From Babu to Bachelor:

Transcription

1 From Babu to Bachelor: Education opportunities of Indonesian domestic workers in Singapore Wissenschaftliche Arbeit zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Master of Arts der Universität Hamburg im Master Languages and Cultures of Southeast Asia vorgelegt von Anna-Lena Brosell* aus XXX GUTACHTER: XXX XXX i

2 Content Figures... iii Abbreviations... iii 1 Introduction Objective Tenaga Kerja Wanita (TKW) The Indonesian Open University in Singapore Methodology Grounded theory Data collection Influencing factors Factors in the macro environment Factors in the micro environment Individual factors The role of the image Online newspaper analysis Self image Psychological concepts Empowerment strategies Conclusions Limitations Bibliography Appendix Ehrenwörtliche Erklärung In this version the summary and the reflection chapters were omitted. ii

3 Figures Figure 1: Factors influencing the decision to study 3 Figure 2: Regional branches of the Indonesian Open University 5 Figure 3: Student data as of December 1, Figure 4: Interview partners TKW 8 Figure 5: Employer details 10 Figure 6: Comic by the Singapore Ministry of Manpower 14 Figure 7: Picture of TKW at Paya Lebar 27 Figure 8: Information system 28 Figure 9: Importance of different stakeholders in the migration process 29 Figure 10: Online newspapers 33 Figure 11: Sexualized image of TKW in Tribun Jabar 38 Figure 12: Overview of topics mentioned in the media analysis 39 Figure 13: Self concept according to Shavelson et al. (1976) 44 Figure 14: Marsh/Shavelson Model 45 Figure 15: Unfolding potential matrix 47 Figure 16: Summary of influencing factors 57 Abbreviations HPLRTIS MoM NGO TKI TKW TWC2 UT Himpunan Penata Laksana Rumah Tangga Indonesia Ministry of Manpower Non Governmental Organization Tenaga Kerja Indonesia Tenaga Kerja Wanita Transient Workers Count Too Universitas Terbuka iii

4 1 Introduction The analyses within this thesis show the possibilities for access to formal education opportunities of Indonesian female domestic workers, also known as Tenaga Kerja Wanita or TKW. So far migration of domestic workers has mostly been considered a means of improving the economic and financial situation of the women. Even though the acquisition of skills during their stay is mentioned in previous works about TKW and migrant workers, it was not considered among the main reasons for migration and mostly included skills that were directly related to their domestic work, such as cooking, baking, language and hairdressing classes. Even though there are also other courses mentioned, such as IT classes, they would not be sufficient to help TKW make the move from working in the informal sector to finding jobs in the formal sector upon their return to their home country. The possibility of TKW to acquire better education was limited. However, this changed with the introduction of university level classes for domestic workers at the Indonesian Open University (Universitas Terbuka; UT) in Singapore. This master thesis will analyze the factors that influence the TKW s decision to attend university. This includes external factors that are determined by the environment, as well as the TKW s individual situation and psychological concepts, such as self-efficacy, that might play a role. Another important part of this thesis will look at the image of TKW and its impact on the women. TKW are often viewed as vulnerable, poorly educated and even naïve. Therefore, a special focus will be on empowerment strategies applied by TKW and how they overcome the unfavorable conditions they are in. In this section the focus is on what they can do personally to improve their situation on their own. The methodology and approach used in this thesis is grounded theory. Overall, 14 interviews and group discussions were conducted with TKW, employers and NGO representatives. In line with the iterative nature of grounded theory, the initial interviews tried to provide a broad understanding of the topic, while the following interviews were more structured and focused on the topics that were mentioned in previous discussion. Furthermore, a media analysis was conducted, after it became clear that the image of TKW might have a relevant impact on their willingness to pursue further education. Eventually a model was constructed that tries to incorporate the different factors that influence TKW in their decision to attend the Open University. It shows that providing TKW with the opportunity to attend university might not be sufficient to make sure that they make use of this 1

5 opportunity. In addition, one also needs to keep in mind individual and psychological factors such as self-efficacy and the image TKW have of themselves in order to increase the number of domestic workers receiving tertiary education. Last but not least recommendations for further research will be made. 1.1 Objective The objective of this thesis is vividly portrayed by some of the observations of one of the TKW who were interviewed. She believes that there is a shift in the objectives of TKW. She argues that previously money was the sole reason for many TKW to go abroad. However, recently people started exploring more opportunities and obtaining relevant skills becomes increasingly important. Her focus is on creating a future for herself in Indonesia which includes financial resources as well as relevant skills to make a living after her return. Terus menurut kamu kan sudah enam tahun disini. Sekarang ada yang beda sama enam tahun yang lalu atau masih sama saja? Kalau menurut saya dari lihat dari saya sih memang jauh lebih baik yang sekarang gitu. Mungkin dari dulu cuma yang dibilang kalau orang Indonesia bilang kurang (???) buat apa ya. Buat membantu sesama orang Indonesia disini gitu. Jadi sekarang orang Indonesia suka membantu juga kayak yang tadi saya bilang development itu. Itu dari orang Indonesia asli. Jadi dia kerja di sini. Dia kasih waktu dia buat TKW-TKW disini untuk ngasih ilmu setiap hari minggu. Menurut kamu kan sekarang sudah lebih baik. Jadi apa yang bikin jaman ini lebih baik daripada enam tahun yang lalu? Jaman ini lebih baik karena sekarang lebih orang lebih memikirkan skill daripada uang itu sendiri. Jadi dulu kan biaya cuma gaji yang dikirim. Jadi sekarang tidak. Jadi kita harus punya skill bagaimana kita nanti pulang ke Indonesia. Jangan terus ya jadi TKW. Karena TKW jadi TKW tetap aja seenak-enaknya jadi TKW itu tidak enak. Enaknya di negeri sendiri sama orang yang kita sayang. Jadi itu mereka benar-benar membuka hati mereka, pikiran mereka juga. Gimana saya harus benar-benar punya skill yang cukup buat ke Indonesia. Walaupun cuma mendirikan sebuah sesuatu yang lebih berharga. Jangan sampai kembali ke sini lagi. Jadi tetap bertahan di Indonesia dengan kemampuan kita. (Interview 9) 2

6 Based on the information gathered during the interviews and consequently during the media analysis a theoretical model explaining why TKW choose or choose not to pursue further education in Singapore was developed. Several factors that impact TKW were found and visualized in the following figure. Figure 1: Factors influencing the decision to study Source: Own graph This model sums up the factors that influence the TKW s decision to study. In this thesis all of the factors mentioned above will be analyzed and explained in more detail as they can have positive as well as negative implications on the TKW s participation in Open University courses. A special emphasis will be on psychological factors, as they do not only offer a possible explanation why TKW with similar backgrounds make different decisions, but they might also determine to what extent TKW apply empowerment strategies. Finally, the image of TKW in society and the image they have of themselves will be looked at in more detail. The thesis will end with an overview of all the factors as well recommendations that are based on this research. 1.2 Tenaga Kerja Wanita (TKW) Tenaga kerja wanita is the Indonesian term for female migrant workers. In this thesis the term will be used specifically to describe Indonesian domestic workers in Singapore. They are 3

7 considered low-skilled workers, which often means that they work under unfavourable conditions. Bell & Piper (2005: 196) question the treatment of foreign domestic workers as second class citizens. They are for example denied the possibility to become citizens in the long run (Bell & Piper, 2005: 204&205) as foreign domestic workers are considered as low-skilled workers who only stay in Singapore temporarily. The Singaporean government s objective is to minimize the dependency on foreign workers and tries to ensure the limited stay of foreign workers by, for example, imposing a monthly levy that has to be paid if someone employs a foreign domestic worker (Yeoh, Huang & Gonzales III, 1999: 117&118). Much research has been conducted about this vulnerability of domestic workers and the hardships they endure. NGO s and other charitable organizations are also trying to improve the women s situation. However, less research deals with self-empowerment and the acquisition of compencies during the women s stay abroad. Bach (2013: ) is an exception to this. She divides her findings into three categories. Firstly, she mentions competencies related to the domestic workers duties in the household. Since these skills are linked to her everyday task in the household Bach argues that these are of little use outside their current workplace. Secondly, she mentions skills that they acquire by working as a domestic worker, but which are not directly related to her tasks. Examples described in Bach s dissertation are English language skills, discipline and how to save money. Finally, she mentions skills that are acquired outside their workplace. The examples Bach refers to are a domestic worker who is active in a catholic migrant organization, another domestic worker who was able to acquire some skills in her employer s beauty salon and one domestic worker who went to school and attended training courses for nurses. However, the academic education of TKW is rarely mentioned in existing literature. Therefore, this master thesis will try to provide more information on this topic. Further research has been conducted about the role of transnational family networks. Hugo (2003) analyzed information systems that TKW use during their migration. He argues that providing better information during the decision to migrate can help empower the women. Dolfin & Genicot (2010: 344) argue that larger family networks encourage migration of Mexican migrant workers as social networks provide information about the migration as well as the situation in the destination. These social networks also play a role in enablinging women to use education opportunities and will be analyzed in the chapter about the micro environment. 4

