THE CONTRIBUTION OF HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT TO MIGRATION POLICY IN ALBANIA

Transcription

1 THE CONTRIBUTION OF HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT TO MIGRATION POLICY IN ALBANIA

2 THE CONTRIBUTION OF HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT TO MIGRATION POLICY IN ALBANIA DECEMBER

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4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword 5 Executive summary 7 1. Migration flows and their characteristics Direction of migration Characteristics of migrants Labour market trends Education Legislative framework Institutional framework Bilateral and international cooperation on migration Survey methodology Potential migrants Socio-demographic and educational characteristics Employment Intentions to move abroad Potential migrants expectations Potential migrants economic and living conditions Returning migrants Socio-demographic and educational characteristics Migration history Returning migrants experiences Future intentions Returning migrants economic and living conditions Assessment of the survey findings Migration profile and factors determining migration Benefits and impacts of migration Migration management policies 44 Annex 1. Comparison between potential migrants planning/not planning to migrate 47 References 49 3

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6 Foreword In 2006 the European Training Foundation (ETF) launched a pilot study on the links between migration, education and training systems and labour markets. Since knowledge of the overall consequences of migration in relation to education/skills and labour markets is limited, the ETF approach included desk research, fact-finding missions and field surveys in the four countries selected, namely Albania, Egypt, Moldova and Tunisia, some of these being new sources of migration to the EU and some being traditional sources. For the Albanian part of the study, a local organisation, the Centre for Economic and Social Studies (CESS), was contracted to carry out the field survey and first level of data analysis. The fact-finding mission to Albania took place on July 2006 and involved an ETF team of experts assisted by an international expert, Professor Richard Black from the University of Sussex, UK. Key national stakeholders in the Albanian context were visited during the mission, including the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities, the Adviser to the Prime Minister on HRD, the Ministry of Education and Science, INSTAT (National Institute of Statistics), the Academy of Science, the Hope for the Future Association, La Speranza Private Employment Agency and local offices of international organisations such as the EC Delegation in Albania, the ILO, the World Bank, the International Organization for Migration, UNDP and the Soros Foundation. The ETF is extremely grateful to the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities, in particular H.E. Koço Barka, the Minister of Labour, and Kosta Barjaba, the Chief of the Minister s Staff, for their indispensable support. Based upon the datasets produced on potential and returning migrants, data were analysed and the ETF Team of experts, consisting of Natalia Popova, Ummuhan Bardak, Francesco Panzica and Jesús Alquézar, drafted a preliminary report, which was sent to the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities for comments and endorsement. The findings and preliminary conclusions from the study were presented to the relevant national stakeholders at a validation workshop held in Tirana on 21 November The results of the debate were incorporated into the final draft of the report with a view to their publication and presentation to a wider public. 5

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8 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY In 2006 the European Training Foundation 1 (ETF) launched a pilot study on the links between migration, education and training systems, and labour markets. In the case of Albania, a sample of 2,029 people was identified (1,027 potential and 1,002 returning migrants). The results were collected in a database, and have been further analysed by the ETF and local and international experts. The first chapter of this report summarizes the results of the literature review on the different dimensions of the migration phenomenon in Albania. It aims to provide background information on: Albanian migration history (including migration stocks and flows, determinants, socio-demographic characteristics and skill composition); Labour market trends; The Albanian education and training system; National migration policies and institutions. The second chapter explains the survey methodology used throughout the project. A particular focus is given to the selection of the sample and the implementation of the field survey. Two target groups were identified for face-to-face interviews: potential migrants and returning migrants. A total sample of 2,000 respondents was interviewed in six districts, namely Shkodra, Kukës, Tirana, Elbasan, Korça and Vlora, to acquire a representative sample. The results of the survey were collected in a database and analysed. The third chapter focuses on the findings of the potential migrants survey. Following the collapse of the communist system, it is estimated that more than 25% of the Albanian population live abroad, although there are no precise figures since the migration flows have been chaotic, clandestine and poorly recorded. Greece and Italy have been, and still remain, the preferred migration destinations for Albanians, with the UK featuring to a lesser extent. The survey data presented in this report suggest that migration will continue to play a role in Albania in the short term, with 44.2% of year-olds interviewed saying they were thinking of leaving to live and work abroad. However, if the actual ability to go abroad is taken into account (likelihood of migrating within six months or two years; ability to finance the move; knowledge of most likely destination (MLD) language; information about the MLD; possession of at least four of the six necessary documents and no difficulty of getting the remaining ones), this percentage considerably diminishes to 17.8%. According to the survey, males were more prone (46.9%) to migrate than females (40.9%), though the difference was not statistically significant. As expected, younger people were more likely to migrate. Single people were more likely to migrate than married ones or those with children. There is a link between educational level and the desire to migrate, as almost 50% of people with primary education wanted to migrate, compared with 40.1% of those with a university degree. The tendency to migrate was higher for people who had studied education, agriculture, engineering, health and welfare. People who spoke Italian and Greek were more likely to migrate. Regarding employment status, the intention to migrate was higher among unemployed respondents. Almost 53% of those who did not work wished to migrate (the remaining 47% did not have a job and did not want to migrate). Indeed, almost 40% of the respondents who had a job in the country still wanted to go abroad (against 60% who had a job and preferred to remain in Albania). Thus, having employment was not always sufficient to prevent migration. 1 Established in 1990, the European Training Foundation (ETF) assists its 30 partner countries in developing high-quality systems for human resources development. Its role is to share expertise and advice on policies in education and training across regions and cultures. Working on behalf of the European Union, the ETF helps its partner countries to develop people s skills and knowledge to promote better living conditions, active citizenship and democratic societies that respect human rights and cultural diversity. 7

