond comprising (i) Agaria, (ii) Asur (iii) Gond (iv) Arakh (v) Daroi (vi) Naikpod, Raj Gond (viii) Pathari (viii) Gond, (ix) Rajgond (x) Gondo Goudu (xi) Koya (xii) Koyagond (xiii) Koya, Binekoya (xiv) Mogia States in which their Concentration Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tripura Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, West Bengal 3. Ho Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal 4. Khond comprising (i) Khond, (ii) Khond, Kond etc., (iii) Kondh or Khond or Kand, and (iv) Khonds (Kodi and Kodhi) Dasaya Kondas, etc. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa 5. Mina Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, 6. Munda comprising (i) Lohara or Lohra, (ii) Munda (iii) Munda including (iv)kaur and (v) Mund, Munda-Lohara, etc. Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tripura, West Bengal. 7. Naga comprising (i) Any Naga and (ii) Kacha Naga Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland 8. Oraon comprising (i) Oraon, and (ii) Oraon including Dhanka and dhangad Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, West Bengal 9. Santhal Bihar, Orissa, Tripura, West Bengal. Source:Sinha, U P (1986) Ethno-Demographic Study of Tribal Population of India, International Institute for Population Sciences, Bombay (Mimeo) 49

12 3.5 Demographic Trends and Present Status Population Profile: According to the 2001 Census, the population of Scheduled Tribes in the country is 8.43 crore, which is 8.2% of the total population of the country. The size and distribution of tribal population from 1961 to 2001 has been shown in the below mentioned table.as per the table it is clear that the tribal population is on the rise over the decades. Table-3.6 Size and Distribution of Tribal Population, State Andhra 1,324,368 1,6576,57 3, ,199,481 5,024,104 Pradesh 2. Assam 1,164,641 1,606,648 2,874,441 3,308, Bihar 4,204,784 4,932,767 5,810,867 6,616, , Gujarat 2,754,446 3,734,422 4,848,586 6,161, Himachal 122, ,610 1,97,263 21,8, ,587 Pradesh 6. Haryana Karnataka 192, ,825,203 1,91,5, Kerala 212, , , , , Madhya 6,678,410 8,387,403 11,987,031 15,399,034 12,233,474 Pradesh 10. Maharashtra 2, ,954,249 5,77,2038 7,318,381 8,577, Manipur 249, , , , , Meghalaya 639, ,230 10,76,345 1,517,927 1,992, Nagaland 343, ,602 6,50,885 1,060,882 1,774, Orissa 4,223,757 5,071, ,067 7,032,214 8,145, Punjab Rajasthan 2,351,470 3,125,506 4,183,124 5,474,881 7,097, Sikkim ,623 90, , Tamil Nadu 251, , , , , Tripura 360, , , , , Uttar Pradesh - 198,565(E) 232, , , West Bengal 2,054,081 2,532,969 3, ,808,760 4,406, Andaman and Nikobar 14,122 18,102 22,361 26,770 29,469 50

13 23. Arunachal Pradesh 298, , , Dadra Nagar 51,259 64,445 81, , ,225 Haveli 25. Goa, Daman - 7,654(E) 10,721 11, ,997 and Diu 26. Laksha Dweep 23,391 29,540 37,760 48,163 57, Mizoram 261, , , , , India ,934 37,808,943 51,555,015 67,758,380 84,326,240 Note: E denoted enumerated population of Source: Complied from different census reports. Graph-3.1 Size and Distribution of Tribal Population, Growth The population of Schedueld Tribes has been on the increase since The State wise overall population, ST population, growth rate, etc during 1991 to 2001 as per census 2001 are given at (3.6 Table) The decadal population growth between the Census Year 1971 to 1981 in respect of the tribal population has been higher (35.79%) than that of the entire population (25.0%). The decadal population growth between the Census Year 1981 to 1991 in respect of the tribal population has been higher (31.64%) than that of the entire population (23.51%). Similarly during census years 1991 to 2001 it has been 24.45% against the growth rate of 22.66% for the entire population. 51