8 1.3 The Indonesian Open University in Singapore This chapter will introduce the Indonesian Open University as it enables the TKW to pursue tertiary education abroad. According to their website the Indonesian Open University was founded in 1984 with the objective to provide education opportunities to Indonesian as well as foreign citizens regardless of their place of residence. Even though the Open University has opened regional offices all over the country the numbers of overseas students are still limited. Figure 2: Regional branches of the Indonesian Open University Regional Office Total % Regional Office Total % Kupang ,64% Surakarta ,42% Palembang ,05% Pangkal Pinang ,37% Jakarta ,97% Banda Aceh ,25% Bandar Lampung ,47% Batam ,22% Surabaya ,44% Kendari ,83% Semarang ,32% Bandarmasin ,71% Purwokerto ,16% Denpasar ,55% Malang ,89% Jambi ,51% Pekanbaru ,59% Palu ,47% Medan ,38% Palangkaraya ,44% Pontianak ,35% Majene ,34% Samarinda ,10% Jayapura ,19% Bandung ,97% Mataram ,08% Jember ,96% Ambon ,05% Serang ,91% Tarakan ,95% Padang ,82% Manado ,88% Bogor ,81% Gorontalo ,66% Yogyakarta ,75% Sorong ,48% Bengkulu ,67% Ternate ,41% Makassar Overseas Student 2,56% Service ,37% Surakarta ,42% Grand Total % Source: Indonesian Open University website, retrieved on , from The statistic does not mention if the students in Singapore are included in the Overseas Students or if they are part of the Batam office, since program registrations for certain classes in Singapore need to be done through the Batam branch. Nevertheless the number of students in Singapore is rather small. According to Kompas.com ( ) the first 502 domestic workers signed up at the Indonesian Open University in Singapore in 2009, which means that the expansion to Singapore 5

9 took place rather recently. For the second term of 2010 this number increased to 853. Exact data on the current number of students enrolled at the Singapore/Batam branch of the Open University could not be retrieved. However, it appears that in terms of students enrolled there has not been a major increase within the last couple of years, especially considering the 92,000 Indonesian domestic workers who live in Singapore (Kompas.com, ). Another interesting fact is that about 70% of the students at the Open University are female (Open University website, retrieved on ). Therefore, being female means that it is actually more likely that one is a student at the Open University. The following figure gives further information on the age distribution of students. Around 50% of the students are below the age of 30. The TKW who were interviewed for this thesis and who studied at the Open University were mostly within this age group as well. Figure 3: Student data as of December 1, 2016 Age Number of students % < ,27% ,86% ,16% ,98% ,75% > ,98% Total % Source: Indonesian Open University website, retrieved on , from In Singapore the Open University works together with the Indonesian School in Singapore, where weekly classes. On Sundays many TKW who are enrolled in classes come to the school to study and meet up with friends. At the same time other social gatherings take place there, such as sports classes or other short term courses. Apart from these classes the students receive study material online and exchange information through social networks. Exams take place at the Indonesian School as well. 6

10 2 Methodology 2.1 Grounded theory This master thesis is based on a grounded theory approach. Grounded theory was originally developed by Glaser and Strauss in 1967 and is a methodology that uses data as the basis for forming a theory (Corbin & Strauss, 2015: 6, 15). What differentiates grounded theory from other approaches is that the research does not start with developing a clear theory by examining existing concepts, but concepts are constantly created throughout the data collection process. The findings are the starting point for further data collection and more concepts are developed afterwards. It is a circular approach which should eventually lead to the creation of a new theory which is derived from the collected data. In line with this approach, the research started with a general idea of writing a thesis about Indonesian domestic workers in Singapore. Initially, a focus on social networks was anticipated, but after the first interviews were conducted and analyzed, it gradually shifted to education and the image of TKW, as several references to these topics were made by the interviewees. Following the path the data had shown; additional interviews were conducted at the Indonesian School in Singapore. Another way to ensure staying open minded and not being too strongly influenced by preexisting concepts was to conduct the first interview without the questionnaire that was created in advance. Even though many of the previously formulated questions were answered, it helped in generating new questions as one could not rely on the existing questionnaire. Upon completion of the first interview, the new topics which came up during the interview were added to the initial version of the questionnaire and included in the following interviews. Even though the grounded theory approach suggests constantly analyzing the data during the research process by coding them, time constraints during the 3 week interview phase meant that only rough concepts could be developed at that time and detailed coding was only possible later on. However, the end of the interview phase did not constitute the end of the overall research, but was seen as a starting point for the development of concepts and hypotheses. Further research then looked at these hypotheses in more detail. This resulted in a second research phase during which a media analysis was conducted. 7

11 2.2 Data collection Overall 14 semi-structured interviews were conducted between February and March This includes 10 TKW, three employers and one former president of an NGO working with migrant workers in Singapore. In addition, there were several informal meetings with TKW during their days off. About half of the TKW interviewed attended high school or university classes at the Indonesian School in Singapore. One of the TKW was active in an association of TKW in Singapore. In addition to the interviews a media analysis took place to find out more about how TKW are perceived. In grounded theory, theoretical sampling plays a critical role. As data collection and data analysis follow a circular approach, grounded theory provides the opportunity base one s selections of interview partners on the preliminary findings of previous interviews. In this case the initial interview was conducted with a TKW who was studying at the Open University which became the main focus of this thesis. This TKW invited me to join her at the Open University where further interviews could be conducted with women who were getting degrees or signed up for other classes (Interview partners 6-9). However, to compare and analyze the differences between TKW who chose to attend university and others who did not took these classes (Interviews 1-4). Interview 5 was a special case since the TKW had previously attended classes at the Indonesian School in Singapore, but decided to stop going there. Interview 10 was also special as the TKW was in the leadership team of an organization that supports TKW in Singapore and therefore had a unique perspective. Furthermore, I tried to find interview partners who differed in terms of age and family background as the figure below shows. Figure 4: Interview partners TKW Interview 1 Interview 2 Interview 3 Interview 4 Interview 5 Date of interview Origin Java Java Java Java Java Age ish Attending classes at the Open University/ Indonesian School in Singapore No No No No Previously for 1 year 8

12 How long have you been in Singapore? Family (husband & children) , and now Husband working in Malaysia and one child living with her grandmother in Toa Payoh, 9 month in Indonesia to get married, from 2014 until now in Singapore Husband and one child , then she returned to Indonesia shortly, but came back the same year, until now She had a husband when she first came to Singapore, but he passed away in 2014; 1 child. staying with her older sibling , 2014-today Husband, no children 7 years Not married Interview 6 Interview 7 Interview 8 Interview 9 Interview 10 Date of interview Origin Java Java Java Java Java Age Attending Yes Yes Planned to Yes Yes classes at the Open University/ Indonesian School in Singapore attend, but decided to join computer and sewing classes instead How long 5,5 years 4 years 3 years 6 years 17 years have you been in Singapore? Family (husband & children) Not married Not married Not married Not married??? 9

13 In addition to interviewing TKW further interviews were conducted with employers as well as a founder of an NGO trying to support domestic workers in Singapore. General information about the employers can be found in the figure below. The complete questionnaire used for the interviews with the employers is in the appendix. Figure 5: Employer details Nationality of employer Nationality of domestic worker Length of employment Reasons for having a helper Why did you select your helper/ criteria? Employer 1 Employer 2 Employer 3 Singaporean Singaporean Philippino (Chinese) (Chinese) Indonesian Indonesian Philippino 6 years Since October 2014 Almost 10 years To take care of the father who had a stroke Language, because her parents speak Malay Household tasks, cooking Had to speak Mandarin To take care of the dog when they are traveling, prepare food, ironing, no cleaning Philippino were preferred for language reasons Before conducting the interviews, their purpose as part of a master thesis research was explained. Furthermore, they were ensured that their names would not be mentioned in the thesis. Therefore, all names were substituted in this thesis. Interviewees were asked for the permission to voice record the interviews. In some cases they did not feel comfortable with this and instead notes of their answers were taken. Other data includes personal notes of observations, newspaper articles, photos and videos. Semi-structured interviews were chosen as the main method. According to Corbin and Strauss (2015: 39) the advantages of semi-structured interviews are that they ensure that certain topics are covered in each interview. They can also be of help to the researcher, because they can always get back to their prepared questions during the interview process. This was also the case in this research project. However, not all questions were included in all interviews, because the questionnaire evolved throughout the research process, as concepts from previous interviews were added to the initial questionnaire to follow up on some preliminary findings or ideas. It 10

