Dhirubhai Ambani International Model United Nations th October rd October 2016

Transcription

1 Forum: Issue: Student Officer: Position: Special Political and Decolonization Committee Measures to regulate the activities of the United Nations Peacekeeping Forces (UNPKF) Varun Sivashankar Deputy President Introduction Peacekeeping is defined as the active maintenance of a truce between nations or communities, especially by an international military force. 1 It is concerned with maintaining peace in a post-conflict region. There are several non-un peacekeeping operations worldwide, including NATO s missions in Kosovo and Afghanistan and the African Union s missions in Somalia and the Central African Republic. In this report, we observe the activities of the peacekeeping forces under the control of the United Nations. The efforts of the United Nations at peacekeeping, under the Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) have been directed towards providing security and political support to help countries make the difficult transition from conflict to peace. The UNPKF consists of military and police personnel who are members of their own national services and are deployed by their respective countries to work for the UN. 2 They are often referred to as Blue Helmets or Blue Berets. This deployment is done on a voluntary basis. Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India and Pakistan are among the largest contributors. UN Peacekeeping formally began in 1948 with the UN Truce Supervision Organization to monitor the Armistice Agreement between Israel and its Arab neighbors. There have been 69 peacekeeping operations since then, with 16 deployed currently. Several operations have shown remarkable success in countries such as Cambodia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mozambique, Namibia and Tajikistan, Sierra Leone, Burundi, Côte d Ivoire, Timor-Leste and Liberia by helping to set up a stable government, promoting sustainable economic development and ensuring that the region remains conflict-free. Hence, the UNPKF has broadly been successful, even winning the Nobel Peace Prize in However, several operations have involved human rights violations, including human trafficking, forced prostitution and child abuse, as well as outbreak of diseases like Cholera in numerous countries. Several reforms to the UNPKF must be introduced in order to uphold international peace and security and to ensure that past failures and atrocities are not repeated. This responsibility lies with the Fourth Committee of the Research Report Page 1 of 14

2 General Assembly (SPECPOL), according to item 56 in the General Committee s report A/70/250, which states that comprehensive review of the whole question of peacekeeping operations in all their aspects is within the mandate of the committee. Distribution of Current Peacekeeping Operations 3 Definition of Key Terms Peacekeeping It is a unique and dynamic instrument developed by the United Nations Organization under the control of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations as a way to help countries torn by conflict to create conditions for lasting peace. 4 Human Rights Violations Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, language, or any other status. We are all equally entitled to our human rights without discrimination. These rights are all interrelated, interdependent and indivisible. 5 These include the right to life, freedom from torture, freedom from slavery, etc. When an individual is denied any of these rights, it amounts to a violation. Genocide The term "genocide" did not exist before It is a very specific term, referring to violent crimes committed against groups with the intent to destroy the existence of the group. 6 Mogadishu Syndrome Research Report Page 2 of 14

3 The fear of politically unpopular casualties as part of a UN mission afterward plagued planners of peacekeeping missions in the UN and in the United States, which hampered future operations. 7 Background Information Listed below are peacekeeping operations that received criticism from the global community for a variety of human rights violations and other shortcomings. It is essential to understand the fundamental problems underlying each of these operations in order to introduce reforms. Failure of UNPROFOR (United Nations Protection Force) After the Second World War, the Balkan states of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia and Macedonia became part of the Federal People s Republic of Yugoslavia. After the death of Yugoslav leader Joseph Broze Tito in 1980, growing nationalism among the different Yugoslav republics threatened to split their union apart. 8 These differences led to the Bosnian War ( ). The UNPROFOR was deployed in 1992 to demilitarize designated areas in this region and create United Nations Protected Areas (UNPAs) and pink zones, which were territories under the control of the UNPROFOR but outside the boundaries of the UNPAs. During the course of the war, UN forces were unable to defend their territories and even lost control of the Peruca dam, an important pink zone, to the Croation Army. There was also considerable unrest among the Serbian population in the UNPAs and pink zones. They also failed to achieve their goal to provide humanitarian relief to all affected civilians. Moreover, they failed to prevent the killing of more than 8,000 Bosniak ("Bosnian Muslim") men and boys, as well as the mass expulsion of another 25,000 30,000 Bosniak civilians, in and around the town of Srebrenica in Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Bosnian Serb forces in 1995 and the ethnic cleansing campaign that took place throughout areas controlled by the Bosnian Serbs that targeted Muslims and Croats living in Bosnia. 9 Additionally, prostitution was the last resort to make money in the poor economy affected by war. A human trafficking industry emerged in which young girls were taken from their homes and forced into sexual slavery. Many scandals occurred in which peacekeepers were ousted after being discovered in brothels or with child prostitutes (Refer to this for a better understanding of the UNPROFOR operation) 10 Research Report Page 3 of 14