9 According to the survey, two-third of Albanians wanted to go abroad for economic reasons, such as to improve living standards (36.7%), to find a job (19.7%) and because the nature of the current work is unsatisfactory (9.3%). These were the three most important reasons for migration. The choice of the destination country was strongly affected by educational level. Migrants with primary education preferred Greece, while those with secondary general and vocational education preferred the UK and Italy. Potential migrants with university education preferred North America. Most potential migrants said they would like to work as salaried employees (86.7%). There were no significant differences between levels of education, despite the fact that 11.9% of migrants with a university degree would like to be self-employed, which may indicate a more positive attitude towards risk and entrepreneurship. Half of the respondents intended to stay abroad for between one and five years and only 16.1% wanted to leave the country permanently. The desired period of stay abroad for potential migrants varied according to educational level and employment status. Almost two-thirds of potential migrants with primary education wished to stay in the destination country for three to ten years. A third of those with secondary education (both general and vocational) wished to stay from three to five years. On the other hand, a third of the people with university education stated that they wanted to stay abroad permanently. Some 79.6% of potential migrants said they would send remittances to their families. These potential migrants expectations were higher than the actual level of remittances sent to Albania. In terms of future expectations, 73.5% of potential migrants thought that migration would lead to better work opportunities on their return. The lower the level of education of potential migrants, the higher their expectations of finding a good job at home. The fourth chapter focuses on returning migrants. Return migration is a recent phenomenon in Albania. Three-quarters of returning migrants came back to Albania after 2001, when the socioeconomic and political situation started to improve. The survey shows that the return of migrants is a dynamic and increasing process. In contrast to the potential migrants sample, 89.0% of the returning migrants interviewed were male. This deviation from the basic criterion of having and preserving a gender-balanced sample is explained by the difficulty of finding and interviewing female returning migrants. The average age of the respondents was around 34 years, and 54.0% of them belonged to the age group. Most returning migrants had medium levels of education. More than half of them had completed secondary education (35.7% secondary general and 20.4% secondary vocational). The educational level of females was higher than that of males. The levels of education of returning migrants from Italy, the UK and Germany were higher than those from Greece, a trend which is also confirmed by the literature. It is important to note that Albanian migrants predominantly worked in low-skill jobs, regardless of their educational level. The ETF survey did not cover these issues in detail, and there is a need to conduct a sector skill-needs analysis, both in Albania and in the EU, in order to create conditions for regulated migration in response to labour market needs. Destinations were overwhelmingly in the EU, mirroring the pattern for potential migrants. The four most popular first destination countries for returning migrants were: Greece: 68.1%; Italy: 19.3%; UK: 5.5%; Germany: 4.1%. These figures are different from the desired destinations expressed by the potential migrants, which were: Italy: 31.2%; Greece: 26.5%; 8