14 needs to be highlighted that the initial interviews were less structured and were used to cover a broad range of topics. After certain topics were mentioned that appeared to be relevant, they were included in the following interviews. Therefore, the interviews became more and more structured throughout the research process. In semi-structured interviews researchers normally start by asking the prepared questions and then continue to ask if the interviewee feels that there are additional issues that should be covered. A disadvantage of this method is that some information might not be mentioned, because the interviewee did not know if the additional information was important, since a particular topic might not have been included during the previous questions (Corbin and Strauss, 2015: 39). Usually topics for semi-structured interviews are taken from existing literature; however, in this case many topics were taken from the first interview which differed from the subsequent ones as it was unstructured. Unlike semi-structured interviews, which might have the effect that some issues are not addressed, unstructured interviews can be a highly effective source for acquiring data. In unstructured interviews, the interviewees are given more freedom to express their thoughts, while the interviewer can follow up on interesting concepts. Corbin and Strauss (2015: 38) highlight that it is important to keep in mind that the interviewer can also have an influence on the way the interviewees respond to the questions. Nevertheless unstructured interviews can be a rich source of information. In this research project the initial unstructured interview was especially important as it eventually changed the entire course of the research. The TKW interviewed mentioned her studies at the Open University, something that was not anticipated prior to the interview. If the initial interview had been structured or semi-structured, this remark might not have been made. In line with the grounded theory approach, the subsequent interviews tried to gather more information regarding this topic. Furthermore, a visit to the Indonesian School in Singapore was made, as Open University classes for TKW were held there. Afterwards the interviews were analyzed with regard to the factors that led to the TKW s decision to study or prevented them from seeking further education. During the analysis of the interviews many references to the image of TKW were made. To find out more about how TKW were portrayed in the media, an analysis of online newspapers was conducted. The top 50 google search results for the terms Indonesian domestic workers Singapore, Tenaga kerja Indonesia Singapura and Tenaga kerja wanita Singapura were screened for newspaper 11

15 articles about TKW in Singapore. The terms mentioned above were selected, because they can be considered neutral. Furthermore, the search terms were in English as well as Indonesian in order find out if there are any differences. Out of the 150 search results that were screened, 56 were relevant newspaper articles. They were coded and analyzed with regard to the image portrayed of Indonesian domestic workers. The results will be portrayed in chapter 4 of this thesis. 12

16 3 Influencing factors Making university classes available to domestic workers is an important step to increase their skills, but it is not sufficient to attract larger numbers of students. During the research for this thesis a number of factors that influence the domestic worker s decision to study became apparent. These can be divided into factors on the macro level, such as the political environment, and on the micro level, which includes the social networks of TKW. Individual factors that are dependent on the character and personal situation of the TKW are looked at as well. Even though these factors will be grouped in the following analysis, it must be noted, that they do influence each other and therefore cannot completely be separated from each other. 3.1 Factors in the macro environment In this thesis factors in the macro environment are defined as any factor that is not part of the immediate (social) surroundings of the TKW and that they personally cannot influence as there is no direct interaction between the women and these factors. Developments in the macro environment can have a major impact on the TKW s opportunity to study. Overall trends have enabled the TKW to attend the Open University. Digitalization, for example, has affected domestic workers. Platt et al (2014: 5) conducted a study about information technology among Indonesian domestic workers in Singapore and found that 90% owned a cell phone. Furthermore, some of them managed to negotiate with their employers that they could use their wifi at home. Out of the 201 domestic workers that were interviewed 39.3% had internet access (Platt et al, 2014: 14). However, this number most likely increased since then. Internet acces is is crucial for TKW who intend to study at the Open University as they provide materials online. Therefore, digitalization enables TKW to receive further education. Apart from making these courses available to TKW and having the necessary technology, another important factor is the amount of free time TKW have to attend classes. The Singaporean government entitled all TKW with a Work Permit issued or renewed after 01 January 2013 to a weekly rest day (Singaporean Ministry of Manpower website, 2016) by amending the Employment of Foreign Manpower Act (Chapter 91A) & Employment of Foreign Manpower (Work Passes) Regulations in However, while this Act entitles TKW to a weekly rest day, it can be substituted with the equivalent of one day s salary (Fourth Chapter, Paragraph 11-14). Furthermore, the Ministry offers financial support to families who need 13

17 constant care for elderly citizens and therefore cannot give a weekly rest day to their domestic helper. On the other hand the Ministry of Manpower also published the FDW Weekly Rest Day: A GUIDE For Employers booklet, where they promote the idea to let their domestic workers sign up for courses during their day off. Furthermore, they provide a list of organizations that offer classes, which also includes the Open University classes at the Indonesian School in Singapore. Figure 6: Comic by the Singapore Ministry of Manpower Source: Singapore Ministry of Manpower, FDW Weekly Rest Day: A GUIDE For Employers booklet Despite these efforts by the Ministry of Manpower there are many domestic workers who do not get a day off and receive no compensation for it. In 2015 the Singaporean NGO Transient Workers Count Too (TWC2) published a study for which they asked 195 domestic workers 14

18 about their day off. The surveys were conducted between July 2013 and October 2014 and came to the result that 50% of domestic workers with contracts before 2013 received no weekly day off, while the number decreased to 40% for domestic workers with new contracts. In addition, 10% of the domestic workers reported that they had no day off at all. Also 44% did not receive compensation for working on their days off and 28% were not comfortable with their leave arrangements. However, a vast majority of 91% were aware about the official regulations regarding days off. In the analysis of their survey, TWC2 found that there appears to be a relationship between the time domestic workers spent in Singapore and the number of days off they are granted. They explain this with an increased bargaining power. While domestic workers who just arrived have to repay their debt and have little experience, they gain more bargaining power over time. TWC2 also found that there is a relationship between the salary and the amount of days off. Domestic workers with higher salaries also tended to receive more days off. This can be explained with higher bargaining power as well, since it is not solely used for negotiating better day off conditions, but also higher salaries. An example mentioned in one of the interviews conducted for this thesis is in line with this observation. A TKW mentioned in her interview on that she currently receives a salary of $SG 500 (Interview 6, Question 55). Once her contract finishes she will ask for $SG 600 a month. In case she won t receive the pay rise, she would move to another employer. As she is already familiar with the habits of her employer and gained experience working with them, she is now in a position to renegotiate her contract. Her employer should have an interest in keeping her, as hiring a new domestic worker would mean additional effort for them. Another NGO, the Humanitarian Organization for Migration Economics (HOME), published a study in March 2015 that came to similar conclusions. Their study was based on surveys of 670 domestic workers and they reported that 40% of them did not receive a weekly day off. An average of 13 working hours a day leaves little room for studying either. In addition to mandatory days off, there is another factor in the macro environment that can possibly influence the TKW s decision to study, which is political stability. During the research period there was an ongoing debate about whether Indonesia should stop sending domestic workers abroad. On 14 February 2015 the Straits Times (online) reported that the Indonesian President Jokowi said that he would stop sending Indonesian domestic workers abroad. However, the article also mentioned that Jokowi s predecessor Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono 15

