PASOK: From Protest to Hegemony. Chrisanthos D. Tassis

Transcription

1 PASOK: From Protest to Hegemony Chrisanthos D. Tassis University of Athens The thesis of this paper is that PASOK has become a hegemonic party. By the term hegemonic I mean a political party that dominates the party system, sets the agenda of the political issues, frames the political dialogue, creates a structural model which seems to be imitated by the other political parties, appears to have the most capable political personnel and even an absence from government does not influence its dominant position 1 Although the hypothesis of the dissertation can be applied in various fields such as party system, social policy, foreign policy, for the purpose of this paper, the analysis will focus on economic policy in the period During this period PASOK was transformed from a protest movement, to a hegemonic political party. PASOK sets the priorities of the political and economic issues that guarantee both economic and social reproduction. Being or not being in government, PASOK plays a dominant role into shaping the political agenda and framing the political debates. Moreover, it seems to be the most capable political party to run the state affairs, as its political personnel appears most experienced and efficient. Finally, its possible electoral failure in the next year election it seems unlikely that will alter its political positions : The movement of protest: 1 The theoretical framework of our definition on hegemonic party comes from a comprehensive understanding of the works of Sartori G., Parties and Party Systems, Cambridge University Press, USA, 1976, Gramci, A., The Prison Notebooks, New York, International Publishers, 1978, Grupi, L., The Meaning of Hegemony in Gramsci, Themelio, Athens, 1977, Laclau, E., & Mouffe, C., Hegemony and Socialist Strategy, London, Verso 1985, Poulantzas, N., For Gramcsi, Politipo, Athens, 1980, Bottomore T., A Dictionary of Marxist Thought, Great Britain, 1983, Williams R., Keywords, Great Britain, Flamingo, 1983, Jary D., & Jary J., Dictionary of sociology, Great Britain, Harper Collins,

2 In 1974 PASOK appeared with a radical economic policy. Its main targets were the large companies socialisation of the foreign monopolies, as well as the introduction of the democratic planning. 2 After the 1974 elections, PASOK began to moderate its political thoughts on economic policy. The first step was to come closer to small businesses declaring that small businesses were the allies in the struggle for national independence. 3 For PASOK Greece had never had a real Greek economic policy. 4 Therefore, it put as the main targets of its program a) the modernisation of the economy, b) the import of new technology, and c) the increase of productivity. As a result, in 1975 in a Parliamentary voting PASOK voted (with all the other parties except KKE) in favor of the expansion of the privileges of the foreign capital. 5. PASOK s criticism to the ND government focused on issues such as the high rate of inflation, the increase of the indirect taxation at the expense of the direct progressive taxation, accusing the conservative government that it had not had an efficient economic policy. The economic orientation of PASOK was not referred to issues such as transformation of the economic model and the means of production. It tried to appear as a responsible party, which had solutions on the main problems of the Greek economy. In 1976, while PASOK maintained its rhetoric about the creation of a Mediterranean Common Market, 6 at the same time it adopted a European orientation, declaring that PASOK s policy towards European Economic Community was the 2 What PASOK seeks, KEMEDIA, Athens, 1974, p.25. See also The Declaration of the Third of September 1974, KEMEDIA, Athens 3/9/ Papandreou, A., Speech of the President of PASOK at the First Central Committee, in Papandreou A., From PAK to PASOK, Ladias, Athens, 1976, p Papandreou, A., Speech of the President of PASOK at a Gathering at Larissa on 5/7/1975, in Papandreou A., εισηγήσεις για ζύµωση (a), KEMEDIA, Athens, A11/78, p.6. 5 Spourdalakis, M., PASOK: Structure, Inter-party Crises and Gathering of Power, Exantas, Athens, 1988, p.179. It has been published as The Rise of the Greek Socialist Party, Routledge, London & New York, Resolution of the Secretariat of PASOK on 1/3/1976, Greece and EEC, KEMEDIA, B2/78, p.76. See also The Mediterranean Common Market: A Proposal by Andreas Papandreou, Eleftherotypia, 2/2/