10 UK: 14.7%. The most important reasons for migration were economic 2 : improvement of living standards, had no job/could not find a job and nature of work unsatisfactory. The survey indicates that these economic push factors were visibly more powerful for potential migrants than for returning migrants. Just 2.3% of the sample population mentioned to get an education as a reason for migrating. The survey shows that most of the male returning migrants worked for the longest period of time in the migration country in construction, agriculture, manufacturing, hospitality and catering. Women worked in domestic help, hospitality and catering. Some 94.0% of the migrants worked for the longest period of time as salaried workers, the majority of them as unskilled workers. In many cases this resulted in a lowering of their skills. Only 10.2% of the returning migrants increased their skill level. Only 3.5% of the respondents (35 persons) stated that they received appropriate pre-departure training; this mainly consisted of foreign language and, for a very few, professional courses. On average, 16.5% of returning migrants had studied or been trained in the migration country. Returning migrants were asked about their reasons for returning to Albania. Based on the answers, the returning migrants were classified into four groups. The prime reason was forced return by the authorities of the migration country, since they were found not to have official documentation or because their permit had expired. Another reason for return is the failure to integrate into the labour market of the host country. This includes those who could not find work, had low income or were laid off by employer/end of contract. Others cited poor health or integration and discrimination problems. Other migrants returned for family or psychological reasons, such as to join the family, parent/spouse wanted me to return, to get married and to spend the rest of my life in my home country. Lastly there are successful migrants (7.7% of the sample) who returned after realising their original plans for starting a business or who had saved sufficient money. Reasons for return varied according to level of education and employment status. Those with a low level of education came back mostly because they were forced, or for family reasons. People with university education, besides family reasons, were more likely to come back because they wanted to start a business (11.3%). Very few returning migrants (1.6%) were aware of any government support programmes intended to facilitate return. Some 89.0% of returning migrants reported that they had brought back savings. The survey shows that such funds were mainly used for living expenses, business investment, furniture/households goods, and savings. There appear to be significant variations among respondents regarding the use of savings in relation to their educational level: more people with secondary or university education tended to invest in a business. There were no statistically significant differences between the use of savings in terms of the destination countries and the type of employment abroad. On their return to Albania, 74.3% of respondents found a job after an average search period of 3.4 months. Furthermore, there is a positive relationship between returned migration and selfemployment. The survey shows that 51.5% of returning migrants became self-employed or an employer. The remaining migrants found salaried employment. The survey indicates that 42.9% of returning migrants wished to remigrate from Albania. The main reasons for re-migrating include: have no job/cannot find job, to improve standard of living and nature of work unsatisfactory. These reasons changed according to educational level. The fifth chapter focuses on conclusions and policy recommendations. Progress has been made in Albania in terms of improving migration management, though this process is still ongoing. International organisations, civil society and the government should coordinate their efforts to create an environment for constructive migration and sustainable reintegration. New issues have arisen with regard to migration management: migrants human, social and financial capital should be used in a way that will benefit both receiving and sending countries. Albania should work towards revising, together with EU countries, the existing bilateral migration agreement as well as trying to conclude 2 Barjaba, K., Albanian State Emigration Policy, paper presented at the International Conference on Albanian Migration and New Transnationalism, Centre for Migration Research, University of Sussex, 6 7 September

11 new ones. This could facilitate legal labour migration, matching demand and supply, by identifying the skill needs of the host labour markets and adequately preparing migrants to respond to these requirements. In this case, pre-departure training can play an important role. The relationship between migration and development is not straightforward. The findings of the ETF survey suggest that return migration is a potential gain that has so far not been fully utilised in Albania. Work experience abroad, even for comparatively short spells, facilitates the accumulation of financial capital and useful skills on a scale not otherwise possible. However, reaping the benefits of return migration is not something that happens automatically. Albania needs to offer effective reintegration programmes for potential returning migrants, including better reception and advice for investment opportunities and access to business support and credits for entrepreneurship. However, there is a lack of funds for such measures. 10

12 1. MIGRATION FLOWS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS International migration has been at the core of the economic and social changes that have occurred in Albania since 1990: it is estimated that more than 25% of Albanians live abroad. No other Central or East European country has been affected so heavily by migration over such a short period of time; Russell King refers to Albania as a kind of laboratory for studying new migratory processes 3. Existing data suggest that since 1990 between 710,000 and 1,000,000 Albanians have moved abroad on a temporary or permanent basis 4. In a country of little more than three million inhabitants, these are substantial figures, and therefore it comes as no surprise that the Albanian exodus has started to receive considerable attention both from policy circles and in research. Since the migration flows have been chaotic, clandestine and poorly recorded, there are no precise figures on the exact number of Albanian migrants. 1.1 Direction of migration According to estimates provided by the Albanian government, Albanians have migrated to approximately 20 countries, including EU Member States, USA, Canada and Australia. Recent migration flows are also oriented towards Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, New Zealand and South Africa. However, Greece and Italy have been, and still remain, the preferred migration destinations for Albanians, with the UK featured to a lesser extent. Migration to Greece and Italy accounts for approximately 85% of the total number of migrants. This is confirmed by the literature, which indicates that the main factor for deciding where to migrate is geographical proximity. People migrate to Greece primarily from the south and south-eastern areas of Albania. Italy is the most preferred destination for Albanians from the central and western areas, where Italian TV channels are most popular. Information and support from networks of family and friends also influence the decision to migrate. Migration to Greece Data on migration from Albania to Greece vary according to the source. The 2001 Greek Census indicated that Albanians constituted the largest immigrant group, with 57.5% of the total immigrants 5. The first waves of migration started in In that year, large groups of Albanians, mainly ethnic Greeks, went to Greece and were granted Greek nationality. Subsequent migration to Greece has been predominantly illegal and has resulted in a large number of repatriations: in 1993, for example, 220,665 Albanian citizens were returned home. In January 1998 the Greek government granted amnesty to an estimated 450,000 illegal migrants. A further amnesty was implemented in June The 2001 Greek Census indicated that Albanian migrants were concentrate in: Large urban areas, such as Athens and Thessaloniki; Rural areas with predominantly intensive agriculture; Tourist islands. They were employed mainly in labour-intensive sectors. Female Albanian migrants were employed mainly in domestic work and elderly care (52%), but also in tourism (19%), agriculture (15%) and 3 King, R., Across the sea and over the mountains: documenting Albanian Migration, School of European Studies, University of Sussex, Barjaba, K., Albania: Looking beyond borders, mimeo, Migration Policy Institute, Washington, DC, Kasimis, C., Recent migration flows to Greece: Evidence from the 2001Greek Census, paper presented at the International Conference on New Perspectives on Albanian Migration and Development, Albania, September