19 had already made efforts to bring Indonesian migrant workers home in The debate whether to stop the practice of sending domestic workers abroad has already been ongoing for years, but so far there has been no final decision. It is questionable, if Jokowi s plans will be executed. Nevertheless these reports have an effect on the domestic workers in Singapore as they can create an atmosphere of doubt and insecurity. The domestic workers that were interviewed during this research were well aware of the debate and all of them apart from one TKW opposed the government s plan. They argued that they need to make money and Indonesia does not provide sufficient opportunities for them. During her interview a TKW (Interview 3, Question 109) said If he provides jobs for us that pay as much as we get here, ok if not, don t stop us from working abroad. On the other hand, another TKW (Interview 4, Question 109) mentioned that it might be better to stop sending TKW, because of all the negative occurrences. Currently, TKW are still working in Singapore, but whenever a serious case of abuse becomes publicly known or there are political tensions between Indonesia and the receiving countries, there will be new voices calling for the end of Indonesian female domestic workers abroad. Since completing a degree takes several years, TKW need a certain amount of stability. Furthermore, the TKW need to have an additional benefit from studying at the Open University. Therefore, the Indonesian job market needs to provide them with sufficient employment opportunities after their return to Indonesia and the TKW need to believe getting a degree will help them to improve their situation. Kamu sebentar lagi kan akan lulus. Sudah ada rencana setelah kamu TKW disini? Kamu ngapain? Atau ada rencana kamu masih tinggal di sini berapa lama? Rencana saya setelah saya lulus wisuda saya ingin kembali ke Indonesia dengan sertifikat UT dan juga mengikuti kursus komputer dan bahasa inggris di sini. Sebagai modal untuk mencari pekerjaan di Indonesia. (Interview 6) Kalau kerja di Indonesia, tahu sendiri, maksimal sekarang kalau S1 lulusan gimana kita dapatin gaji yang lebih besar. Sama kayak di Indonesia juga. Kalau di Indonesia walaupun dibilang pembantu rumah tangga PRT tapi gajinya tidak ada apa-apanya kayak di luar negeri. (Interview 9) 16

20 In the first interview it was mentioned that the TKW hopes to find a job by attending classes at the Open University. She seems to believe that her investment in getting a degree is beneficial in the long run. In the second interview the difficulty of finding a job without a university degree was highlighted. Therefore, studying seems to be the only chance to get into the formal job market upon return from Singapore. This shows that regardless of the actual state of the Indonesian job market, they believe that it justifies the effort of getting a degree at the Open University. Overall, it can be noted that the conditions in the macro environment that enable domestic workers to study at the Open University have improved during the last couple of years. Not only did the Open University introduce courses for them, but the regulations that govern the domestic worker s entitlement to a rest day have given more women the opportunity to attend courses during their free time. The Ministry of Manpower even actively recommends these classes to employers. On the other hand, domestic workers are still highly dependent on their employers regarding free time as they have to approve their request for days off. New migrants in particular have little room for negotiation that could possibly improve their conditions and enable them to get access to university education. Lastly, frequent calls for the end of sending TKW abroad might create an atmosphere of insecurity that could be detrimental. 3.2 Factors in the micro environment In this thesis the micro environment will be considered as the immediate surroundings of the TKW such as people and agencies they regularly are in contact with. These social ties are believed to play an important role in work migration. Existing theories on social networks and migration were summarized by Haug (2008: 589). She mentions the affinity hypothesis which proposes that existing social ties in the place of origin have a negative effect on the willingness to migrate as well as the information hypothesis which states that ties to the receiving country increase the likelihood of migration. The facilitating hypothesis highlights the support functions that social ties in the destination country have in terms of financial as well as moral support. She also mentions the conflict hypothesis which focuses on the push factor that conflicts in the home country constitute. Last but not least, the encouraging hypothesis proposes that ties in the home country can also be a push factor, when for example family members support the migration. This summary shows the variety of ways that social ties can influence the TKW in their decision to migrate. Even though these theories focus on the migration decision, some of 17

21 these hypotheses might also be to a certain extent valid in terms of pursuing further education. Encouragement from families and friends would most likely lead to an incrreased likelihood to sign up for classes. Having friends who are already students at the Open University make it easier for other TKW to collect information and adjust to the new situation. This chapter will therefore analyze the impact that the TKW s immediate environment can have. During their stay abroad TKW are in contact with a number of people that can influence their decisions. Upon their departure from Indonesia their family still plays a very important role. However, throughout their stay abroad this often changes as they spend the majority of their time in their employer s household and can only contact their family through phone calls, skype or sms. In addition, other new stakeholders emerge, such as their Singaporean agencies and friends they make in Singapore. These stakeholders will be looked at in more detail in this chapter. Family The family often plays an important part in the TKW s decision to migrate and even though their influence on the TKW decreases over time, they still are an important factor. This is among others due to improved communication tools, which also makes transnationalism in migrant networks becomes increasingly relevant (Portes et al, 1999: 223). Transnationalism refers to social, economic and political engagement across borders (Vertovec, 2009: 13). TKW and their families are part of these transnational networks and therefore, influence each other (Hugo, 2002: 14). Information flows through these transnational networks which can be considered a form of social capital (Coleman, 1988: 104) and are possibly to the advantage of the women. However, Hugo (2002: 26) argues that despite these positive effects of transnational networks, distancing themselves from their families could empower women as they become more independent and come in contact with other people from different backgrounds. This ambivalent relationship between the women and their families could also be observed during the research for this thesis. The type of influence that the family exerts can very much differ and is highly dependent on the specific situation. Therefore, this chapter will give an overview of the role that families might play. Supporting their families is one of the main reasons why the women decided to become TKW in the first place, even though in some cases the families were initially against them working 18

22 abroad. One of the TKW s parents (Interview 7, Question 19), for example, initially did not allow her to go abroad, because she was still underage at that time. Another TKW s parents (Interview 5, Question 19) did not agree to let her go abroad either, but she ran off to Singapore by herself and did not even tell her family that she became a TKW until she was already abroad. In yet another case (Interview 3, Question 19) her husband did not give his permission at first, but eventually agreed. However, once she had arrived in Singapore he wanted her to come back. Their reasons for going abroad often involved making money and supporting their families. However, in some cases in addition to poverty, problems at home (Interview 9, Question 20) were named as the reason to go abroad. Sometimes economic issues in the families (Interview 5, Question 20; Interview 9, Question 20) prevented the TKW from continuing to go to school, so they decided to become TKW instead. Gimana waktu kamu bilang mau jadi TKW? Kamu masih muda kan? Ya, tidak ada kepikiran. Sebenarnya satunya frustrasi. Ada masalah keluarga. Kalau kebanyakan disini pasti ada masalah yang mungkin kita tidak bisa menyelesaikan. Larinya kesini biar lupa gitu. Jadi sama. Ada masalah, tidak ada jalan keluar, lari kesini aja gitu. Dan tidak niat untuk kerja kayak gini, planning dari itu tidak pernah ada. Tiba-tiba diajak. Sudah sore aku datang itu. Langsung ke agen. Langsung kesini. (Interview 1) Kamu memutuskan untuk pergi ke Singapura atau by accident? By accident. Sebenarnya kalau saya ada broken home. Terus mau ke sekolah, tidak di satu sekolah di Indonesia yang aku suka tidak bisa masuk gara-gara ekonomi. Terus binggung mau kemana. Terus ada yang nawarin ke Singapore. Terus pikiranya ya udah. Habis ke Singapore kuliah gitu. Cuman sampai sekarang betah di Singapore. Karena bosnya baik terus gitu. Jadi betah. (Interview 9) In this special case the TKW already had the wish to pursue further education before departing for Singapore. However, a difficult situation within the family as well as lacking financial resources meant that she was not able to continue school. Instead she chose to work abroad and save money in order to enroll at university upon her return. However, the Indonesian Open University gave her the opportunity to study while working in Singapore instead. In this case the financial situation at home as well as the negative emotions ( broken home ) towards the family initiated her departure from Indonesia. 19

23 In contrast to this there are other examples where families were very supportive of the woman s decision to become a TKW. ( ) Terus saya bertanya sama keluarga. Gimana kalau saya kuliah di sini? Mungkin uang yang saya kirim kurang karena saya harus bayar biyaya kuliah juga. Tapi mereka, ya sudah, tidak apa-apa. Mereka setuju. Terus setelah mereka setuju saya ngomong majikan. Majikan juga setuju tapi kamu harus bisa membagi waktu untuk kerja dan kuliah. (Interview 6) How close the TKW are to their family once they are in Singapore depends on the individual person. One of the TKW (Interview 3, Question 74), for example calls her child every day, whereas she contacts her parents once a week. However, she also mentioned, that she contacts her older sibling whenever she has problems, while other TKW (Interview 4, Question 89; Interview 5, Question 89) talk to their friends instead. Another TKW (Interview 9, Question 74) also calls her family once a week, but sends sms more often. In general, TKW are in touch with their families regularly, especially if they have children. However, life in Singapore significantly differs from how their families live in Indonesia. This makes it difficult for them to communicate their situation as their relatives at home might not understand what living in Singapore is like. In addition, since TKW spent a long time apart from their families the direct influence of the family at home might decrease over time. Nevertheless they are usually consulted for important decisions, such as taking up university studies. Agency Often agents are involved in bringing the TKW to Singapore and placing them with an employer. An agency in Indonesia organizes the migration, but once the TKW arrive in Singapore a local agency takes over. The agencies are supposed to provide TKW with information during the migration and make sure the migration is in line with the existing rules and regulations. However, the quality among agencies varies. While some operate according to the regulations, others fail to provide proper service. A TKW mentioned an information booklet that she received from the Ministry of Manpower (MoM) in case she faces any problems (Interview 8, Question 90). However, many of her friends neither received it from the MoM, nor from the agency. Two other TKW did not know about any of this information at all 20

