Social Policy in a Development Context

Transcription

1 Social Policy in a Development Context Social Policy in a Development Context is a series which places social policy at the centre of research while maintaining the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) s unified approach to social development. The series provides a new and exciting contribution to the literature in economic development and social policy. In economic development, social policy has been recognized as an integral part of development, but the literature often falls short of elaborating social policy for a unified approach to economic and social development. In social policy, analysis has concentrated mainly on European and North American countries, and studies on developing countries often lack comparative rigour. The bridge between economic development and social policy will not only contribute to academic research but also inform policy debates at the international and national levels. Titles include: Jìmí O. Adésínà (editor) SOCIAL POLICY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CONTEXT In Search of Inclusive Development Giovanni Andrea Cornia (editor) PRO-POOR MACROECONOMICS Potential and Limitations Katja Hujo and Shea McClanahan (editors) FINANCING SOCIAL POLICY Mobilizing Resources for Social Development Katja Hujo (editor) MINERAL RENTS AND THE FINANCING OF SOCIAL POLICY Opportunities and Challenges Katja Hujo and Nicola Piper (editors) SOUTH-SOUTH MIGRATION Implications for Social Policy and Development Olli Kangas and Joakim Palme (editors) SOCIAL POLICY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE NORDIC COUNTRIES Massoud Karshenas and Valentine M. Moghadam (editors) SOCIAL POLICY IN THE MIDDLE EAST Political, Economics and Gender Dynamics Huck-Ju Kwon (editor) THE DEVELOPMENTAL WELFARE STATE AND POLICY REFORMS IN EAST ASIA Maureen Mackintosh and Meri Koivusalo (editors) COMMERCIALIZATION OF HEALTH CARE Global and Local Dynamics and Policy Responses Thandika Mkandawire (editor) SOCIAL POLICY IN A DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT

2 Naren Prasad (editor) SOCIAL POLICIES, AND PRIVATE SECTOR PARTICIPATION IN WATER SUPPLY Shahra Razavi and Shireen Hassim (editors) GENDER AND SOCIAL POLICY IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT Uncovering the Gendered Structure of the Social Manuel Riesco (editor) LATIN AMERICA A New Developmental Welfare State Model in the Making? Social Policy in a Development Context Series Standing Order ISBN (hardback) (paperback) (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and the ISBN quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England

3 Mineral Rents and the Financing of Social Policy Opportunities and Challenges Edited by Katja Hujo

4 UNRISD 2012 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6 10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act First published 2012 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number , of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave and Macmillan are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

5 Contents List of Tables, Boxes and Figures Notes on Contributors Preface and Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations and Acronyms vii xi xvi xix Part I Thematic Issues 1 Introduction and Overview: Blessing or Curse? Financing Social Policies in Mineral-Rich Countries 3 Katja Hujo 2 Development and Growth in Resource-Dependent Countries: Why Social Policy Matters 26 Thorvaldur Gylfason 3 Economic Policy in Mineral-Rich Countries 62 Samuel G. Asfaha 4 Social Policy and State Revenues in Mineral-Rich Contexts 91 Leonith Hinojosa, Anthony Bebbington and Armando Barrientos 5 Institutional Change and State Capacity in Mineral-Rich Countries 122 Evelyn Dietsche Part II Case Studies 6 Mineral Rents and Social Development in Norway 155 Halvor Mehlum, Karl Moene and Ragnar Torvik 7 Mineral Rents and Social Development in Chile 185 Juan Carlos Guajardo Beltrán 8 Mineral Wealth, Development and Social Policy in Indonesia 223 William Ascher 9 Has Botswana Beaten the Resource Curse? 257 Scott Pegg v

6 vi Contents 10 Social Policy in a Mineral-Rich Economy: The Case of Nigeria 285 Jìmí O. Adésínà 11 Conclusion: Harnessing the Potential of Mineral Rents for Social Development Options and Constraints 318 Katja Hujo Index 332

7 List of Tables, Boxes and Figures Tables 1.1 Mineral wealth and human development in select countries Mineral-rich countries: Select indicators Regression results on natural capital and economic growth Decomposition of per capita growth (%) Gross capital formation as percentage of GDP Association between state revenue and mineral export dependence (estimates based on averages for ) State expenditure and revenue in mineral-rich developing countries 103 4A Social insurance and social assistance programmes in select mineral-dependent economies (operating in March 2008) Association between state revenue and institutional quality in MDCs Export dependence as selection criteria Proxies used for measuring institutional quality Resource abundance and growth Institutions, resource abundance and growth Resource adjusted savings rates as percentage of GNI, average Management model Indonesia s GDP growth rates, Indonesia s natural subsoil capital values: Comparisons with select countries Comparative health outcomes: Indonesia and select Asian countries, vii