14 S. L. N o. States/UTs Total Population Table-3.7 Demographic Statistics: 1991, 2001 and 2011 Census Decadal Growth in % Total Population Decadal Growth in % 52 ST population Decadal Growth in % % age of STs in the State to total State population in 2001 % of STs in the State to total ST population in India in Andhra 66,508,008 76,210, ,665, ,199,481 5,024, Pradesh 2. Arunachal 864,558 1,097, ,382, , , Pradesh 3. Assam 22,414,322 26,655, , ,874,441 3,308, Bihar 86,374,465 82,998, ,804, ,61,6, , Chattisghar* 20,833,803 25,540, ,616, Goa 1,169,793 1,347, ,457, Gujarat 41,309,582 50,671, ,383, ,161,775 7,481, Haryana** 16,463,648 21,144, ,353, Himachal Pradesh 5,170,877 6,077, ,856, ,8, , Jharkhand* 26,945,829 32,966, ,105, Jammu and 10,143,700 12,548, ,087, Kashmir 12. Karnataka 44,977,201 52,850, ,130, ,91,5,691 3,463, Kerala 29,098,518 31,841, ,387, , , Madhya 66,181,170 60,348,023 72,597, ,399,03 12,233, Pradesh Maharashtra 78,937,187 96,878, , ,318,381 8,577, , Manipur 1,837,149 2,166, ,721, , , Meghalaya 1,774,778 2,318, ,964, ,517,927 1,992, Mizoram 689, , , , , Nagaland 1,209,566 1,990, ,980, ,060,882 1,774, Orissa 31,659,736 36,804, ,947, ,032,214 8,145,

15 21. Punjab** 20,281,969 24,358, ,704, NST Rajasthan 44,005,990 56,507, ,621, ,474,881 7,097, Sikkim 406, ,851, , , , Tamilnadu 55,858,946 62,405, ,138, , , Tripura 2,757,205 3,199, ,671, , , Uttaranchal* 8,489,349 10,116, , Uttarapradesh 139,112,28 166,197, ,581, , , West Bengal 68,007,965 9,176, ,247, ,808,760 4,406, Andaman and 280, , , ,770 29, Nikobar 30. Chandigarh** 642, , ,540, Dadar and 138, , , , , Nagar haveli 32. Daman and 101, , , , , Diu 33. Delhi** 9,420,644 13,850, ,753, NST 34. Laksha Dweep 51,707 60, , ,163 57, Pudhuchery** 807, , ,244, India 838,585,98 8 1,028,610, ,210,193, ,758, ,326, Note:*State like Chattisgarh, Jharkand and Uttaranchal were created in the year 2000 after reorganization of the states of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh **NST-Notified STs, Sources:1991, 2001 and 2011 Census Government of India, Delhi. 53

16 The below mentioned graph gives an idea about the percentage of tribal population to the total population in India.It is clear that the decadal growth rate also varies between states.in Karnataka between 1991 and 2001 there is a change of 80% in decadal growth rate.it was seen that % of STs in the State to total ST population in India in 2001 is highest in Madya Pradesh followed by Maharashtra, Orissa,Gujrath,Rajasthan. Graph-3.2 Demographic Statistics: 1991, 2001 and 2011 Census. 3.7 Education Tribal people are extremely backward in education, which can be viewed from the census data. The census figures of 1931 disclosed that only 0.7% of the tribal people were literates. This percentage rose to 8.5%, 11.3%, 16.11%, 29.6% and 47.10% in 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001 respectively. The general literacy rate for these years stood at 24% (1961), 29.4% (1971), 36.23% (1981), 52.2%(1991) and 64.8%(2001). The literacy rate among tribal women is obviously much lower and stood at 3.25 in 1961, 4.9% in 1971, 8.04% in 1981, and So the total picture of spread of education among the tribals is not very encouraging, barring a few tribes of north-eastern region like Khasi and Garo, who tremendously benefitted from the vast network of Christian missionary institutions. The literacy rate for overall population has increased from 52.2% to 65.38% between 1991 and In case of Scheduled Tribes, the increase in literacy has been from 29.62% to 47.10%. The female literacy rate among tribals during the period 1991 to 2001 increased from 18.19% to 34.76%. The ST female literacy is lower by approximately 21 percentage point as compared to the overall female literacy of the general population. However, the increase in total as well as female literacy among STs is significant. 54

17 Year Table 3.8 Literacy among STs and all Social Groups (Fig. in Percentage) STs All Social Groups Male Female Total Male Female Total Source: Registrar General of India Graph-3.3 Literacy among STs and all Social Groups Male-female gap in literacy rate increased from pecentage points in 1991 to percentage points in 2001 for STs while it declined from percentage points in 1991 to percentage points in 2001 for total population. The percentage of literacy gap between STs and all population varies from 0.5 to 31.9 percentage points during