24 (Interview 2, Question 90; Interview 4, Question 90), while another one was only informed by the Indonesian embassy (Interview 9, Question 90). The agencies were not mentioned as a source of information, even though they are responsible for making sure that all first time foreign domestic workers in Singapore attend a settling-in programme. During this one day training they should receive information about their employment in Singapore and safety precautions (Ministry of Manpower, online). Previous research, however, suggests that misconduct of agencies does occur. Platt et al (2013: 40-41) found cases where domestic workers were ill-informed by their agencies and they observed a lack of transparency regarding salary deductions by agencies. This varying quality of agencies means that not all TKW get sufficient support from their agencies. Furthermore, Platt et al. (2013: 43) criticize the commodification of foreign domestic workers. According to them some agencies offer a replacement system where employers can exchange their domestic worker for a new one for free in case they are not satisfied. The TKW are a source of income for the agencies and the TKW are dependent on them. With regard to university attendance it therefore seems unlikely that TKW will receive any help from agencies, as they do not directly benefit from it. Employer Once the TKW arrived in Singapore the employer plays an important role. Goh et al. (2016: 5-7) argue that the TKW, the employer and the agency are bound by a system of indebtedness. If the TKW does not fulfill her contractual duties and decides to leave, the employer can be held liable by the agent. The employer also needs to pay for the TKW s journey back home, which means that the employer has a strong interest to keep the TKW. Furthermore, in Singapore employers need to provide a security bond for the TKW of up to $SG 5,000 which can be forfeited under certain circumstances. The Singaporean Ministry of Manpower published the following information on their website: Your security bond may be forfeited if: You or your helper violate any of the conditions of the Work Permit or security bond. You don't pay her salary on time. You fail to send her back when her Work Permit is expired, revoked or cancelled, or if she goes missing. 21

25 If the helper goes missing, half of the security bond ($2,500) will be forfeited if you have made reasonable effort to locate her and have filed a police report. You will not be liable for your helper's violations (such as those relating to pregnancy) if you can prove that you have: Informed her of the Work Permit conditions she must comply with. Reported a violation when you first become aware of it (Ministry of Manpower Singapore, online: Security bond requirements for foreign domestic worker, retrieved on ) This security bond constitutes an additional reason for the employers to keep their TKW under close surveillance. Employers might worry about the whereabouts of the TKW when they are not at home, because an unforeseen pregnancy would result in a financial loss. In one of the interviews (Interview E1) an employer confirmed that this is one of the main worries of employers. This creates a situation where employers have on the one hand an interest in controlling the whereabouts of the TKW to protect their interests and on the other hand have the means to enforce this as the TKW lives in the employer s property and is dependent upon him or her. This means that granting the TKW their day off can be considered as a risk. In the interviews a TKW mentioned that problems might occur if the women hang out with the wrong people (salah bergaul) and don t use their free time for the right things (Interview 7, Question 91). Therefore, some employers are reluctant to grant the day off as the quote below highlights. Biasanya kerja berapa hari? Libur berapa hari? Kalau dulu pas cina sih full day. Kalau minggu tidak off. Sebenarnya kalau cina tidak suka untuk dikasih pembantunya untuk off. Takutnya macam-macam di luar gitu. Jadi cina tuh lebih strict ke helpernya. Tapi kebanyakan buat kebaikan juga, karena ada yang nakal juga, di luar ngapain-ngapain itu. (Interview 9) In addition, negative reports about TKW in the media (see chapter about the image of TKW in the media) might cause employers to be careful and more restrictive with their domestic workers. In other cases the relationship between the TKW and the employer is strained. The quote below highlights some potential problems the TKW might face at work. 22

26 Sebenarnya kalau yang ada masalah mungkin mereka kurang mental. ( ) Nomor satu mental itu. Jadi itu, mental mereka low. Mungkin kurang komunikasi juga sama majikan dan dia tidak bisa bahasa. Kalau orang beda, orang berpendidikan sama tidak. Bukan mau merendahkan orang tak berpendidikan. Cuman kita yang masih muda sudah berbekal dari Indonesia. Ya maksimal bahasa. Jadi kita tahu cara membatasi... Kalau sebenarnya mereka banyak sih. Teman saya yang TKW benar-benar kayak takut dengan majikan. Jadi kalau orang C. Orang C. itu strict banget lo. Pokoknya kerja. Bangun pagi. Jam enam tet. Harus bangun jam enam. Jam enam tuh sampai malam jam 12 kalau tidak jam 11. Itu yang nasibnya tidak baik. Jadi makan saja lebih kayak majikan... Kalau dibilang lebih sayang anjingnya daripada pembantunya. (Interview 9) The TKW described above are afraid of their employers and face difficult working conditions including long working hours. They are under extreme pressure and need to be mentally resilient to able to deal with this situation. Little communication and language barriers between TKW and employers can enhance problems as miscommunication can create further problems. In addition, poor language skills make it difficult for TKW to speak up, especially if they are already afraid of their employer. TKW who find themselves in an employment situations like the one described above will not have the opportunity to make use of the available education opportunities. An additional problem was highlighted during the interview with an NGO representative. The other key issue is the security of workers in Singapore. At the moment if your employer wants to fire you and send you home he can do that without giving a reason. (Interview NGO) TKW, who attend university, need to plan several years in advance as part time studies take a long time. Therefore, they need a certain amount of security regarding their jobs. If speaking up can put them at risk they will most likely refrain from doing anything that could upset the employer or put a strain on the working relationship. On the other hand, employers can be an important support factor for TKW. Wardoyo & Mahmud (2013: 223) found that apart from granting the permission to study, they also give moral support, time to study and provide internet access which enables TKW to study from home. In one of the interviews a TKW even mentioned that her employer was the one who 23

27 suggested that she should attend the Indonesian School in Singapore and she offered to pay for her classes. Jadi dia (bosnya) juga support kamu ikut kursus? Actually she asked me to do everything like study here or whatever. Then she is the one to pay, but I don t know why, I m lazy. Ya kan, di sini kan juga bisa kayak sekolah lagi. Yang di Indonesian School. Lulus SMA. Ya dulu saya pernah sekolah di situ. Satu tahun saja. Keluar. Kenapa? Tidak tahu. Waktu itu bikin saya bening. Susah. Mungkin sudah lama di Indonesia tidak study jadi sudah tidak nyangka. (Interview 5) Another TKW mentioned that her employer does not only allow her to study for one hour during her work time (Interview 6, Question 62), but provides her with all the facilities and tools she needs for studying. Terus majikanmu support kamu? Majikan aku memberi fasilitas berupa itu. Laptopnya dia dikasih. Free wifi. Segala kebutuhan macam???, buku, bolpen, pengaris, kalkulator. Semua dia kasih. Diberi waktu off day setiap minggu untuk kesini belajar itu ( ) Terus waktu kamu bilang sama mereka kamu mau kuliah di UT jawabannya gimana? Pas aku mau kuliah aku ada off day satu bulan sekali. Saya ingin kuliah. Pas itu majikan yang laki-laki tidak apa-apa. Ijinin. Tapi majikan perempuan tidak ijinin. Soalnya takut nanti terganggu sama kerja. Tapi majikan perempuan coba saja. Kalau kamu tidak bisa kamu tahu. Tapi kalau kamu bisa kamu lanjut. Sampai sekarang saya bisa. (Interview 6) Kalau yang laki itu baik. Yang bos yang laki itu katanya lepas kamu lulus mungkin saya bisa bantu carikan pekerjaan karena saya ada relative di Indonesia, disana. Mungkin saya bisa carikan dia kerja kan overseas ke Indonesia, Malaysia, Sydney, 24