8 viii List of Tables, Boxes and Figures 8.4 Comparative health inputs: Indonesia and select Asian countries Indonesia: Social service and other government expenditures, (trillion rupiah at constant 2000 prices) Expenditure on key sectors by level of government, (% of total) Leakage model of challenges in channelling hydrocarbon revenues to social services Sectoral composition of national output, (%), factor cost Contributions of agriculture and manufacturing to Nigeria s GDP, Incidence of poverty in Nigeria Characteristics of mineral-rich countries selected as case studies 325 Boxes 1.1 Unpacking the resource curse Mineral wealth and human development 10 Figures 2.1 Economic growth and fertility, Subsoil assets (US$ at 2000 prices and exchange rates) Subsoil assets per person (US$ at 2000 prices and exchange rates) Different kinds of capital and growth Natural capital and other kinds of capital Education and natural capital, Economic growth and education, Corruption and natural capital, Economic growth and corruption, Democracy and natural capital,

9 List of Tables, Boxes and Figures ix 2.11 Economic growth and democracy, Economic growth and natural capital, Real price by commodity types Annual changes (%) in real education expenditure in Nigeria and oil prices Exploration, production and consumption of oil and natural gas by region, 1995 and 2005 (%) Production and consumption of select metallic minerals, 1995 and 2005 (%) GDP per capita in Nordic countries (1990 PPP international Geary-Khamis dollars) Patterns of investment and production Labour force and service production The oil sector and unemployment Government expenditure as a fraction of non-oil GDP Gasoline prices and health expenditures GDP, mining and agriculture, (millions of 1996 Chilean pesos) Chilean nitrate production, (tons) Chilean copper production by source, state-owned and private, (thousand tons) Materialized foreign investment in mining and other sectors, comparison of and (US$ millions) HDI trends, Contribution of mining to other productive sectors Real exchange rate (RER), (1996 = 100) Fiscal revenues and mining contributions, Poverty and extreme poverty in Chile, Extreme poverty reduction by region in Chile, Growth of GDP in Chile, Growth of GDP by country, average Chilean exports by main products, (free on board/fob US$ millions) 206

10 x List of Tables, Boxes and Figures 7.14 Fiscal balance pre- and post-fiscal rule (% of GDP) Consolidated public debt with the Central Bank (% of GDP) Public debt by currency denomination (% of GDP) Paths from natural resources exploitation to accessing social services Historical oil prices, (top line adjusted for inflation) Crude oil price movement (nominal and inflation adjusted) Nigeria s agriculture and manufacturing value added (current US$ millions) GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) Number of NYSC members deployed, Public spending on education as share of GNI (%), 1965, Gross secondary school enrolment ratio (%) Hospital beds per 1000 people Infant and under-five mortality rates, Nigeria s GDP at current market prices and value of exports (US$ millions) Share of government revenue in copper rent (% of total) Share of government revenue in oil rent (% of total) 321

11 Notes on Contributors Jìmí O. Adésínà is Professor of Sociology at the University of the Western Cape, where he directs the Transformative Social Policy Programme. He is Professorial Research Associate at the Nordic Africa Institute (Uppsala University, Sweden). His research and teaching interests include the political economy of Africa s development, social theory and intellectual endogeneity, and social policy. Among his published works are Labour in the Explanation of an African Crisis (1994, CODESRIA Book Series), Currents and Perspectives in Sociology (2001, Malthouse Press), African Development Challenges in the New Millennium (2006, Zed Books) and Social Policy in Sub-Saharan African Context (2007, UNRISD/Palgrave Macmillan). William Ascher is the Donald C. McKenna Professor of Government and Economics at Claremont McKenna College and directs the Pacific Basin Research Center at Soka University of America. His research focuses on socio-economic development, natural resource and environmental policy, social policy, political psychology and political economy. His most recently authored books are Bringing in the Future: Strategies of Farsightedness and Sustainability in Developing Countries (2009, University of Chicago Press) and Knowledge and Environmental Policy: Re-Imagining the Boundaries of Science and Politics (2010, MIT Press). His most recent edited volumes are Physical Infrastructure Development (2010, Palgrave Macmillan) and Cultural Change and Persistence: New Perspectives on Development (2010, Palgrave Macmillan). Samuel G. Asfaha is an economist currently employed by the International Training Centre of the International Labour Organization (ITC-ILO) in Turin, Italy, where he has been in charge of training activities in international trade and labour markets, including courses on quantitative models applied to this field. His main research interests are in international trade, national resource revenue management and computable general equilibrium modelling. He holds an M.A. in international law and economics from the World Trade Institute in Switzerland, an M.A. in economics from the University of the Western Cape in South Africa and a B.A. in economics from the University of Asmara in Eritrea. xi