13 industry (9%). Male Albanian migrants worked in construction (42%), agriculture (23%), industry (12%) and tourism (12%) 6. Migration to Italy Italy is the second most preferred destination for Albanian migrants. At the end of 2005 there were 348,813 Albanians legally residing in Italy 7, of whom 196,744 were males and 152,069 were females. Table 1 gives details of the regional distribution of immigrants. In 2000 and 2001 Italy established quotas according to professional profiles for immigrants and this has resulted in a reduction in illegal immigration. Table 1. Regional distribution of Albanian immigrants in Italy Region Male Female Total North-west 66,151 51, ,194 North-east 51,719 40,202 91,921 Central 52,791 40,880 93,671 South 22,588 17,535 40,123 Islands 3,495 2,409 5,904 Source: ISTAT, 31 December 2005 Male Albanian migrants were mainly engaged in construction (43%), industry (19%) and services (16%), and females in housekeeping (56%). The percentage of those who were self-employed was higher in Italy than in Greece (8% compared to 5%) 8. Migration to the UK The UK is a relatively new destination, having been chosen by Albanians following the collapse of the pyramid schemes in Data from the Government of Albania 9 indicates that there are 50,000 Albanians living in the UK. They are mainly from northern regions such as Kukës, Shkoder and Mat. Most Albanian migrants have entered the UK as asylum seekers. 1.2 Characteristics of migrants The migration phenomenon has affected a considerable portion of the economically active population. In 1995, the number of migrants represented 26.0% of the working-age population years. In 1998 the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) calculated that 83.0% of Albanian migrants were males, 71.0% of whom were aged between 20 and 34 years. These figures were confirmed by the 2001 Census. The largest flows of migrants originate in rural areas, where the economic situation is considerably worse than that in urban areas. Employment opportunities are scarce in rural areas and agriculture is not considered a profitable activity, especially in the more remote areas, where agricultural land is in short supply. Moving to urban areas in Albania is also difficult because of the lack of housing and the limited availability of jobs. Hence migration seems to be the easiest option for many people. 6 Germenji, E., Does human capital matter? Integration of Albanian immigrants in the Greek labour market, paper presented at the Marie Curie conference on Multi-Level Governance of Immigration Flows, Athens, Greece, 30 March 3 April, 2005; De Zwager, N., Gedeshi, I., Germenji, E. and Nikas, Ch., Competing for remittances, IOM, ISTAT, 8 De Zwager, N., Gedeshi, I., Germenji, E., and Nikas, Ch., Competing for remittances, IOM, Government of Albania, National Strategy on Migration and the National Action Plan on Migration, Tirana, July