28 Singapore, India, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Korea, China, overseas itu. (Interview 6) In addition the employer also offered her help in searching for a job after she graduates from university as he is well connected in the region. In a case where the TKW builds a positive relationship with her employers she might also benefit from their networks. However, this is probably an exception rather than the rule in terms of finding employment in Indonesia. Apart from the support a TKW can get from her employer this example also shows that some negotiating might be necessary to convince the employer to let them study. In this case the male employer agreed, however the female employer was skeptical if the TKW was able to handle the additional work load. However, mutual agreements are possible if both sides are willing to compromise. In this case an agreement could be reached in the form of a probation period. If the TKW could properly take care of her duties at work she would be allowed to continue studying, which eventually worked out well. Friends Friends play an important role throughout the entire migration process. They are a source of information as well as support. Four out of seven TKW who made remarks about how they got to know about the possibility to work in Singapore mentioned in their interviews that it was through their friends (Interview 1, 2, 4&5, Question 18). This is in line with existing research about the importance of social networks in the migration process (Haug, 2000: 19&20). Also, after arrival in Singapore their friends continue to be of importance as the example below shows. Di sini kan kita cuma teman. Ketemunya teman beda. Beda-beda daerah gitu. Kita punya teman. Ya kita ngikutin. Contohnya sendiri. Kita pakai sexy, ngelihatin. Orang pada lihatin. Na bosnya paling tidak suka lo. Kalau melihat pembantunya kayak itu. Takut ada masalah. Yang kemarin yang meninggal di hotel itu. Itu kan pasti salah jalan. Coba kalau ketemu teman yang baik. Kan tidak mungkin ada yang pergi situ. Paling dibawa ke sekolahan. Dibawa ke mesjid. Teman TKW-TKW mempengaruhi juga. Pergaulan. (Interview 9) 25

29 This TKW believes that the friends a TKW chooses have an impact on how someone behaves and eventually that person s fate. She refers to an incident that took place shortly before the interview. A TKW was allegedly murdered by her boyfriend in a hotel room in Geylang, an area known for prostitution. From her point of view this happened because the TKW became friends with the wrong kind of people who would go to places like Geylang or wear sexy clothes. Instead, she suggests people should choose friends who spend their free time with attending classes or going to the mosque. In addition she mentioned that TKW are also in contact with migrant workers in other countries and exchange information across borders. facebook diaccess, dalam lima menit seluruh dunia sudah melihat. Karena TKI TKI, TKW tidak cuma ada di Singapore. Jadi kalau ada masalah di Singapore share sama yang di Malaysia. Jadi kalau ada (???) masalah disana juga tahu gimana cara menghadapinya. Kalau dibilang sekarang banyak yang namanya scam. (Interview 9) Social media has brought cheaper and faster communication which TKW make use of. It also enables them to keep in touch with other Indonesian migrant workers in other countries. Therefore, information flows are not only limited to Singapore and Indonesia, but includes other countries as well. However, in terms of education it gives them the opportunity to communicate with other students worldwide. Other factors Terus caranya kamu dapat informasi kayak gitu dari mana? Tentang kelas atau kursus. Kalau kita ke embassy. Kalau bikin paspor gitu. Kalau tidak ada acara di embassy biasanya dikasih kertas. Jadi itu banyak informasi yang menarik juga gitu. Cara mengirim uang lewat sini. Cara ganti majikan ke ke beda agency. Di mana yang lebih baik? Sama biasanya ada yang sekolah-sekolah yang menawarin sekolah itu. Jadi dari embassy. Iya. Kalau di social media juga ada banyak yang kayak di facebook. Namanya sekarang semuanya sudah meng-access facebook. Jadi banyak di facebook. 26

30 (Interview 9) The quote above shows that there are many other factors that have an impact on the TKW. They receive information and support regarding classes and education opportunities from NGOs or the Indonesian embassy. Himpunan Penata Laksana Rumah Tangga Indonesia (HPLRTIS) for example shares information about classes at the Indonesian School in Singapore with TKW. Disini juga ada training kan. Ada ada semacam... Kalau kita pertama kali kesini kita belum lulus secondary school, belum lulus pre kita bisa lanjut disini. Oo sekolah juga? Tidak hanya UT? Namanya paket B. Paket C. Kalau paket B itu se???, ya sama dengan secondary school. Kalau paket C tu belum lulus SMA. ( ) Nanti kita juga bantu, bantu info lah. Siapa yang mau join kita kasih info terus suruh register disini. Kita info saja. Lewat facebook. (Interview 10) Other NGOs such as Transient Workers Count Too (TWC2) have regular outreach programs where they contact TKW in some of the places were they are commonly known to spend their free time, such as Paya Lebar. Figure 7: Picture of TKW at Paya Lebar Source: Own picture, taken on NGOs and government organizations also work together to provide TKW with information. A TKW who was also a member of HPLRTIS shared how information is passed on from one organization to another. 27

31 Kalau ada info apa-apa lewat kita. Nanti kita info teman-teman yang lain. Kalau ada embassy Indonesia embassy kalau ada event apa mereka kasih tahu kita, organisasi kita. Nanti kita info ke semua. Organisasi lain? Ya. (Interview 10) The figure below shows how information is passed on from the Indonesian embassy to HPLRTIS and how they consequently inform other organizations. As HPLRTIS is an organization for Indonesian domestic workers, they mostly contact other Indonesian groups, especially if they pass on information regarding events such as the celebrations for the Indonesian Independence Day on August 17. Neverthless, the TKW (Interview 10) mentioned that they also work together with Singaporean organizations such as FAST or HOME, who work with migrants from several countries. However, they will not involve them in these Indonesian events. Figure 8: Information system Source: Own graph, based on a drawing by Interviewee 10 28

32 Summary It is important to note that the influence of these stakeholders is not only different for every TKW but it can also change over time and throughout the migration process. While families play an important role when the TKW are still in their home country their influence diminishes after the TKW have spent some time abroad. The employer on the other hand is of great importance once the TKW have arrived in Singapore. Therefore, one cannot evaluate the importance of these stakeholders alone, but needs to consider the phase of the migration process the TKW is in. The following graph tries to give an overview of this process. Figure 9: Importance of different stakeholders in the migration process Stakeholder Pre departure in Indonesia Transition Upon arrival in Singapore Family Agency Employer Friends Source: Own graph based on interviews & literature Of course, it always depends on the individual TKW and this table might not describe the situation of all TKW. It does, however, show that the environment the TKW live in changes over time and the TKW themselves also change during their migration. 3.3 Individual factors Although the factors in the macro and micro environment have an impact on the TKW s decision to study, it is a decision that needs to be made by the individual women. There are a number of personal characteristics that increase or decrease the likelihood to pursue further education. An important factor appears to be the age and family status of the TKW. For many the reason for becoming TKW that was named the most was making money, because of the limited opportunities in their home country. Kalau kebanyakan orang Indonesia datang ke sini masalah ekonomi. Karena yang kebanyakan sih yang dari dulu sudah berkeluarga baru kesini. Karena mereka kan tidak 29

33 punya skill itu. Kayak sekolah. Maybe cuma primary school. Terus di Indonesia kan gaji berapa? Jadi kebanyakan orang Jawa ingin punya rumah sendiri, ingin punya usaha sendiri gitu. (Interview 9) Ada yang tidak dapatin kerja di Indonesia. Mungkin cuma lulus SMP, SD gitu. Susah cari kerja di Indonesia. Gaji tidak seberapa. Dan mungkin tekanan keluarga juga. Yang biasanya tu babaknya sakit yang perlu biaya. Yang harus menhidupi keluarga itu banyak. Jadi jalan satu-satunya memang keluar negeri. Yang paling cepat nge-dapatin duit. (Interview 9) This was especially the case among the TKW who did not attend university (Interview 1-4, Question 20). They either said that they became TKW to make money for a better future in Indonesia or to support their families at home as all of these four women were either married or had been married previously. The TKW that attended classes at the Open University were mostly in their 20 s and had no husband or children that they had to provide for. While they also mentioned money as an important factor to leave Indonesia, they had other reasons as well. In these cases (Interview 5, 7, 8 & 9, Question 20&21) the TKW explicitly mentioned that they had actually wanted to continue their education in Indonesia, but could not do it due to financial reasons. Some also wanted to make money first to study later on. In addition, one of these TKW left because she was bored and had nothing to do at home since she could not continue studying (Interview 5, Question 20). Problems within the family were the reason another TKW left Indonesia (Interview 9, Question 20). The finding that most TKW who study at the Open University are in their 20 s is also in line with the overall student body at the Open University, where 50% of the students are below the age of 30 (compare chapter 1.3 of this thesis). These differences between the women who signed up at the Open University and those who did not suggest that the individual situation the TKW are in and their reasons for becoming a TKW should be of importance. Older TKW who need to support their children and families would most likely send their spare money home. Younger TKW who do not yet have families and whose parents are younger and might still be working themselves have money to spend on education. Furthermore, older TKW might plan to retire after their return from Singapore which 30