3 same as Norway s, 7 which indicated its eventual European orientation and commitment. The economic policy of PASOK in the 1977 elections was presented with the title Creating the Economic Democracy. This program indicated the moderated shift of PASOK. Only few things were in common with the economic program of The 1974 criticism to the market economy (that could not satisfy the needs of the society) had now been replaced by the target of economic development. Moreover, the role of the private capital was considered equally important in that policy and the policy of socialisation of the huge companies and the foreign capital had now a limited range only in banking, and in energy and transportation sectors. 8 After the national elections in 1977 when PASOK became the leading oppositionist party and the perspectives of becoming government seemed not so far away, the main goal became the effort to embrace a great part of the Greek society. Its economic program was referring to a Stable and Fulfilled Policy on Economic Development. Thus, PASOK tried to appear as a political party which had the knowledge and the will to give responsible solutions on the major issues of the Greek economy. It announced the creation of the Committee of Analysis and Program, consisted of scientists and specialists on economic matters. 9 In this way, PASOK tried to appear as a political party with technocratic orientation. In 1979 PASOK voted, along with the conservative government, a new law which was referring to the labor relations in the Greek shipping. There was no doubt about the privileges that the new law gave to the ship-owners at the expense of the workers, but PASOK seemed to give priority to the efficiency and the international competitiveness of our commercial ships. 10 Before the 1981 national elections, PASOK tried to increase its influence (and thus to gain support) at the petty bourgeois small owners, who were considered as 7 Papandreou, A., Interview at Oikonomikos Tahydromos (September 1977), Greece and EEC, KEMEDIA, B2/78, p PASOK: Directing Lines of the Governmental Policies, Exormisi, (Special Edition without date, few days before the national elections in 1977), 1977, p.2. 9 Kouloglou, S., The Trace of the Third Road of PASOK , Odysseus, Athens, 1986, pp For the reasons of that decision, see the newspaper Exormisi on 4 th of October

4 allies for the peaceful road to socialism. 11 In order to gain as much support as it could, PASOK moderated its economic policy while its leadership was trying to gain wider support and consensus among the Greek society, by coming closer to the necessities of the state. Thus, PASOK declared that it would not discourage the private capital, but, in contrast, it planned to encourage it, through a new policy of economic incentives with the support of public investment. 12 Moreover, in this period, private capital was considered as the basic element of economic development and the foreign investments were welcome when they were in accordance with Greek capital. 13 In 1981 the Greek economy had a very poor performance. The inflation was at its highest rate (24.5%), the Gross Domestic Product was negative (-1.6%), the real wages were decreased, the competitiveness of the economy was a difficult case and the deficits of the public sector were rapidly increased. 14 As a result, the government of ND was in a difficult position because it could not guarantee the economic reproduction. PASOK now seemed to be the most appropriate political party to come to power and also seemed to have a political leadership which knew the main problems of the Greek economy and how to solve them. Moreover, the will of the major part of the Greek society for Change, economic redistribution, economic democracy, and the skepticism about the European Communities gave PASOK the opportunity to become government. But PASOK was a different political party, in comparison to : PASOK in Government: At the beginning of the 1980 s the post war economic model had reached its limits. Inflation went up and there was a considerable decrease at the profits of the enterprises. When PASOK came to power, it had 2 main goals: a) economic 11 Papandreou, A., The Greek Road to Socialism, in Papasarantopoulos, P., (ed.), PASOK and Power, Paratiritis, Athens, 1980, p Spourdalakis, M., PASOK: Structure, Inter-party Relations and Gathering of Power, Exantas, Athens, 1988, p.237. It has been published as The Rise of the Greek Socialist Party, Routledge, London & New York, Papandreou, A., The Speech Contract of the President of PASOK with the Democratic People of Athens, Ta Nea, 16/10/1981, p.5. 4