4 th rd Dhirubhai Ambani International Model United Nations October October 2016 The reasons for the failure of this operation were the small number of troops spread over a large area and poor communication between the UN and the mission, which resulted in frequent changes in its mandate. Failure of UNAMIR (United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda) The two major ethnic groups in Rwanda are the Tutsi and the Hutu. In the 1980s, although the Tutsi population was comparatively smaller, they were primarily the ruling class. However, the distinction between the two groups was fluid; intermarriage was practiced and they spoke the same language. However, once Rwanda was colonized by Germany and later, Belgium, the people were classified according to their ethnicity and the position of the Tutsi ruling class was strengthened, which angered the Hutu. The Hutu staged a coup with the support of the Belgian colonial authorities and gained power at the cost of 20,000 Tutsi lives. In 1990, the Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front (FPR) invaded Rwanda from Uganda. A ceasefire was soon negotiated in 1991 between the Hutu government and the FPR. In 1993, the UNAMIR, consisting of Belgian and Bangladeshi troops, was deployed. In 1994, unhappy with their President Juvenal Habyarimana, Hutu extremists shot down his plane, which served as a trigger for the Rwandan genocide. The organised killing of Tutsi and moderate Hutu began that day, including the Rwandan Prime Minister and 10 Belgium members of the UNAMIR. Initially, UNAMIR troops were to be withdrawn; however, it was later reinforced with 5,500 troops of UNAMIR II. The Rwandan Genocide It is estimated that some 200,000 Hutu participated in the genocide, although some were unwilling and consequently were forced to do so by the army and Hutu militia groups. The methods for killing were typically quite brutal, with crude instruments often employed to pummel or hack away at victims. Machetes were commonly used. Rape was also used as a weapon and included the deliberate use of perpetrators Research Report Page 4 of 14

5 infected with HIV/AIDS to carry out sexual assaults; as a result, many Tutsi women were intentionally infected with HIV/AIDS. The departure of peacekeepers from a school where thousands of civilians had massed hoping for protection was cited as one of the main reasons for the enduring bitterness Rwandans feel Thursday toward the United Nations because of the ensuing massacre there. UNAMIR failed to prevent this genocide, partly because of the initial murder of 10 of its members. Additionally, Secretary General Kofi Anan didn t share with the Security Council a now-famous cable sent by Canadian Lt. Gen. Romeo Dallaire on Jan. 11, 1994 warning of the risk of genocide. Also, the United Nations and Security Council virtually ignored a groundbreaking assessment by the UN human rights investigator for Rwanda who raised the possibility in August 1993 that a genocide might occur Failure of UNOSOM (United Nations Operations in Somalia I and II) The Somali Republic gained independence in British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland joined to form Somalia, while the country of Djibouti was formed from French Somaliland. Rebel forces ousted Major General Muhammad Siad Barre in 1991; however, the region continued to lack stability. The Somali National Movement (SNM) captured the capital city of Mogadishu and the majority of northern Somalia. Meanwhile, southern Somalia was in the hands of the United Somali Congress. Over 4 million people were facing drought, famine and malnutrition. 13 UNOSOM I was established in 1992, during the period of the most intense fighting, to provide humanitarian aid and maintain the ceasefire in Mogadishu. By this time, there were several factions at war with each other. These factions included Somaliland, Somali National Alliance and Somali National Front, to name a few. 14 UNOSOM met with limited success due to the following reasons: a) Despite over 4000 troops being part of the force, only 1000 troops managed to leave the Mogadishu airport due to the presence of the warlords in Somalia. Hence, a better plan of action was required to distribute troops in the conflict-torn region. b) Troops refused to follow instructions from the UN Security Council before approval from their own respective nations. The result of this poor communication was that no plan was implemented immediately. These frequent delays hampered the mission Research Report Page 5 of 14