18 3.8 Literacy Rate of Total Population and Scheduled Tribes Population and Gap in Literacy Rate The States like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jammu and Kashmir are having more than 17.7% (i.e. literacy gap at all India level). All States registered a decline in literacy gap between 1991 to 2001 except Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. Although Uttar Pradesh and Bihar maintained almost the same gap as compared to census 1991 but the gap widened in case of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. States like West Bengal, Orissa, Goa, Kerala and Tamil Nadu are having more than 25 percentage points gap of literacy between STs and all population in these states. State-wise details are given in (3.9 Table) Table 3.9 State wise Literacy Rate of Total Population and Scheduled Tribes Population A comparison between (Fig.in percentage) ST Literacy Rate- Gap in Literacy Rate- Gap in India/States/UTs Code Literacy 2001 Census Literacy Total ST Rate Total ST Rate 01. Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chattisghar Goa Gujarat Haryana 55.8 NST NST Himachal Pradesh Jharkhand Jammu and Kashmir NA NA NA Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab 58.8 NST NST Rajasthan Sikkim Tamilnadu Tripura Uttaranchal Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Andaman and Nikobar

19 30. Chandigarh 77.8 NST NST Dadar and Nagar haveli Daman and Diu Delhi 75.3 NST NST Lakshadweep Pudhuchery 74.7 NST NST India India (Excludes J&K) Note:1.Excludes Jammu & Kashmir 1991 Census was not conducted. 2.Excludes figure of Paomata, Mao Marm & Purul Sub division of Senapati districts of Manipur. NST-No notified scheduled tribes in the States. Sources: Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Annual Report, , Government of India. 3.9 Health Status The infant mortality, under-5 child mortality and child mortality rates for STs as well as for other disadvantaged socio economic groups are shown in the table3.10 Table 3.10 Important mortality Indicators (Fig. in Percentage) Indicator Infant mortality /1000 live births Under-5 mortality /1000 live births Child mortality rate SC ST OBC Others India Sources: Annual Report , Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India Graph3.6 Important mortality Indicators 57

20 Income, health and education are the main reasons for the tribal people to lag far behind their fellow country men. For example, more allocation of funds and opening of schools do not go far in providing education to the tribal people. It is a widespread feeling among the tribal that education makes their boys and girls defiant and insolent and alienates them from the rest of the society. Not withstanding the above problems, the tribals suffer from a chain of socio-cultural problems like alcoholism, drudgery, loose marital relations, superstitions and infra-structural problems like inadequate road, unsafe drinking water, lack of irrigation facilities etc. These problems keep them revolving round the vicious circle of poverty Life Expectancy at birth Life expectancy contributes to economic growth more than education. In addition to its direct impact on productivity, it has other effects on economic development and demographic transition. Expectation of life at birth is the most comprehensive index of health, in the sense that good health status translates into higher life expectancy. Life expectancy at birth indicates the number of years a new born infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth were to stay the same through its life. Estimated life expectancy at birth among caste groups For understanding the change in life expectancy among caste groups over the years, the data of last two rounds of NFHS were used (data on OBC was not collected in NFHS-1). In , the estimated life expectancy at birth was 60 years among ST, 65 years among SC, 66 years among OBC and 68 among others. Though the differences in life expectancy at birth across the caste group persists, it is not so by the household poverty. The life expectancy at birth among poor was similar cutting across the caste groups (63 years each among those belonging to SC, OBC and others) except that of ST (57 years). On the other hand, the differences in longevity among poor and non-poor were highest amongst ST (7 years) and minimum among SC (3 years). The average gain in life expectancy at birth in last 7 years was 0-5 years among poor belonging to SC compared to 0-6 among poor belonging to OBC and 0-1 among others. The gain in longevity was maximum among SC followed by OBC, others and ST Sex Ratio As compared to the sex ratio for the overall population (933 female per 1000 male), the sex ratio among Scheduled Tribes is more favourable, at 977 female per thousand male (2001 Census), though it is also declining. In all States except Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Uttarakhand, the ST sex ratio as per 2001 Census was better than the general sex ratio. 58