5 efficiency in a new economic environment as Greece became a full member in the EEC, b) to satisfy the demand of the Left for economic redistribution. 15 PASOK set the income redistribution as the main target of its policy. Adopting a Keynesian economic model, the socialist government put at the top of its priorities the overcoming of the economic depression and the control of the high rates of inflation. 16 Moreover, it tried to give important increases to the wages of the working class and at the same time it tried to increase the productive investments, since PASOK s leadership considered that an increase of the private capital profits would lead into a future prosperity for all. 17 On 22/11/1981 Andreas Papandreou announced the program of the limited socialisation. The Supervisory Councils seemed to be the important element for the socialist government in order to get together the private sector with the public sector in a national economic plan, with the purpose to rationalise the state incentives to industry. 18 They would consist of representatives from the management and workers of supervised firms, the local authorities and the State. 19 While on 3/1/1982 the government decided the introduction of the Supervisory Councils, on 20/3/1982 it announced that they would act up and outside the enterprises. 20 With the Law 1262/82 the socialist government tried to give incentives to the private capital to make productive investments in new technology, applied research, human resource management, and technological innovation, with the purpose that the private sector should have a decisive role in a future economic development Kazakos, P., Between the State and the Market, Patakis, Athens, 2001, p Ioakimoglou, E., The Variations of PASOK s Economic Policy, in Spourdalakis, M., PASOK: Party, State, Society, Patakis, Athens, 1998, pp The Programmatic Declaration of the Socialist Government, Athens, General Secretary of Press and Information, 1981, in Spourdalakis, M., PASOK: Structure, Inter-party Crises and Gathering of Power, Exantas, Athens, 1988, p.55. It has been published as The Rise of the Greek Socialist Party, Routledge, London & New York, Ioakimoglou, E., The Variations of PASOK s Economic Policy, in Spourdalakis, M., PASOK: Party, State, Society, Patakis, Athens, 1998, p Tsakalotos, E., Alternative Economic Strategies. The Case of Greece, Athenaeum Press Ltd, Great Britain, 1991, p ibid. 20 Papandreou, A., Speech at the gathering of the MPs of the Socialist Party on 2/2/1983, in Speeches of the Prime Minister Andreas G. Papandreou, General Secretary of Press and Information, Athens, 1983, p Policies of Investments in Greece, General Secretary of Press and Information, Athens, 1983, p.8. 5

6 The economic policy of led to the increase of imports, and the increase of the prices of goods, while the high rate of inflation advanced the buying of cheap imported goods. The fall of the investments and the decrease of productivity, led to the reconsideration of the economic policy in The international economic factor was in favor of restrictive macro-economic policies, especially inside the European Monetary System. At the same time, in France, the socialist government of F. Mitteran abandoned the Keynesian economic model and focused on monetary stability policies. 23 PASOK oriented its policy towards EEC. By making the 1982 negotiations with the European Communities, PASOK managed to satisfy both the capitalist class in the sense that there was no chance for Greece to get out of EEC and the working class (generally the society as a whole) by giving the impression that PASOK fought for the positive perspective of the national interests. In 1983 PASOK changed its economic policy. The main goal was considered to be the increase of productivity. Moreover the socialist government devalued the Greek drachma in order to increase exports. The introduction of article 4, about the restriction of striking in the Public Sector, indicated the new philosophy. 24 The 1386/83 Law, established the Business Reconstruction Organisation (OAE). Until 1985, 44 problematic firms were members of OAE. The economic and financial policies of the socialist government tried to encourage both small and big enterprises with the goal to increase the productivity of the Greek economy. At the same time PASOK called the trade unions to accept no increases, because the issue of the reconstruction of the Greek economy is NATIONAL Chorafas, V., The Economic Policy of PASOK and the Leftist Criticisms, Filladio for the Socialist Movement, No.7, November 1983 January 1984, p Kazakos, P., Between the State and the Market, Patakis, Athens, 2001, pp What Arsenis and the representatives of the strikers said about the socialisations and the article 4, Anti, 233, 10/6/1985, pp See also Spourdalakis, M., PASOK: Structure, Inter-party crises and Gathering of Power, Exantas, Athens, 1988, p.294. It has been published as The Rise of the Greek Socialist Party, Routledge, London & New York, Papandreou, A., Speech at the 48 th International Exhibition in Thesaloniki on 10/9/1983, in Speeches of the Prime Minister Andreas G. Papandreou, General Secretary of Press and Information, Athens, 1983, p