6 In 1992 and 1993, UNOSOM I was supplemented by the United Nations Task Force, which later gave way to UNOSOM II. These operations met with greater success because of their higher military capability. UNOSOM II was supposed to set up a stable government and disarm Somali citizens. It also attempted to arrest the most powerful warlord in the country, Muhammad Farah Aydid. However, this mandate was overly ambitious. The operation suffered due to inappropriate usage of funds for goods and humanitarian aid, as well as corruption. The Somali population suffered due to the failure of UNOSOM II. It also led to the Mogadishu syndrome. 15 The Somali conflict continues to this date. Failure of UNSTAMIH (United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti) UNSTAMIH, popularly known as MINUSTAH, was a peacekeeping operation deployed in the city of Port-au-Prince in Haiti in Its mandate was to "concentrate the use of its resources, including civilian police, towards increasing security and protection during the electoral period and to assist with the restoration and maintenance of the rule of law, public safety and public order in Haiti." 16 This mission was not controversial for failing to fulfil its mandate, but rather because of the outbreak of cholera the troops inadvertently caused. The source of the disease was a UN camp consisting of Nepali peacekeepers on the banks of Artibonite River, part of the Meye tributary system. Open dumping of faecal matter close to the river system contaminated the water. Nepal had recently gone through an outbreak of cholera. Hence, this South Asian strain of Vibrio Cholerae bacteria spread through the country. Post the earthquake in 2010, poor sanitation and lack of clean drinking water favoured the spread of the disease. 17 The infamous MINUSTAH base camp 15 Refer to Key Terms emic_the_cdc_s_museum_knows_but_won_t_say.html Research Report Page 6 of 14

7 The epidemic, which continues to this date, had killed 8000 people and affected 6% of the population by The example of Haiti is important to note because it clearly shows the negligence of the UN peacekeepers while conducting their operations. It brings to light the importance of setting in place stricter guidelines for the peacekeeping officials. It is advised that the drawbacks of other peacekeeping operations be studied for a more comprehensive understanding of the situation. 19 Failure of MONUSCO (UN Organization and Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo) MONUSCO took over the functions of the UN Organization Mission in DRC (MONUC) in According to its mandate, it was to "protect civilians, humanitarian personnel and human rights defenders under imminent threat of physical violence and support the Government of the DRC in its stabilization and peace consolidation efforts." 20 Despite an annual expense of 1.4 billion dollars on the operation, it proved ineffective in fighting against the rebels in eastern Congo. In 2012, in the town of Pinga in eastern Congo, a private militia called Mai Mai Cheka decapitated several civilians and threw their heads at the gates of the UN Peacekeeping Base. This act was shockingly ignored. 21 In 2004, investigations showed that MONUC (now known as MONUSCO) peacekeepers were involved in rape and forced prostitution of females in DRC, especially in the town of Bunia. 22 It was also found out that the Pakistani battalion of MONUC was involved in a scandal that involved selling their weapons for gold to the militia in DRC. This highlights the rampant corruption involved in peacekeeping operations Research Report Page 7 of 14

8 Major Countries and Organizations Involved United States of America It contributes 28% of the resources towards peacekeeping and is also a permanent member of the Security Council. This makes it an important country when it comes to deliberating on matters relating to peacekeeping operations. India It has contributed over 180,000 troops since the formation of the UNPKF and was the third largest contributor in Hence, any measures regulating the activities of its soldiers overseas is a matter of concern for the country. Haiti With a rampant epidemic of cholera and the MINUSTAH mission still in place, Haiti is a country that will certainly have strong opinions on any peacekeeping reforms. Democratic Republic of Congo The MONUSCO mission, currently deployed, is plagued with a variety of drawbacks. 24 Hence, this country has a vested interest in solving the issue of poor peacekeeping. Permanent 5 All members of the Security Council, especially the Permanent 5, including the People s Republic of China, the Russian Federation, France, the United Kingdom and the USA are instrumental in passing any resolution. Once the General Assembly deliberates on the issue, the SC must approve its recommendation. Largest Contributors to the UNPKF. Bangladesh, Pakistan, Ethiopia, India, Rwanda and Nepal are some of the leading suppliers of troops Countries With Peacekeeping Operations Countries that have peacekeeping operations in place, such as Liberia, Central African Republic, Western Sahara, Mali, Syria, Lebanon, Cyprus and Kosovo would have an interesting perspective on peacekeeping missions. 24 Refer to Background Information Research Report Page 8 of 14