14 In terms of education, the bulk of migrants have completed at least primary schooling. The likelihood of migration is higher for those who have secondary education Labour market trends Albania is mainly an agrarian subsistence economy, characterised by a large percentage (94.0%) of micro and small enterprises and high degree of informality. Increasing employment and improving living standards closer to the levels of even low-income EU-25 countries will require sustained and rapid economic growth for many years to come. Sustained growth will depend in part on exploiting opportunities for development in sectors such as agriculture, tourism and manufacturing. This will call for the preparation and implementation of sector policies for these parts of the economy in order to identify and address the barriers to development. The activity rate of the population in Albania is low (around 50% 11 ) compared with the EU-27 level (64.4% in 2006) 12. In the cities the female employment rate is particularly low because of the limited employment opportunities. Moreover, women who migrate from rural areas do not have the appropriate level of skills for the limited number of formal jobs. The gender gap in terms of participation is extremely pronounced (74.0% for men as opposed to 52.0% for women) across all age groups, and this has persisted through time. Young people looking for their first job are particularly affected by unemployment and see migration as a possible solution. In 2006 the unemployment rate in Albania was 13.8% (compared to 6.9% in the EU-27 in June 2007). The northern part of Albania has a higher level of unemployment because of the very limited development of the private sector and the predominantly mountainous terrain (which also limits agricultural activities). Moreover, this was an area of heavy concentration of industry, which ceased following the end of the communist period. The lack of demand for labour has forced people to start their own income-generation activities, which are often low skilled, low value added and low paid. Demand for labour in the formal sector is very limited and is mainly restricted to the public sector and selected private business activities, such as banking and to a certain extent tourism and construction. The development of most productive sectors is also hampered by weaknesses in the transport, communications and utilities infrastructure. In addition to the physical difficulties, bureaucratic procedures, an inefficient judicial system and a difficult business climate (in terms of such factors as the taxation structure and inadequate property registration) present challenges for attracting investment (both local and foreign) and promoting enterprise growth. Thus, poor labour market conditions and a difficult economic situation have created strong pressures for international migration. 10 Gedeshi, I. and Sabates-Wheeler, R., Poverty, Vulnerability and Migration during transition in Albania, working paper, University of Sussex, INSTAT, Social indicators/employment. 12 EUROSTAT, Labour Force Survey, 2006, 13

15 Figure 1: Unemployment rate in Albania, (%) Unemployment rate: Unemployment rate Year Female Male Total Source: INSTAT, Education The educational profile of Albania s working-age population (aged 25 64) indicates low levels of skill, with almost two-thirds of the population having only primary education or less. Significant reforms will be necessary in order to address this issue, including: the development of a quality assurance system; the extension of primary education from eight to nine years; the development of a national curriculum framework based on learning outcomes; the development of a teaching system that includes performance appraisal and merit-based incentives schemes; new textbook development modalities, examinations and student monitoring. All these reforms require substantial policy dialogue and new financing mechanisms to ensure efficiency in the use of resources. Currently the proportion of gross domestic product (GDP) allocated to education is set to rise from 3.7% to 5.0%. Furthermore, the Albanian government has adopted a National Strategy on Pre-university Education for the period , focusing on five main pillars: governance; quality of teaching and learning; financing of pre-university education; capacity building and HRD; development of vocational education and training (VET) in the context of overall pre-university education. In 2005 there were 467,000 pupils enrolled in basic education, 56,000 less than in This is a result of the falling birth rate and the high migration outflow. Of the total number of students enrolled in upper secondary, 82.9% are in general secondary schools, which in recent years have developed two 14

16 main areas of specialisation: natural and social sciences 13. Interest VET has increased in the past few years. The target for secondary VET is to increase participation from 17.0% to 40.0% of total enrolment. A VET strategy is currently being elaborated under the new CARDS (Community Assistance for Reconstruction, Development and Stabilisation) project. VET legislation was adopted in 2002, and a National VET Council with tripartite representation was established, with the aim of improving polices and reform management in the VET sector. The National VET Agency was created in order to maintain the inter-sectoral functions not covered by other VET institutions or the ministry s departments. There is an increasing demand for higher education in Albania. It is offered in 10 state and 15 private universities. The most recently established university is the University of Durres, which opened in September 2006 and which was set up with the purpose of attracting professors from the Albanian diaspora. The gross enrolment ratio in tertiary education (ISCED levels 5 and 6) 14 in 2005 was 24.7% 15. In September 2003 the country officially joined the Bologna process, though many issues remain to be addressed. Apart from the desire to obtain higher levels of qualifications, many individuals have postponed their entrance to the labour market and enrolled at university because of the particularly high rate of unemployment among young people. This increased demand has not resulted in increased resources (financial, teaching and infrastructure), which in same cases has led to a serious deterioration in quality. In order to address these issues, university governance needs to be improved. One of the priorities of the government is to attract back highly qualified Albanians ( brain gain programmes). A brain gain strategy should be carefully developed, reflecting the current socioeconomic realities of the country. One possible solution, in the short and medium term, would be to try to achieve a temporary return of highly skilled individuals to work, for example, as advisers and lecturers. In this context, a reform of the Albanian Academy of Science is planned, which should integrate higher education and research more effectively. In general, research activities in Albania have been limited. Research and development (R&D) should be linked to the sectors of the economy that are considered of interest to the country in terms of strategic development, since resources are limited. Around 94% of enterprises in Albania are small, and consequently it is very difficult to involve them in R&D. The government has put forward a proposal to establish a Foundation of Sciences to promote research, in particular in information technology, biotechnology, applied natural sciences, energy, the environment and water. Moreover, the Council of Ministers recently approved a Fund for Excellence (EUR 1 million) to enable students to pursue studies abroad and then return to Albania. This is the first year of the fund. 1.5 Legislative framework The legal basis for migration of Albanian citizens is Law No. 9,034 On emigration of Albanian citizens for employment purposes, approved on 20 March A new law on emigration of Albanian citizens for employment purposes was approved in December 2006 (Law No. 9,668, 18 December 2006). In order to address unemployment in Albania and the need for greater labour emigration, various employment agreements have been signed between Albania and other countries, including Greece, Germany and Italy. Furthermore, the government has encouraged the opening of private employment agencies, adopting the Decision of Council of Ministers 708 of 16 December 2003 On the Licensing and Functioning of Private Employment Agencies. In order to provide Albania with a more comprehensive policy on migration that does not deal only with border control issues, a Strategy and an Action Plan were prepared, in cooperation with IOM and 13 INSTAT, Social indicators/education. 14 The total enrolment in tertiary education (regardless of age) as a percentage of the population in the official age group corresponding to this level of education. See 15 Brief summary of Tempus impact study in Albania, September Available at 15