7 PASOK tried to appear as a European party which played an important role in European affairs. As a result, Andreas Papandreou declared at the Socialist Group of the European Parliament in Athens, that all the socialist parties together had to fight against unemployment and they also had to make a reorganisation of the production. Moreover, he focused on the modernisation of the huge companies with the introduction of the new technology. And this effort also would be a matter of joint action and cooperation. 26 With this action, Andreas Papandreou confirmed the European orientation of PASOK and came closer to the necessities of the State and the big companies as well. At the same time, A. Papandreou considered the small entrepreneurs as the most important element in the Greek economy. 27 Therefore, the main target of the socialist government was the efficient function of the mixed economy, the cooperation between the private and the public sector. 28 In 1984, during the 1 st Gongress of PASOK, the transformation of the economic policy of the socialist party was confirmed. Andreas Papandreou called both the Trade Unions and the Businessmen in a Common National Effort 29. The private sector had now the privilege to undertake the problematic firms because the productivity and the competitiveness of the Greek economy is a matter that concerns the whole population. 30 The poor results of the Keynesian economic policy of the socialist government not only led PASOK to change its economic orientation, but also led the socialist party closer to the State. 31 Thus, now for PASOK the state was considered as neutral which would bring together the working class with the businessmen. PASOK satisfied the necessities of the State by adopting the priorities of the economic development. Moreover, the Prime Minister declared that the investments of the foreign capital were welcome in Greece and the policy of the 26 Papandreou, A., Speech to the Presidency of the Socialist Group of the European Parliament at Zappio on 8/11/1983, in Speeches of the Prime Minister Andreas G. Papandreou, General Secretary of Press and Information, Athens, 1983, pp Speeches of the Prime Minister Andreas G. Papandreou, General Secretary of Press and Information, Athens, 1984, p Papandreou, A., Interview to the Journalists at Zappio on 27/7/1984, Towards the 1 st Congress of PASOK, in Speeches of the Prime Minister Andreas G. Papandreou, General Secretary of Press and Information, Athens, 1984, p The Government and the Route of the Allagi, Filladio for the Socialist Movement, (Special Edition for the 1 st Congress of PASOK), No.9, May July 1984, p.19. See also The Views of the Central Committee of PASOK for the 1 st Congress, KE.ME.DIA, Athens 1984, pp Ibid. 31 Chorafas, V., The Economic Policy of PASOK and the Leftist Criticisms, Filladio for the Socialist Movement, No.7, November 1983 January 1984, p.15. 7

8 socialist government did not intent to nationalise the private companies. In addition, it would emphasise in an economic policy with central planning similar to that of the socialist government in France, because the top priority of the socialist government is the issue of productivity. 32 During the period PASOK started to build the social base of its hegemony as the working class was satisfied by the increase of the wages, the small entrepreneurs gained incentives for new investments and the old businessmen since their firms did not get socialised. PASOK was becoming a truly national party. In addition, in the political arena, the basic elements of the PASOK s economic policy were dominant. On the one hand, the Communist Party (KKE) had no big differences with the economic policy of the years and the Communist Party of the interior (KKE es) seemed to accept the core of the austere program in and on the other hand, the Conservative Party (ND) had no differences about the modernisation of the economy, the pivotal role of the private sector and the policy of economic incentives to the private capital that PASOK had emphasised : Serving the States Objectives: In October of 1985, the socialist government adopted a stabilising economic program. 34 The main characteristics of this program were: a) 15% devaluation of the Greek drachma, b) economic incentives of the foreign and Greek capital, c) restriction of the welfare state, d) undermining of ATA. The basic goal was the decrease of the cost of production through the decrease of the wages. 35 The economic policy had no common elements with the declaration of the Third of September. 36 With the stabilising economic program PASOK came closer to the monetarist policies, which were followed by the Western European countries and as a result, closer to the necessities of the state. 32 The Interview of Andreas, Andreas Papandreou s Interview at New York Times, in Eleftherotypia, 29/5/1985, p Chorafas, V., The Economic Policy of PASOK and the Leftist Criticisms, Filladio for the Socialist Movement, No.7, November 1983 January 1984, pp This Policy was not a Surprise. See the Interview of Andreas Papandreou, at the Newspaper To Vima, 23/7/ Simitis, K., The Policy of the Economic Stabilisation, Gnosi, Athens, 1989, pp