9 Timeline of Events Date Description of event 1948 Formation of UNPKF 1992 Deployment of UNPROFOR (During Bosnian War) 1992 Deployment of UNOSOM 1993 Deployment of UNAMIR (During Rwandan Civil War) 2004 Deployment of MINUSTAH 2010 Deployment of MONUSCO Peacekeeping Operations currently deployed Relevant UN Treaties and Events UN Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines - "Capstone Doctrine" Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia: Formation of UNPROFOR, 1992 (S/RES/743) Somalia: Formation of UNOSOM, 1992 (S/RES/751) Rwanda: Formation of UNAMIR, 5th October 1993 (S/RES/872) Haiti, 2009 (S/RES/1892) Democratic Republic of Congo: Formation of MONUSCO, 2010 (S/RES/1925) Implementation of the report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations, 13 th November 2000 (S/RES/1327) Combined Report of GA and SC, 17 th June 2015 (A/70/95-S/2015/246) Previous Attempts to solve the Issue Past efforts to counter the various inefficiencies and atrocities of the UNPKF include: High Level Independent Panel on UN Peace Operations The 16-member panel was established by Secretary General Ban ki-moon in According to the UN peacekeeping website, it formulated a report concerning the following issues- the changing nature of conflict, evolving mandates, good offices and peacebuilding challenges, managerial and administrative arrangements, planning, partnerships, human rights and protection of civilians. This report was presented to the Secretary General on 17 th June Research Report Page 9 of 14

10 The Brahimi Report The Report of the Panel on Peacekeeping Operations, also known as the the Brahimi Report after the Chairman of the panel, Lakhdar Brahimi. This report was published in 2000 following the UNPKF failure in Rwanda. The Secretary General at that time, Kofi Anan, spoke of five main reforms of peacekeeping that were entailed in the Report. They were as follows: i) Enhancing rapid deployment of peacekeeping operations; ii) Strengthening the relationship with Member States and legislative bodies; iii) Reforming the management culture of peacekeeping operations; iv) Reforming the peacekeeping operations relationship with field missions; v) Strengthening relationships with other United Nations bodies. 26 Following this Report, the Security Council passed a resolution at the Millenium Summit implementing the reforms. It contained the following guidelines: i) Peacekeeping operations should have a clear mandate with targets that are feasible to achieve. Additionally, there should be adequate communication between the peacekeeping officials, the Secretary General and the Security Council. ii) Ensure that the mandated tasks of the operations are legal and appropriate. Also, the military components of the mandate should be decided upon after consultation with the respective member nations and the Security Council. iii) Information should reach the UN Secretariat rapidly for better analysis and advice to the Secretary General and Security Council, so that all parties are well informed and are quicker in taking any decisions. iv) Simple peacekeeping operations should be deployed within 30 days and complex operations should be deployed within 90 days. v) Sustainable development and economic growth must be promoted and human rights of civilians in conflict-torn regions must be upheld to prevent violence. vi) Strengthen the ability of the United Nations to develop and implement peace-building strategies. vii) Draft appropriately an interim set of laws to try criminals in conflicted regions Bellamy, Alex J.; Williams, Paul; Griffin, Stuart (2010). Understanding Peacekeeping (2nd ed.). Polity. p ISBN CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/CPR%20S%20RES% pdf Research Report Page 10 of 14