12 xii Notes on Contributors Armando Barrientos is Professor and Research Director at the Brooks World Poverty Institute at the University of Manchester, United Kingdom. He holds a B.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Kent at Canterbury. His research interests focus on the linkages existing between welfare programmes and labour markets in developing countries and on policies addressing poverty, vulnerability and population ageing. His work has been published widely, including articles in World Development, Applied Economics, The Manchester School and Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance. His most recent books are Social Protection for the Poor and Poorest (2008, edited with David Hulme, Palgrave Macmillan), Just Give Money to the Poor (2010, with Joseph Hanlon and David Hulme, Kumarian Press) and Demographics, Employment and Old Age Security: Emerging Trends and Challenges in South Asia (2010, edited with Moneer Alam, Macmillan). Anthony Bebbington is the Higgins Professor of Environment and Society and Director of the Graduate School of Geography at Clark University, United States. He is also Professorial Research Fellow at the University of Manchester and Research Associate of the Centro Peruano de Estudios Sociales, Peru. He is a member of the US National Academy of Sciences and has been a Professorial Research Fellow of the UK Economic and Social Research Council, a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Studies in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford, and a Fellow in the Latin American Institute of the Free University, Berlin. His books include Extractive Industries, Social Conflict and Economic Development: Evidence from South America (2011, ed., Routledge), Subterranean Struggles: Political Ecologies of Extraction in Latin America ( forthcoming, edited with Jeff Bury, University of Texas Press) and Minería, Movimientos Sociales y Respuestas Campesinas: Una Ecología Política de Transformaciones Territoriales (2011/2007, ed., Instituto de Estudios Peruanos/CEPES). Evelyn Dietsche is an honorary lecturer and research advisor for the Centre for Energy, Petroleum and Mineral Law and Policy, Dundee University, Scotland, where she teaches sustainable development in resource-rich countries. She contributed much of the conceptual work for the Resource Endowment Initiative of the International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) for which she developed an analytical framework, led various case studies and undertook a high-level review of mineral taxation regimes. She left Dundee University as a full-time lecturer in 2009 and has since held the position of sustainable development manager with a major UK extractive industry company.

13 Notes on Contributors xiii Juan Carlos Guajardo Beltrán is Executive Director of the Center for Copper and Mining Studies (CESCO). Previously he worked as Research and Policy Planning Director at the Chilean Copper Commission (COCHILCO), the advisory body to the Ministerio de Minería de Chile on economic and policy issues and as an economist for the International Copper Study Group (ICSG), the intergovernmental body devoted to copper in the world. He holds a B.A. with honours (best graduate) in Business Administration from the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Chile, and a Diploma de Estudios Avanzados (DEA) in Economics from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain. He is also a Ph.D. candidate in international economy and development at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain. He is a member of the Long-Term Copper Price Committee, which is relevant for the Structural Balance Policy in Chile, and has also worked as a consultant for national and foreign organizations. Thorvaldur Gylfason is Professor of Economics at the University of Iceland. He holds a Ph.D. from Princeton and has worked at the IMF, taught at Princeton and was long associated with the Institute for International Economic Studies at Stockholm University. He has published nearly 150 scholarly articles and 19 books. His publications include some 700 newspaper articles plus several songs for mixed choir and he has lectured extensively around the world. Since 2003, he has written a weekly column for Iceland s largest daily newspaper, Fréttablaðið. In 2010, he was elected and subsequently appointed to Iceland s Constitutional Assembly charged with drafting a new postcrash constitution. Leonith Hinojosa is a researcher in the Geography Department at The Open University, UK. She is also an Honorary Fellow of the Brooks World Poverty Institute and the School of Environment and Development at the University of Manchester. Her research interests focus on regional development, including the spatial distribution of growth and poverty, social policies, the political economy of the expansion of mineral industries and sustainable impact assessment of international trade. Her recent publications include articles in Development & Change and the European Journal of Development Research; Gas y Desarrollo, Dinámicas Territoriales Rurales en Tarija-Bolivia (2012, ed., Fundación Tierra and CERDET); and book chapters in Minería, Movimientos Sociales y Respuestas Campesinas: Una Ecología Política de Transformaciones Territoriales (2011/2007, edited by Anthony Bebbington, Instituto de Estudios Peruanos/CEPES) and The Rise and Fall of Neoliberalism: The