34 means they would not benefit from further education, whereas younger TKW might still plan a career in Indonesia. Another factor is how the TKW plan their future and how much longer they intend to stay in Singapore. Completing a degree programme at the Open University takes several years and some TKW do not plan to stay in Singapore that long. Terus jadi kamu juga kuliah di UT, disini? UT? Oo tidak. Saya ikut kursus komputer. Oo, kursus saja? Komputer. Dulu mau dafter di UT. Tapi UT katanya harus lama ya. Lima tahun baru itu. Sedangkan saya disini sekarang sudah lama sama mereka. Rencana saya mungkin satu tahun ini saja sudah mau balik. Jadi aku ambil apa yang waktunya pendek boleh isi kegiatan kehari-harian. (Interview 8) This TKW, for example, mentioned in her interview that she decided to sign up for computer and sewing classes instead, since she intends to return to Indonesia the following year. Furthermore, she added that she plans to open her own sewing business once she is back and that she had already acquired the necessary machines. Therefore, these practical short-term classes were more suitable for her than academic education. Another individual factor is resilience. The working conditions in Singapore can be harsh and the women need to be able to cope with this situation. A study conducted by HOME in March 2015 found signs of poor mental health in 24% of the domestic workers with most psychological symptoms being related to psychoticism, depression and interpersonal sensitivity (feeling inferior or inadequate compared to others). Good mental health, however, is needed to cope with the additional stress and pressure that comes with taking up additional studies. In addition, symptoms of the mental health issues above include low self-esteem which could possibly also play a role in the decision to take up studies. This will be discussed in more detail in the chapters about the role of psychological factors. 31

35 4 The role of the image Throughout the research TKW made constant references to their negative image. A media analysis of online newspaper was conducted to find out in how far this negative image is portrayed in the media, which is shaping the public s opinion. Furthermore this chapter will look at the image TKW have of themselves as well as possible implications regarding education. 4.1 Online newspaper analysis Since several references to the image of TKW were made during the interviews, the public image of TKW in Indonesia and Singapore was analyzed in a second step. Even though the media may not entirely represent the public opinion about TKW in the respective countries, newspapers do show the public debate to a certain extent and they also influence this debate. Online newspapers were chosen as the subject of this analysis, as they can easily be accessed worldwide. Search engines such as google make it possible to search the world wide web for related articles. In this case this was important due to the fact that neutral search terms were used to find these articles, which were consequently analyzed regarding the image they portray of TKW. However, it needs to be mentioned that online newspapers might not be the most accurate source regarding the public image of TKW. First of all the publisher might have their own agenda, such as maximizing the number of readers by selecting very controversesial topics, rather than showing an accurate picture of the situation. Secondly, there are other media, such as television, radio or social media which were not used in this analysis. Nevertheless, the newspaper analysis should provide valuable additional information about the general perception of TKW in society as news do not have to be accurate to influence the public opinion. The following figure shows the online newspapers that were found in the google search and included in this analysis. Articles in English were used to get a general idea about the public opinion in Singapore, while Indonesian articles should provide information about the public opinion in Indonesia. 32

36 Figure 10: Online newspapers Language Newspaper Date Headline published English Straits Times Higher pay for Indonesian maids from next year English Straits Times Demand for Indonesian maids likely to fall in Singapore after pay rise English Independent Singapore's domestic workers routinely exploited and often abused in the service of rich nationals English BYLINE Singapore's 'Maids' English Channel NewsAsia Myanmar helpers could be preferred after wage rise for Indonesians: Maid agencies English Today Indonesia to stop sending domestic workers overseas by 2019? English Inside Indonesia Jul-Sep Maids face death penalty Helpers in Singapore: How to take your domestic worker on holiday English Expat Living Singapore English Asia One Indonesian domestic worker falls while fleeing employer's flat via rubbish chute English honeykids Holiday visas for helpers in Singapore: How to take your FDW on vacation English Roads & The Storefront Maids of Singapore Kingdoms English Jakarta Globe An Indonesian Domestic Worker s Journey to Make A Difference English Global Indonesian Voices The Domestic Workers Dilemma English Global Post The vile abuse of Singapore s domestic workers Indonesian Tribun Jateng Horee, Mulai Tahun 2016 Gaji TKI Di Singapura Naik Jadi Rp 5,2 Juta Indonesian Okezone Kisah Pilu TKI Indonesia di Singapura Indonesian MetroTV News Nasib TKI Singapura, Terpaksa Kerja di Luar Negeri dan Gajinya Dipotong Indonesian Kompas BNP2TKI Pangkas Beban Tiap TKI ke Singapura Hingga Rp 26 Juta Indonesian BBC Indonesia Libur bagi pekerja domestik di Singapura Indonesian BBC Indonesia Indonesia klarifikasi soal iklan TKI di Singapura Indonesian Antara News Dubes RI: perlindungan TKI di Singapura terjamin Indonesian Republika Tinjau Ulang Sistem Perekrutan Langsung TKI di Singapura' Indonesian Detik Finance Biaya Calon TKI yang Ingin Kerja ke Singapura Rp 13 Juta Indonesian Cakrawarta Indonesia-Singapura Akan Tingkatkan Kerjasama Ekonomi Indonesian Berita Satu BNI Dukung Pengembangan Keterampilan Migran di Singapura Indonesian Indo Suara Soal Overcharging di Singapura, BNP2TKI Sanksi PPTKIS Indonesian Indo Suara Pulang Dalam Keadaan Sakit, TKI Singapura Tanpa KTKLN Meninggal Indonesian Indo Suara Solusi untuk Pemerintah Atasi Pemotongan Gaji TKI di Singapura Indonesian Indo Suara Terekam CCTV Menganiaya Anak Majikan, TKW di Singapura Diadili Indonesian Indo Suara KBRI Singapura dan Kementrian Tenaga Kerja RI Menyelenggarakan Workshop Gratis! Indonesian Indo Suara Meriahkan Pesantren Kilat BMI Singapura Indonesian Indo Suara Kesempatan BMI Singapura Belajar Angklung 33

37 Indonesian Indo Suara Sidak ke Singapura, Menaker Temukan Biaya Pemberangkatan yang Membebani TKI! Menaker: Tak Boleh Paksa TKI Pinjam Uang Indonesian Indo Suara Sekolah Indonesia Singapura (SIS) : Kesempatan Mengenyam Pendidikan untuk BMI di Singapura Indonesian Indo Suara Buruh Migran Singapura Peringati Hari Kartini dengan Tausyiah Indonesian Indo Suara Geliat Organisasi Buruh Migran di Singapura Indonesian Indo Suara Jenazah TKI Singapura yang Turut Dalam Kecelakaan Air Asia Akhirnya Ditemukan Indonesian Indo Suara Kemenaker Beri Santunan Keluarga Yuni Indah Korban AirAsia Indonesian Indo Suara Dua Buruh Migran Jadi Korban AirAsia QZ8501 Indonesian Global Panjang dan Ketatnya Proses Penyaluran PLRT ke Singapura Indonesian Voices Indonesian Jakarta Greater Singapura Khawatir soal TKI Indonesian Berita Satu Menteri Yohana Kunjungi TKW di Penampungan Sementara Singapura Indonesian iradio network Menteri Yohana kunjungi shelter TKW di Singapura Indonesian Media Indonesia Ada 70 TKI Bermasalah di Singapura Indonesian Okezone Pembatasan TKW Berpengaruh Besar Bagi Singapura Indonesian Koran Sindo Ribuan TKI di Singapura Terkendala Masalah Indonesian Infospesial Gaji Minimal TKI di Singapura Rp 5 Juta per Bulan, Jika Kurang Bisa Protes Indonesian Pos Kota News Menteri Yohana Dicurhati TKW di Shelter Singapura Indonesian Republika TKI Dipenjara Gara-gara Masukan Cairan Datang Bulan ke Kopi Majikan Indonesian Kabar Bromo TKW asal Leces Tewas di Singapura Terkini Indonesian Merdeka Nasib TKW di Singapura, kerja setahun gaji dipotong Rp 20 juta Indonesian Tribun Jabar Terlalu! TKI Wanita Perkosa ABG Anak Majikan di Singapura Indonesian Solopos Wanita Klodran Dibunuh di Singapura, Ini Kata Media Lokal Indonesian RadarPena Agen Potong Gaji TKI 75%, DPR Kebut RUU PPILN Indonesian Pikiran Rakyat Tewas Penuh Jahitan, TKW Justru Dinyatakan Bunuh Diri Indonesian Si Momot TKW cantik asal Karanganyar dikabarkan dibunuh di Singapura All articles except for one were published between 2012 and The predominant image portrayed in these articles were exploitation (14x), need of protection (11x), abuse of TKW (9x) and death (8x). This shows that an image of victimization prevails in the media. Interestingly, TKW are not only considered victims of abuse by their employers, but also regarding many other aspects. In addition to these negative stories in the media, several emotional key words were detected in the articles that conveyed an image of vulnerable and abused domestic workers. Terms found in the Indonesian articles were among others: penyiksaan secara fisik, merugikan dan membahayakan TKI, pelecahan seksual, nasib menyedihkan, kesedihan keluarga, beban, keterpaksaan, kekerasan terhadap pekerja domestik, curhat Sulastri sambil menangis, praktek perdagangan manusia and pembunuhan TKI. 34