17 financed by EU, and endorsed by the government in The areas covered by the Strategy include: protection of the rights of Albanian emigrants abroad; building up and linking Albanian communities abroad; encouraging the use of remittances for business investment; putting in place an adequate policy for labour migration; facilitating travel for Albanian citizens; development of an adequate legal and institutional framework. In addition, legislation on the education of migrant children and the education of Albanians living abroad has been drafted. There are also several programmes to facilitate access to resources (for example, textbooks) for Albanians living and educating their children abroad. For returning families there are programmes for the reintegration of children who have been schooled abroad. 1.6 Institutional framework There are various governmental actors. The Inter-Ministerial Committee on Migration, founded in 2003 within the framework of government measures for the formulation and application of the National Strategy for Migration Management, is an advisory body to the Council of Ministers on migration-related issues. There is a special team on brain drain, appointed by the prime minister. The Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities has a leading role in the implementation of the Strategy and Action Plan on Migration. It actively participated in the drafting of a National Action Plan on Remittances, which was elaborated by an Inter-Institutional Working Group comprising 24 government and non-government institutions within the framework of the project Enhancing the impact of migrant remittances in Albania: Creating an integrated migrant remittance system, which was funded by the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and implemented by the IOM and ILO. The Migration Policies Directorate has only one emigration specialist, and the Immigration Sector is composed of two staff members. The resources dedicated to migration are thus very limited, and the monitoring and implementation of migration policy documents is difficult. In some of the 12 regional public employment offices that are under the ministry there are specialists who cover migration, among other issues, but their role is very restricted. There are 16 private employment agencies that are authorised by the ministry, but very few of them are active in offering employment abroad. The Institute for Diaspora was originally created under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to coordinate migration policies. A government decision in 2006 included in the mission of this institution the drafting of migratory policies and migration management. This change has introduced a degree of vagueness regarding the roles, responsibilities and missions of the various institutions involved in migration. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is in charge of consular services. It is also a key participant in the process for signing treaties ratified by Albania, such as readmission agreements. The Ministry of Public Order is in charge of border control. The National Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) deals with data collection and analysis. Data on migration have not been collected; instead, estimates have been made based on census data. There is no information on migration at regional or local level. The Living Standards Measurement Survey (LSMS) for 2005 was the first to have a migration module. 16

18 1.7 Bilateral and international cooperation on migration Albania has signed three labour agreements, with the following countries. Germany (1991). The aim was to offer guest workers vocational training, language skills and work experience. Some 500 to 1,000 workers per annum could benefit from this agreement. The agreement is not currently operational. Italy (1996). There is an annual quota for labour migration under the Italian Bossi Fini Law. Italian regions can conclude agreements for seasonal labour migration. Greece (1997). There is no quantitative information on the implementation of the agreement, and no specific quotas for migrant labourers have been envisaged. 17