21 In 2001, the child sex ratio in the general population further deteriorated to 919 girls per 1000 boys. The situation among STs, though also on the decline, remains comparatively better at 972 girls per 1000 boys. In the UT of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, the ST sex ratio for the 0-6 age group is positive. There were 1018 girls per 1000 boys in 1991, which declined to 1009 girls per 1000 boys during 2001 Census. However, it was still higher than the general sex ratio of 1005 girls (1991) and 911 girls (2001) per 1000 boys in the UT. The 1991 Census revealed that the child sex ratio in 0-6 age group for the general population was 940 girls per 1000 boys for the country as a whole. In case of STs, this ratio was more favourable and stood at 985 girls per Indicators of Backwardness According to the 2001 Census figures 44.70% of the ST population were cultivators, 36.9% agricultural labourers, 2.1% household industry workers and 16.3% were other occupation workers,. Thus, about 81.6% of the main workers from these communities were engaged in primary sector activities. These disparities are compounded by higher dropout rates in formal education, resulting in disproportionately low representation in higher education. Not surprisingly, the cumulative effect has been that the proportion of STs below the poverty line is substantially higher than the national average. As per the statement provided by the Planning Commission, it is observed that ST people living below the poverty line in were 51.94% in the rural areas and 41.14% in the urban areas, respectively. This percentage of ST population living below the poverty line has decreased to 47.2% in the rural areas and 39.9% in the urban areas as per poverty line estimated in the year There is a decrease of STs living below the poverty line by about 4.7% in the rural areas and 1.15% in urban areas since to State wise details are in table It is clear from the table that there is no similarity between states regarding poverty.with in the state also there is a wide difference between rural and urban poverty.it was found that among the tribals, poverty is more in rural areas in some states and it is high among urban people in some other states. For example Assam,Orissa, West Bengal, Punjab etc have more poor people in the rural tribes where as states like Karnataka,Madhya Pradesh,Andhra Pradesh,Tamil Nadu etc have more tribal poor in their urban areas 4. 4 Ministry of tribal affairs annual report , New Delhi. Pg

22 Table 3.11 Percentage of Population (Social Group Wise) below poverty line by states (Fig. in Percentage) Sl. States Rural Urban No. ST SC OBC Others ST SC OBC Others 1. Andhra Pradesh 2. Assam Bihar Chattisghar Delhi Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir 10. Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh 14. Maharashtra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Uttarkhand West Bengal All India Note: SC =Schedule Caste, ST=Scheduled Tribe and OBC= Other Backward Classes Source: Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Annual Report Tribal Development Programmes to promote Human development In the context of tribal development, it aims at increasing the income and strengthening the material aspects of tribal culture through better utilization of the environmental resources i.e. forests, minerals, flora and fauna, agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, industrial potential as well as skill of the tribal people. The goals of tribal development can be summarized into i) Long term objectives, and ii) Short term objectives The long term objectives are (a) To narrow the gap of development between tribals and non-tribals (b) to improve the quality of life without disturbing their ethnicity. The short term objectives are (a) elimination of exploitation by all means by rapid Socio economic 60

23 development (b) improving organizational capabilities and (c) Building up inner strength of the tribal people. There are mainly five approaches which have been employed so far in the welfare of tribals in India (Vidyarthi 1977). These are: 1. Political Approach 2. Administration Approach 3. Religious Approach-with special reference to missionary approach. 4. Voluntary Agencies Approach, and 5. Anthropological Approach But as has been admitted in the Human Development Report, 2002 of UNDP, the human development approach to development has fallen victim to the success of its Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI has reinforced the narrow, oversimplified interpretation of the human development concept as being only about expanding education, health and decent standard of living. Indeed, this is true for the rural population of the Third World Countries as a whole. Even after six decades of national independence and planning, basic needs and infrastructural development sectors of our economy have remained neglected and malnourished. In the light of planned development, as undertaken by Indian policy makers, rural development has been the thrust area over the last fifty five years. Special programmes are being implemented to improve the socio-economic conditions of the people. Statistically, this means the peasants, workers, women and weaker sections of our society History of Tribal Development: Changing Approaches & Models The British Government had adopted the policy of isolation for the tribals of our country. The isolationist approach adopted by British Government left the tribals and tribal areas by implementing various welfare and development programmes. During British period, tribal areas of our country were divided into excluded and partially excluded areas from the point of view of administration. Tribal lands were acquired for the purpose of offices and official residence. Some tribals traditional Rights over the forest were snatched away. Forests were declared as Government property. Forest officials, thikedars, forest contractors, and forest guards used to exploit the tribals in the manner they liked. After Independence, the builders of our nation realized the problems of tribals. Tribals were recognized as socially disadvantaged lot and economically deprived group. Our democratic Government took the responsibility of Tribal development upon its shoulders. Various concepts, models and approaches were developed in different Five Year Plan period 61