14 xiv Notes on Contributors Collapse of an Economic Order? (2010, edited by Kean Birch and Vlad Mykhnenko, Zed Books). Katja Hujo is Research Coordinator in the Social Policy and Development Programme at the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD), Geneva. She has studied in Germany and Argentina and holds a Ph.D. in economics from Free University Berlin (FU Berlin). At UNRISD, she manages research projects on Financing Social Policy and Social Policy and Migration in Developing Countries. She has published on diverse issues such as economic development, social protection and poverty, pension reform and migration. Her most recent publications are a book on Financing Social Policy: Mobilizing Resources for Social Development (2009, edited with Shea McClanahan, Palgrave Macmillan), a collected volume South-South Migration: Implications for Social Policy and Development (2010, edited with Nicola Piper, Palgrave Macmillan) and a special issue on Social Policy and Poverty for the International Journal of Social Welfare (July 2011). Halvor Mehlum is Professor of Economics at the University of Oslo and Deputy Director of ESOP Centre for the Study of Equality, Social Organization and Performance. He is also attached to the Globalization Research Programme at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology as Adjunct Professor. He has published on resources and development in journals such as Economic Journal, European Economic Review and Journal of Development Economics. His main research interests are development economics, political economy and peace and conflict studies. Karl Moene is Professor of Economics at the University of Oslo and the Director of ESOP Centre for the Study of Equality, Social Organization and Performance. He is also affiliated with the International Peace Research Institute, Oslo. Among his main research interests are institutions, economic development and welfare states. He has published widely on these topics in journals such as American Economic Review, Economic Journal and European Economic Review. Scott Pegg holds a Ph.D. in political science from the University of British Columbia and is currently Associate Professor in the Department of Political Science at Indiana University Purdue University, Indianapolis. He is the author of International Society and the De Facto State (1998, Ashgate) and the co-editor of Transnational Corporations and Human Rights (2003, with Jedrzej George Frynas, Palgrave Macmillan). He has published journal articles in African Affairs, International Studies

15 Notes on Contributors xv Perspectives, Journal of Cleaner Production, Naval War College Review, PS: Political Science and Politics, Resources Policy, Security Dialogue, Third World Quarterly and The Washington Quarterly. His current research interests focus on de facto states, transnational corporations and human rights and the resource curse. Ragnar Torvik is Professor of Economics at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology and is responsible for economics in the university s Globalization Research Programme. He is also affiliated with ESOP Centre for the Study of Equality, Social Organization and Performance. His research interests include macroeconomics, international trade and development economics. He has published extensively on resources and conflict in Norway and developing countries in journals such as American Economic Review, European Economic Review and Journal of Public Economics.

16 Preface and Acknowledgements Many of today s rich countries started their development path by exploiting natural resources such as land, forests and minerals. Many of today s developing countries are producers and exporters of primary commodities, benefitting from rising demand and prices in these sectors over the last decade. With a significant proportion of our global economy depending on fuels, minerals and other commodities, demand is likely to increase steadily, in particular due to the import needs of the resource-poor Asian giants China and India. It is therefore legitimate to ask what role mineral rents can and should play in fostering social development in economies characterized by limited fiscal resources, widespread poverty, inequality, lack of opportunities for decent work and inadequate social services. This was the central question guiding research on Financing Social Policy in Mineral-Rich Countries, a project conducted by the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) as part of a broader inquiry into the question of mobilizing revenues for social development. Mineral rents and revenues from commodity sectors have fuelled growth processes and allowed for expansion of public expenditures in a variety of countries over recent years. Yet there is disagreement about whether a mineral-led development path is a curse or a blessing, especially with regard to the long-term development and growth prospects for resource-rich countries. Research on the development performance of some of these economies has produced findings that are initially counterintuitive to what many might think about the benefits of discovering gold, diamonds or oil. Greedy politicians, corruption and rent seeking, waste of public revenues in white elephant projects even conflict and civil war are just some of the evils associated with the so-called resource curse, a hypothesis that establishes a negative link between being a mineral-based economy and development performance. However, the fact that many countries manage their natural resource sector successfully indicates that the issue is more complex and that the problem is certainly not what countries have for example, natural resources or minerals. Rather it is what they do not have for example, policy instruments and policy space to manage the macroeconomic effects of mineral production, state capacity and democratic institutions to capture and redistribute rents xvi