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20 2. SURVEY METHODOLOGY The project was implemented in the following stages, using both qualitative and quantitative methods: preliminary desk research; fact-finding mission; field survey of potential and returning migrants; drafting of the country migration profile. Phase 1: Preliminary desk research The desk research aimed to provide background information for the country migration profile and to review the existing literature on the subject, including statistical data, legislative materials and bilateral agreements. Phase 2: Fact-finding mission Meetings were held with the main national stakeholders involved in migration issues. Phase 3: Field survey of potential and returning migrants The survey consisted of face-to-face interviews with 1,001 potential migrants and 1,002 returning migrants, based on two structured questionnaires. The questionnaires were developed by the ETF and an international expert, Professor Richard Black, Director of the Sussex Centre for Migration Research (UK), and finalised with the contribution of the local contractor, CESS. The survey was carried out in November and December A two-stage cluster sample was selected. In the first-stage clusters the following regions of Albania were chosen to represent the geographical diversity of the country. Shkodra: Shkodra district is situated in the north-west of the country and has around 257,000 inhabitants in an area of 3,562 km². Most of the population is ethnic Albanian, with Montenegrins, Roma and Egyptian minorities. The main religious groups are Muslims, Catholics and Orthodox Christians. Agriculture/forestry, fishing and industry are the main economic activities of the district. During the transition period, as a consequence of internal and external migration, the population of Shkodra decreased by 10.1%. Kukës: This district, located in the north-eastern Albania, has an area of 2,374 km² and around 112,000 inhabitants. Small-scale agriculture remains the main economic sector following the closure of nearly all of the district s mining and mineral-processing plants. During the transition period, as a consequence of internal and external migration, the population of Kukës decreased by 23.7%. Tirana: Albania s geographic centre has around 602,000 residents on 1,652 km² of land. Tirana has relatively well-developed agriculture, forestry and industry sectors. During the transition period, as a consequence of internal and external migration, the population of Tirana increased by 33.1%. Elbasan: Elbasan district encompass 3,199 km² of land in the centre of Albania and has around 366,000 inhabitants. Most of the population is ethnic Albanian, with a significant number of Roma and Egyptian people. The district has relatively well-developed industry and agriculture sectors. During the transition period, as a consequence of internal and external migration, the population of Elbasan increased by 1.5%. Korça: Korça district in south-eastern Albania has an area of 3,711 km² and around 266,000 inhabitants. Most of the population is ethnic Albanian, with a significant number of minorities. The district has relatively well-developed industry, services and agriculture sectors. During the transition period, as a consequence of internal and external migration, the population of Korça decreased by 14.9%. Vlora: This district is located on the southern coast. It has around 193,000 inhabitants and an area of 2,706 km². Industry, agriculture, fishing, trade and tourism are the main economic sectors. During the transition period, as a consequence of internal and external migration, the population of Vlora decreased by 27.0%. 19

21 The second-stage clusters included villages, communes or municipalities chosen to represent the geographical diversity of the selected regions. The details of this cluster selection were agreed with the local service provider, such that at both stages (selection of regions, and selection of villages, communes or municipalities), areas with high and low levels of development, areas of high and low levels of international migration, and both rural and urban areas were included. For each survey, the number of questionnaires in each district was proportional to the size of the population in the selected district as detailed in Table 2. Table 2. Distribution of the questionnaires in the capital city and other urban and rural areas Nr District % of total population Total sample Capital city Other urban Rural 1 Shkodra Kukës Tirana Elbasan Korça Vlora Total , The procedure for selecting individual interviewees varied for potential migration and return migration. The questionnaires were implemented in a way that would include people who would usually be out at work; for example, interviews were carried out outside regular working hours. (a) Potential migrants survey A first step was to calculate the number of households to be contacted in each cluster locality in a way that reflected the proportion of the population living in different regions and areas. Thus, if 15% of the country s population lived in the capital city, 15% of interviews would be conducted in the capital city. Similarly, if 50% of the country s population was rural, 50% of the interviews should be in rural areas. This method was intended to give an approximation of a nationally representative sample. Based on this selection, interviewers were given a total number of households that needed to be contacted for the potential migration survey in each locality. This number of households was selected using a process that was either random, or was performed in a systematic way that eliminated any potential bias. For example, a series of routes for interviewers were selected at random, along which interviewers systematically selected households 16 (e.g. every fifth household). Selected households were first asked screening questions, to identify the presence of potential and returning migrants. For the purpose of this survey, returning migrants were defined as anyone who had left the survey country aged 18 or over, had lived and worked abroad continuously for at least six months, had come back at least three months previously and within the past ten years, and was present and available for interview. Those who had returned within the past three months or more than ten years ago were not asked about their experiences abroad. 16 The definition of a household for the purposes of this study is: those who live together and have communal arrangements concerning subsistence and other necessities of life, plus those who currently live elsewhere, but whose principal commitments are to the household, and who expect to rejoin (or be joined by) the household in the future. Thus, children or siblings who have moved away from the household can be considered part of the household, but only if, on return, they can confidently be expected to live within the original household again sending remittances is not a sufficient condition for an individual to be considered part of the household. 20