24 for the development and welfare of the tribals. After Independence, the various approached and models developed for the tribal development are as follows: 1. Community Development Programme (C.D.P.) 2. Special Multipurpose Tribal Block (S.M.P.T.B.) 3. Tribal Development Block (T.D.B.) 4. Tribal Development Agencies (T.D.A.) 5. Primitive Tribal Groups (P.T.Gs.) 6. Integrated Tribal Development Projects(I.T.D.P.) 7. Modified Development Approach (M.A.D.A.) 8. Tribal Sub-Plan. 1. Community Development Programme (C.D.P.): India is a country of villages. Here more than 80% population resides in village as members of village community. They do agriculture or they are engaged in occupations associated with agriculture. Therefore, it was felt essential to bring revolution in village life after independence. To fulfill this purpose, the Planning Commission formulated an extensive Programme for the development of village community. This programme was named as Community Development Programme. This programme was started on 2 nd October 1952 in 55 blocks of the country. This programme sent hopeful and encouraging messages among the people of the country and demand for starting this development programme in all blocks of the country got momentum. But due to lack of financial resources, it was not possible to cover all blocks under C.D.P. But on 2 nd October 1953, another development programme known as National Extension Service was started. But this programme was comparatively less extensive. Attempt was made for all-round development in rural life through C.D.P. and N.E.S. Under these schemes emphasis was placed upon Agricultural Development, Transport Facility, Educational Development, Health Measures, Social Welfare, and Agro-based Industry. 2. Special Multipurpose Tribal Blocks (S.M.P.T.B.): This programme of tribal development was started in II Five Years Plan. This programme was the first effort in the direction of integrated tribal development. Under this programme, 43 Multi Purpose Tribal Blocks were established. The Ministry of Home had provided a sum of Rs.15 lakhs for a period of 5 years for all 43 Multi-Purpose Tribal Project. This amount was given in addition to the sum of 12 lakhs given for community development blocks. At the end of the Second Five-Year Plan period. Elwin and Dhebar Commissions reviewed SMPTBs 62

25 and other programmes of tribal development. On the basis of review reports of these commissions, the programme of SMPTBs was changed. 3. Tribal Development Blocks (TDBs): This programme of tribal development was initiated in Third Five Year Plan period. This programme came into existence on the recommendations of Elwin and Dhebar Commissions. These Commissions had reviewed the SMPTBs programme at the end of the Second Five Year Plan period and had recommended for the initiation of Tribal Development Blocks Programme in place of SMPTBs programme. Under the scheme of Tribal Development Blocks, 415 Tribal Development Blocks were established all over India. Tribal Development Blocks were started in those areas which had a tribal population of 25,000 or two third population of the area was represented by tribal population. Home Ministry, Government of India had given a sum of Rs.10 lakhs in first phase, and 5 lakhs in second phase to run this programme of Tribal Development Blocks, emphasis was placed upon the economic development of the tribals. During this period, the Planning Commission constituted a study team to make review of the programme of tribal development. The Chairman of this study team was Shilu A.O. The study team submitted its review in The main observation of the study team was that the programmes of tribal development were not successful in achieving its target, but they were certainly successful in changing the mentality or psychology of the tribals towards development. The study team suggested for adopting a flexible policy for Tribal Development. The study team placed emphasis upon the area approach for tribal development with special allocation of the fund. By Fourth Five Year Plan, 43% of tribal population was covered in 504 Tribal Development Blocks. The Central Government had provided supplementary funds for tribal development programme. At third stage, the period of each TDB was extended for a period of further five years. 4. Tribal Development Agencies (TDA): During the Fourth Five Year Plan period, the programme of Tribal Development Agencies was started for the development of tribal and rural family. The Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, initiated this programme of tribal development mainly for small and marginal farmers. Under the programme of Tribal Development Agencies, 6 projects were initiated in the country two in M.P, two in Orissa, one in Andhra Pradesh and Bihar each. During Fifth Five Year Plan, two other programme were implemented in Orissa. For these special programmes, a special Agency was created and entire developmental expenditure was maintained by that Agency. It was felt that the Tribal Development Agencies would provide momentum. But Tribal Development Agencies remained only as an agricultural 63