9 PASOK built its hegemony against both the conservative party, which had no disagreement on PASOK s economic policy and the left parties, which seemed to have no convincing alternative. The main target of PASOK was the United National Effort. The priorities of the economic policy were on economic development through productive investments, the decrease of the inflation and the increase of productivity and the competitiveness of the Greek economy. PASOK seemed to be the only political party in the Greek political arena which was capable to lead Greece in a National Effort for Economic Development. Moreover, it was the first time that the issue of modernisation of the economy became the central issue in the political agenda. PASOK declared that the modernisation of the economy is a decisive factor for the economic development of Greece. In addition, the issue of productivity was a matter that concerns everyone. 37 For the socialist government the private foreign capital was welcome either in direct, or in indirect forms of investment. Special incentives were given in investments in new technology, innovation and especially to those which would increase the rate of employment. 38 The socialist government emphasised on the private sector, because it was considered as the crucial factor for the governmental goals for the transformation of the Greek economy. The stabilising economic program was far from the Keynesian economic model, because in the period this policy was not efficient. 39 The economic policy changed in PASOK wanted to satisfy the middle and the working class, which constituted the electoral basis of PASOK. But the main aspects of the stabilisation program and the issue of modernisation were already dominant at the political agenda in the Greek political system. With the economic policy in PASOK managed to ensure its hegemony : PASOK in Opposition: 36 Papamargaris, Th., The End of a Route: 11/10/1985, Anti, No.302, 25/10/1985, p Decision of the 2 nd Central Committee of PASOK, Exormisi, No.397, 18-24/10/1985, pp Welcome Under Condition the Foreign Investments, Exormisi, No.427, 16-22/5/1986, p Simitis, K., The Targets for 1987, Exormisi, No.460, 4/1/1987, p Simitis, K., For a Socialist Modernised Solution, Oikonomikos Tachidromos, 23/2/1989, pp.24-34, Plan for the Left, Elliniki Aristera, Athens 1988, p.11, Elliniki Aristera, Programmatic Declaration, Statute, Political Solution, 1 st Congress of EAR, 1986, pp

10 With the National elections in 1989, PASOK came to opposition. At the same time the fundamental changes in Eastern Europe influenced the political agenda everywhere and Greece was no exception. Gradually, the neo-liberal economic model became a one-way street, with policies such as the privatisation of the Public Enterprises and flexible labor relations. The basic goal was focused on the decrease of the cost of productivity and the increase of the competitiveness of the Greek economy. 41 The government of New Democracy adopted a neo-liberal stabilising economic program during the period which focused on the privatisation of the public enterprises, the abolition of ATA and the lowering of the production cost through the reduction of the real wages. At the end of the day (1993), it was obvious that it had only negative consequences in the Greek economy: Inflation was at 14,4%, the rate of GDP was negative (-1,6%), the unemployment reached at 10% and the public deficits went up. 42 Despite the poor performance of the Greek economy, the liberal economic theory remained at the center of the political agenda. PASOK had to deal with two major aspects: a) the negative political atmosphere of the Koskotas affair and b) the negative international economic environment. PASOK tried to adjust and declared that the role of the private enterprises in the strategy for economic development had to be pivotal. Its policy focused on political stability, which guaranteed the economic stability. 43 For PASOK the Key for the economic development should be the modernization of the Greek economy. The main target remained the decrease of the inflation and the monetary discipline. 44 The new vision that PASOK tried to give to the Greek society was the equal participation of Greece in the EEC based on the criteria of the treaty of Maastricht. PASOK guaranteed a frame that would indicate the rules of the Greek economy. On the one hand the working class had to accept increase of the wages lower than the 41 Stabilisation and Development of the Greek Economy, Oikonomikos Tahidromos, 3/5/1990, pp Papaspiliopoulos, S., Confusions and Disorientations about the Condition of Greek Economy, in Papaspiliopoulos, S., (ed.), PASOK: Conquest and Practice of Power, Sideris, Athens, 1996, pp The Program of the Third Government, PASOK, Athens, 1989, p Papandreou, A., Statement about the First Actions of the Economic Policy of the Conservative Government, Exormisi, No.633, 29/4/1990, p.1 10