38 Abuse Physical abuse is among the topics that frequently appear in the news. Newspapers have reported about general maltreatment of domestic workers and their bad working conditions for years. In 2004 Inside Indonesia published an article were they highlighted the three Ds: Dirty, Dangerous, Difficult to describe the TKW s working environment. They also reported forms of sexual abuse faced by domestic workers: Maltreatment of domestic workers by their employers can involve violence, sexual abuse or even rape (Inside Indonesia, online: Jul-Sep 2004). More recent articles describe further difficulties domestic workers face. Berita Satu ( ) reported that TKW often do not receive a suitable place to rest. Roads & Kingdoms ( ) quote a human rights activist who describes the domestic worker s situation as follows: These women are treated as commodities and put on display for potential walk-in employers into the agencies. Furthermore, a TKW told them: They treat us like slaves, ( ) We had to share one pillow between three girls, sleeping on the floor without blankets. However, there are even more serious cases. Kabar Bromo Terkini ( ) reported a domestic worker s death in Singapore, while Pikiran Rakyat ( ) published a story about the alleged suicide of a TKW. These negative stories were also mentioned by the TKWs who were interviewed. A TKW said that some employers treat their dogs better than their domestic helpers (Interview 9, Question 111). She further mentioned a friend, who is staying in the same condominium and is given only two slices of bread for breakfast and maggi instant noodles for lunch. Kamu punya teman atau yang lain yang pernah ada masalah? Yang tidak se.. untung kamu? Banyak. di condo sendiri gitu kan. Saya tinggalnya di condo. Banyak yang kerja sama orang lokal yang tidak boleh ngomong yang makan pagi cuma dikasih roti dua selai, siangnya maggi mie mie rebus apa sih instan. Ya mie instan. Malam juga. Kalau malam itu kadang-kadang lebihanya mereka. Kalau mereka baru makan sisanya baru dikasih ke TKWnya juga. (Interview 9) 35

39 Another TKW (Interview 4, Question 109) recalled several stories she heard about TKW being murdered and one of the TKW even described her previous employer as a devil: orangnya kayak setan, kalau telpon keluarga malah dimarahin (Interview 3, Question 40). Apart from the physical abuse which is mentioned regularly in the media mental abuse can be just as harmful. It is less prominent in the newspapers as the sole topic of an article, but it is mentioned in connection with physical abuse such as in the following interview with Jusuf Kalla. The Indonesian government is considering ending the practice of sending female workers overseas as it said many of them suffer mental and physical abuse while working overseas. Indonesian Vice President Jusuf Kalla was reported by the Jakarta Globe to have said this last Friday (Nov 21). (Today Online, ) While the severe cases of physical abuse often get the most attention, the TKW who were interviewed for this thesis highlighted that for them the mental stress (Interview 9, Question 91&92) is actually the most difficult thing to handle. This shows that the daily reality of TKW and Singapore does not necesaarily correspond with how it is portrayed in the media. Financial exploitation A topic frequently mentioned in the articles was financial exploitation by maid agencies, which were reported to overcharge their placement fees. Merdeka ( ) reported that the TKW s salary is deducted by 20 million rupiah within the first year, while RadarPena ( ) referred to an agent that took 75% of the TKW s salary. Okezone ( ) mentions another case, where the TKW only received $SG 100 out of the $SG 500 that were promised to her. After 14 months she had only received around $SG 1000 for her work. Saya ini ingin kerja Pak, tapi saya ditipu agen di sini. Gaji saya dipotong banyak sekali," kata Irma, TKW asal Lampung yang ditampung di shelter KBRI Singapura. Irma mengaku sudah bekerja di Singapura selama 1 tahun 2 bulan atau 14 bulan. Awalnya, dalam kontrak, Irma dijanjikan bergaji SG$ 500 per bulan atau sekitar Rp4,9 juta. Kenyataannya, majikannya hanya memberinya SGD 100 atau setara Rp988 ribu. Selama 14 bulan bekerja, gaji yang diterimanya total hanya sekira SGD1.000 atau Rp9,8 juta (Okezone, ) 36

40 MetroTV News ( ) explained that the existing regulation in Singapore permits the agent to deduct two months of salaries. However, some agents take advantage of the TKW s lack of knowledge regarding the correct procedures and their rights. Memang, Agusdin menambahkan, ada agensi-agensi di Singapura yang memanfaatkan ketidaktahuan TKI untuk menambah potongan-potongan gaji TKI. Ada peraturan di singapura bahwa agensi itu boleh mengambil dua bulan gaji TKI. (MetroTV News, ) These cases show that there are several factors that are related to the financial exploitation of domestic workers. There is a lack of knowledge regarding the rules and regulations, which makes them easy victims of exploitations. Secondly, some TKW are not aware of ways to receive help and even if they know about them, they might not actually use these support systems. A TKW (Interview 8, Question 91) mentioned in her interview that sometimes TKW are afraid to make complaints to their bosses, because they might forbid them to leave the house and that they are also afraid to complain to their agency. Sexualization Although the women were portrayed as the victims in most articles, there were often the perpetrators in the articles that were related to sexuality. Dalam sidang, Jumiah yang telah bekerja untuk keluarga itu selama satu setengah bulan, ingin pindah pekerjaan dan mencari majikan lain. Namun permintaanya ditolak dan ia tak boleh berhenti. Jumiah pun berpikir dengan menambahkan cairan datang bulannya ke minuman si majikan, maka tuannya akan bersikap lebih baik kepadanya. Ia berharap tuannya setuju mengirimnya kembali ke agen penyalurnya atau membelanya ketika ia dimarahi agennya. (Republika.co.id, ) In the article above an especially negative image of TKW is portrayed. Although the woman mentioned in the article was the perpetrator, but she commited a minor crime for which she was sentenced to one month in prison. This would not have made the news under normal circumstances. However, due to the sexual connotation her crime appeared newsworthy. Apart 37

41 from this she was also portrayed as naïve since she believed that her actions might have an effect. In yet another article the TKW was the perpetrator. In this case a TKW was convicted of having sex with the son of her employer. Jika nafsu sudah membara, apa pun akan dilakukan demi menuntaskan nafsu tersebut. Hal inilah yang baru saja dilakukan wanita yang bekerja sebagai pembantu di Singapura. Pembantu ini usianya 28 tahun, tapi nekat bercinta dengan anak majikannya yang masih berusia 14 tahun. (Tribun Jabar, ) The article continues with a very detailed description of how the incident happened. The word nafsu is frequently used throughout the article and it ends with a remark that the TKW has a sexually transmitted disease. Furthermore, the following picture completed the article. Figure 11: Sexualized image of TKW in Tribun Jabar Source: Tribun Jabar, The article describes the TKW as not in control of her sexuality which is highlighted by sentences such as tak bisa menahan nafsu yang menggunung. The picture which was used enhances this image even though it does not portray any real person involved in the case. The crime the TKW committed was used to write a highly sexualized article. 38