17 Preface and Acknowledgements xvii according to public interest, human capital and technology to increase productivity and diversify the economy and their position in the global economy. This volume aims to disentangle part of this complexity and thereby contribute to a more balanced debate on the potential and challenges associated with resource-based development. Although the successful experiences of countries such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United States and the Nordic countries cannot easily be replicated in the context of a radically changed global economic system and given the specificities of each country, the analyses compiled in this volume demonstrate that mineral-rich countries do have options to harness the productive and fiscal potential of their natural wealth. Key ingredients for a successful approach include: (i) adequate macroeconomic and structural policies promoting stability, competitiveness and productive diversification; (ii) developmental state capacity and democratic checks and balances that allow states to capture a significant part of the rents and to redistribute them in a transparent, efficient and equitable way; and (iii) implementation of social policies that promote security, well-being, social cohesion and a productive labour force. This ambitious agenda requires placing mineral production into a long-term development strategy with a strong emphasis on investments in technological and social progress, environmental protection and democratic institutions. I am grateful to all the contributors for their participation in this research project and for responding patiently to our numerous requests for updates and revisions. A huge thank you is also due to Alexander Dénis, Josephine Grin-Yates, Sylvie Liu and Véronique Martinez for their organizational and administrative support, and Suroor Alikhan, Jenifer Freedman, AvisAnne Julien, Deborah Reynolds and Mariana Rulli for their invaluable collaboration during the preparation of the final manuscript. I would further like to thank those who contributed to this project in different ways over the past years: Thandika Mkandawire, former director of UNRISD, for encouraging and accompanying this research project; Shea McClanahan, Elena Gaia, Nora El Qadim and Maria Garrone for background research, editorial assistance and helpful discussions; Albert Berry and Alice Sindzingre for reviewing the manuscript and providing excellent comments and suggestions; Martin Hahn, Anthony Hall, Janvier Nkurunziza, Cyril Obi and Manuel Riesco for chairing sessions and discussing papers at our project workshop; and Alfredo Calcagno for sharing his insightful views and valuable information.

18 xviii Preface and Acknowledgements Last but not least, this project would not have been possible without the generous funding from the Ford Foundation, and the core funding provided to UNRISD between 2007 and 2011 by the governments of Denmark, Finland, Mexico, Norway, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom without which none of UNRISD s activities would be possible. Katja Hujo UNRISD, Geneva, November 2011

19 List of Abbreviations and Acronyms AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome BAPPENAS National Development Planning Agency (Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional) (Indonesia) BDP Botswana Democratic Party BPMIGAS Oil and gas upstream activities regulatory agency (Indonesia) CCT Conditional cash transfer CKGR Central Kalahari Game Reserve COCHILCO Chilean Copper Commission (Comisión Chilena del Cobre) CODELCO Chilean Copper Corporation (Corporación Nacional del Cobre de Chile) CPI Corruption Perceptions Index CPIA Country Policy and Institutional Assessment CSR Corporate social responsibility DFID UK Department for International Development DIPRES Chilean Directive for the Management of Fiscal Budget (Dirección de Presupuestos del Ministerio de Hacienda de Chile) DPT Diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus vaccine E&P Exploration and production ECLAC/CEPAL Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe) EITI Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative FDI Foreign direct investment GDP Gross domestic product GNI Gross national income HDI Human Development Index xix

20 xx List of Abbreviations and Acronyms HIV Human immunodeficiency virus ICMM International Council on Mining and Metals IFI International financial institution ILUA Indigenous land use agreements IMF International Monetary Fund MDC Mineral-rich developing country MDG United Nations Millennium Development Goal MERCOSUR Common Market of South America (Mercado Común del Sur) MFDP Ministry of Finance and Development Planning (Botswana) MIDEPLAN Planning Ministry of Chile (Ministerio de Planificación) MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology N Naira (Nigerian national currency) NBER National Bureau of Economic Research NCEMA National Centre for Economic Management and Administration NDP National Development Plan (Botswana) NGO Non-governmental organization NNDP Nigerian National Democratic Party NOC National oil company NPC Northern People s Congress NRC Natural Resource Charter NYSC National Youth Service Corps OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Pertamina National oil and gas company (Perusahaan Pertambangan Minyak Dan Gas Bumi Negara) (Indonesia) PLN National electricity company (Perusahaan Listrik Negara) (Indonesia) PPP Purchasing power parity

21 List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xxi RER Real exchange rate SAFP Supervisor of the Administrators of Pension Funds (Superintendencia de Administradoras de Fondos de Pensiones) SOFOFA Federation of Chilean Industry (Sociedad de Fomento Fabril) TIPKG Taxes on income profits and capital gains UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children s Fund UNRISD United Nations Research Institute for Social Development UNU United Nations University UPE Universal Primary Education UPN Unity Party of Nigeria US United States WIDER World Institute for Development Economics Research WHO World Health Organization