11 Key Issues Human Rights Violations The civilians face human rights violations at the hands of the peacekeeping forces, an observation across various missions. This is in direct contradiction to the UNPKF s policy of maintaining peace and security and is in violation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, No United Nations organisation can be allowed to function if its actions are in utter defiance of the UN philosophy. Inefficiency of Troops in Maintaining Peace In Somalia, the lack of decisive action by the peacekeeping forces led to the death of countless civilians. Furthermore, the presence of the UNPKF in a country became associated with death and destruction and apprehension towards any future UNPKF operation. This fear was called the Mogadishu syndrome. In Rwanda, the UNPKF failed to prevent the genocide because of an early setback (murder of 10 UN officials), poor communication with the UN headquarters and early withdrawal of their troops. A more thorough set of instructions needs to be devised in order to deal with unforeseen situations. Corruption During the course of the MONUSCO mission, UN troops sold their weapons for gold to the local militia in DRC. This is not only an example of blatant corruption and illegal trade but also reduced the number of weapons available to the UNPKF and strengthened the very militia they were supposed to oppose. Hence, corruption of peacekeeping officials is not merely a problem of selected individuals making money illegally but can also hamper the peacekeeping mission. Method of Monitoring Troops It is difficult to implement a standard, uniform way of monitoring troops in various countries. Every country in which a mission is deployed has a different socio-economic background and troops from different countries may have strained relations with each other. Monitoring the troops is also important considering the cholera outbreak in Haiti, caused by the unhygienic practices of the peacekeeping forces. Slow Response Slow responses to situations requiring immediate action have often led to the failure of peacekeeping operations. The underlying problem is the time required by the UN to update the mandate of any given mission. Research Report Page 11 of 14

12 Possible Solutions Dhirubhai Ambani International Model United Nations th October rd October 2016 Amend the Brahimi Report Regularly UN peacekeeping operations are dynamic and ever changing. The Brahimi Report has set down highly relevant guidelines, but these need to be updated after certain periods of time. This is important because changes in countries foreign policies and development of new weapons could affect how the peacekeeping forces deal with a certain situation. Background Checks Establish a more thorough system of background checks of the troops in cooperation with their respective countries to prevent human rights violations. Stringent monitoring of troops deployed in the countries should also be carried out during the course of the mission by neutral organizations such as the Human Rights Watch. Clarity in Issuing Mandate Establishing a clear plan of action prior to deployment of troops in any specific situation, even if it is an emergency and improving means of communication between the troops and the Security Council. Standing Armies Set up standing armies or task forces consisting of peacekeeping officials for initial control of situations before the full deployment of an operation takes place. This would give the UN time to draw up a more detailed mandate for the actual operation. This would require approval from all the member nations. Bibliography The definition of peacekeeping Dictionary.com. "What Is Peacekeeping? United Nations Peacekeeping." UN News Center. "What Are Human Rights." What Are Human Rights. "What Is Genocide?" United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. "UNOSOM." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. "Bosnian Genocide." History.com. A&E Television Networks. Research Report Page 12 of 14

13 "UNPROFOR." UN News Center. UN, n.d. "The Blue Helmets: Sexual Exploitation, Sex Trafficking and Organizational Culture in UN Peacekeeping Operations - by Peter Mameli." The Blue Helmets: Sexual Exploitation, Sex Trafficking and Organizational Culture in UN Peacekeeping Operations - by Peter Mameli. The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Rwanda Genocide of 1994." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. UN Failed Rwanda. Global Policy Forum. Somalia Civil War. Global Policy Forum. "UNOSOM." UN News Center. UN, n.d. "Haiti: Former Senator Detained after UN Mission Finds Illegal Weapons." UN News Center. Katz, Jonathan M. "The Killer Hiding in the CDC Map." Slate Magazine. mic_the_cdc_s_museum_knows_but_won_t_say.html "Cholera Has Struck More than 6% of Haitians." CIDRAP. "MONUSCO Mandate - United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo." UN News Center. "Defining Peacekeeping Downward: The U.N. Debacle in Eastern Congo." World Defining Peacekeeping Downward The UN Debacle in Eastern Congo Comments. "UN Peacekeeping: Allegations of Sexual Exploitation and Abuse a 20 Year History of Shame." International Business Times RSS. year-history-shame Plaut, Martin. "BBC NEWS Africa UN Troops 'traded Gold for Guns'" BBC News. "Reform of Peacekeeping. United Nations Peacekeeping." UN News Center. Research Report Page 13 of 14

14 Understanding Peacekeeping (2nd ed.). Bellamy, Alex J.; Williams, Paul; Griffin, Stuart. "Security Council." International Organization 1.1 (1947): CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/CPR%20S%20RES% pdf Appendix i. %20Comprehensive%20Review%20of%20Peacekeeping%20Operations.pdf ii. iii. CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/CPR%20S%20RES% pdf iv. v. Research Report Page 14 of 14