22 If no returning migrants were present, the potential migration survey was administered to one individual in the household aged Respondents were selected on the following basis. If only one person aged was present (i.e. available for interview), that person was interviewed. If more than one person aged was present (i.e. available for interview), one of them was selected: the person whose month of birth fell next after the completion of the interview. If birth months were not known, individuals were chosen by the drawing of lots. If nobody aged was present or available for interview, the interviewer moved on to the next household, starting again with the screening questions in order to find a respondent aged It was important to eliminate any source of bias in choosing an individual for interview; in other words, it was not always the oldest person, or the most educated, or a man, who was interviewed. In theory, once the 1,000 interviews were completed across the country, the proportion of men and women interviewed, and the proportion with different levels of education, should accurately reflect proportions in the country as a whole for the age group. (b) Returning migrants survey If the screening question (1) revealed that a returning migrant was present, then both the potential migrants and the returning migrants surveys were used, i.e. two individuals in the household were interviewed. Only one returning migrant was interviewed per household. If there was more than one returning migrant present, one person was selected as per 4(b) or 4(c) above. If there was only one eligible interviewee in the household, who was both a returnee and aged 18 40, the returning migrants survey was used, and this interview was counted towards the quota of 1,000 interviews for both the potential and returning migrants surveys. If no returning migrant was present in the screened household, an additional interview was sought with another returning migrant within the locality in order to meet the quota of return migration interviews. General The aim was that the potential migrants survey had to be broadly representative of the young adult population (aged 18 40) as a whole. This was in order to ensure that in interviewing potential migrants, there was a control sample of those in the same age group who were not actively seeking to migrate. Margin of error Assuming a simple random sampling, for a confidence level equal to 95% and p=q=0.5, Table 3 shows the margin of error for different numbers of answers The results of a survey include a statistical margin of error caused by the sampling process. This margin varies according to three factors: (i) the sample size: the greater the number of respondents to a question, the smaller will be the margin of error; (ii) the result itself: the closer the result approaches 50%, the wider the statistical margin will be. This is what is expressed by p=q=0.5 : it represents the higher margin of error, or its upper limit for the answer to a question; (iii) the degree of confidence: in social sciences, the degree of confidence most often used is 95%. 21

23 Table 3. Margin of error N 1, Margin of error 3.1% 3.6% 4.4% 6.2% 8.8% 9.8% 13.9% Returning migrants must have been aged over 18 at the time of their most recent migration in order to be included in the interviews. The contractor was asked to keep a record of the number of men and women interviewed in each category, and to outline the process of ensuring adequate representation of women (and men) in each sample. Phase 4: Analysis of the survey data and validation The ETF team of experts, with the assistance of Professor Richard Black and CESS, drafted a report based on the results of the survey. The findings were presented at a validation conference on 21 November 2007 in Tirana, under the auspices of the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities. 22

24 3. POTENTIAL MIGRANTS 3.1 Socio-demographic and educational characteristics Age and gender Data showed that the sample was almost equally divided between males (54.0%) and females (46.0%). The average age of the sample was 27.3 years (see Figure 2). Figure 2: Age distribution of sample population Age group 21.7% 14.6% 44.8% % N=1,001 respondents Civil status and family composition Some 55.0% of the surveyed population were sons or daughters of heads of households, which reflects the age range of the survey (18 40 years old). The majority of respondents (51.8%) were single and 47.0% were married, while 1.2% were widowed or divorced; 42.1% of respondents had children. Language and ethnic group Almost all respondents (98.0%) were ethnic Albanians, while 2.0% belonged to other ethnic groups18. According to the survey, most of the ethnic minorities live in the regions of Korça and Kukës. One-third of respondents spoke Italian and/or English. There was a close relationship between educational level and knowledge of a foreign language. The higher the potential migrant s educational level, the higher the probability that he/she knew more than one foreign language. A large percentage of respondents with primary education knew Greek and Italian. This is a result of the influence of TV channels (mainly Italian ones) as well as temporary migration to these countries. 18 In Albania there are several minorities: Vlachs/Aromenians, Greeks, Roma, Macedonians and Montenegrins. According to the 1989 Census, these groups represent around 2% of the total population (INSTAT, Statistical Yearbook, 1989). 23

25 Level of education The majority of the sample had medium or low levels of education (see Figure 3). Of those who attended secondary education, 37.9% went to secondary general and 15.4% to vocational schools. Figure 3: Highest level of education of sample population (%) Highest education Low Medium High N=1,001 respondents With regard to the field of study, engineering, manufacturing and construction predominated for those who had completed vocational secondary or higher education, followed by health and welfare and social sciences (Figure 3). There was a significant correlation between gender and the chosen field of study: men tended to follow studies in engineering, manufacturing and construction, while women were more oriented towards health and welfare. The main reasons for selecting a field of study were personal interest and the possibility of getting a job, rather than factors relating to migration. Indeed, only 1.0% reported that they chose their field of study because of migration considerations. Although 95.0% of respondents considered that education improves living conditions, only 36.9% intended to pursue further education or training (mainly in social sciences or humanities). 24