26 programme. Although through this programme, huge amount was spent on road construction, but this programme could not achieve success up to the mark. 5. Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs): In the year 1971, the Planning Commission, Government of India, constituted a Task Force on the commencement of Fifth Five Year Plan. The main purpose behind the constitution of the Task Force was to review the situation of programmes for tribal development and to suggest future programme for the development of tribes and tribal areas. The recommendation of the Task Force was incorporated during the Fifth Five Year Plan for the tribal development. The Task Force observed that the problems of Tribal Development could be viewed by dividing them into various categories. Because each category of tribals were leading a separate style of life. Therefore, separate programmes were needed for each category. Keeping various problems in mind, tribals were divided into three categories, which are as follows: i. Area of Tribal Concentration. ii. Scattered Tribals. iii. Primitive Tribal Groups. During Fifth Five Year Plan, the attention was paid on each category of tribal problems. For area of tribal concentration, area development approach was followed. For scattered tribals, group oriented approach was followed. At the time of creation of tribal sub-plan, the Planning Commission had paid attention towards the identification and development of the primitive tribal group. The Ministry of Home had also issued directive for the identification and development of PTG. The following criteria were taken into consideration for the identification of PTGs: i. Pre agricultural Level Technology. ii. Low Literacy Rate. iii. Isolated and Disappearing Population. On the basis of these criteria, 75 PTGs have been identifies in 14 states of our country. A separate programme for their development had been launched. 6. Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP): This programme was initiated in Fifth Five Year Plan. A group of blocks have been covered under this programme. In 1978, 179 Integrated Tribal Development Project were established in entire tribal sub-area. Those projects, in which more than one blocks were covered, were called Meso Projects and those projects in which less than one Block was included, were called as Micro Projects. Altogether 179 ITDPs were established, in which 121 were Meso Project and 58 were Micro Projects in the Tribal Sub-Plan Area. For the identification and establishment of ITDPs local resources, population structure, social condition and development level were 64

27 taken into consideration.since this project was treated as a unit of programme, there was no provision for making any change in its administrative boundary without any need. The average population size of a Meso Project Area has been kept as 2.75 lakhs. The average geographical area of a Meso Project has been decided as 3256 Sq. kms. From the point of view of population, the biggest Meso Project is Pancha Mahal of Gujarat State in which 10 lakhs population has been covered. The tribal population in this Meso Project is 6.04 lakhs. From the point of view of geographical area, the biggest Meso Project is Spiti in Himachal Pradesh, which covers a geographical area of 13,923 Sq. Kms and a population of 27,568 in which S.Ts represents 21,568 persons.(v.s.upadhyaya and Gaya Pandey 2003) Micro projects have been divided into two categories (I) Micro Project having clear geographical boundary and (II) Micro Project having not clear geographical boundary. The average population size of a Micro Project has been decided as 43,000 and the average geographical area of a Micro Project is kept as 836 Sq.kms Modified Area Development Approach (MADA): The programme of MADA was initiated during the sixth Five Year Plan. Following this approach, the area having at least 5000 S.T population was covered under the tribal Sub-Plan structure. By the end of Sixth Five Year Plan period, altogether 245 MADA projects were established in the country. Through these MADA Projects, 75% S.T population was benefited. Scattered tribals were not covered under the MADA project. During Seventh Five Year Plan, 268 MADA projects were established in the country. Through the MADA projects attempts have been made for the development of education, health and sanitation among S.Ts. Emphasis had also been made on abolition of exploitation, oppression and indebtedness among the tribals. 8. Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP): On the recommendations of task force constituted to review the situation and programme of tribal development in 1971, a special programme of tribal development known as Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) was initiated during the Fifth Plan period. The task force felt that the problems of tribals in different parts of our country were not of similar nature everywhere. Some areas of our country have larger concentration of tribal population, where as some areas have negligible tribal population. Nearly 700 tribal communities reside in our country, which are found to have spread in all directions of our country. They speak 105 types of languages and 225 types of dialects. Some tribals represent population of nearly 5 millions; where as some of them constitute mere 100. The task force paid attention towards the varying problems of tribals. It also made review of programmes of tribal development implemented in earlier Five-Year Plan periods. The task force observed that the main weakness of earlier tribal development programmes was 5 Upadhyay (2003), Tribal Development in India, Crown Publication, New Delhi Pg