11 enterprises profits and on the other hand, to give economic incentives for productive investments to the Greek capitalists. The strategy of PASOK focused on how the socialist party would become a responsible political party (because the negative consequences of the Koskotas affair had not disappeared), which had the solutions for the basic economic issues. Moreover, during this period, PASOK did not formally participate in leading the strikes of the working class, but its policy focused on a parliamentary programmatic opposition. 45 PASOK adopted a program of National Strategy which had three main characteristics: a) political stability, b) economic development and c) social protection. 46 This program was to be applied to the Greek society as a whole. The inefficiency of the economic program of ND gave PASOK the opportunity to build a dominant position in the Greek party system, since it appeared to be the only political party in the Greek political arena that could manage to provide a stable basis for an economic and social reproduction. PASOK changed its orientation about the social democracy. From the end of 1980, it began to have close ties with the European social democratic parties. Its attempt to be transformed into a modern European social democratic party takes place at the same time with the new vision of the Greek society: the equal participation of Greece in the European Union. PASOK seemed to be the only political party that could guarantee this route, by bringing the socialist party closer to the necessities of the state. Moreover, PASOK built its hegemony in comparison to the left wing political parties, which seemed to have no alternative and they supported the same socio-economic policy : Building a hegemonic party. When PASOK came back to power, Andreas Papandreou declared that Greece must have a common route with the Western European Countries. Therefore, the socialist government made for the next five years, an economic program based on the 45 Papandreou, A., Statement about the First Actions of the Economic Policy of the Conservative Government, Exormisi, No.633, 29/4/1990, p Papandreou, A., Statement at the 3 rd Central Committee of PASOK on 23-24/2/1991, Exormisi, No.677, 24/2/1991, pp.3-4, and Papandreou, A., The Views and the Suggestions of PASOK for the 1990 s, (Speech at the National Convention on 21/6/1991), Exormisi, No.694, 23/6/1991, p

12 criteria of the treaty of Maastricht, with the purpose of the equal participation of Greece in the EU. 48 The economic policy of PASOK was focused on economic development and productive reorganisation. The basic targets were the improvement of competitiveness, the introduction of new technology and foreign investments, the increase of productivity, the human resource management and the support of the small businesses. 49 Moreover, the economic program had a deflationary philosophy, constituted by the introduction of hard drachma and an effort to decrease the public deficit and the deficit of the central government. 50 With the National Social Agreement, PASOK indicated as its priorities the economic development, the political stability and the social protection. The context of that policy was that PASOK could provide a solid basis for bringing together the private sector with the Trade Unions and the State as a neutral coordinator with the purpose that all the major economic and social issues had to be solved under consensus. The main target of the socialist government focused on the stability of the government in economic policy, with the introduction of a set of clear rules that determined the economic field. Moreover, emphasised on the economic development process, to ensure first of all the competitiveness of the private and the public sector and thus, to improve the competitiveness of the Greek economy in the international scene. The wages would increase only if the profits of the private sector were increased with the modernisation of the tax system. In addition, another commitment of PASOK was its effort to modernise and rationalise the public sector. 51 Instead of the privatization of the public companies that the government of New Democracy had focused on, PASOK provided as an alternative a shareholding policy up to 49% for the public companies such as OTE, Peraiki Patraiki, etc. 52 That meant that PASOK had been adjusted to the international tendencies and also had adopted the predominance of the economic liberalism. 47 The Programmatic Choices of Synaspismos, Dialogue, No.13, 12/7/1992, p Interview with Andreas Papandreou, Kathimerini, 23/1/1994, p Ministry of National Economy, Restructured Program of the Transformation of the Greek Economy , Athens, 21/6/1994, p Kazakos, P., Between the State and the Market, Patakis, Athens, 2001, p Papandreou, A., The Programmatic Declarations of the Greek Government, Exormisi, No.813, 28/10/1993, p Stratoulis, D., The Privatisation of DECO, Alpha, No.1, February 1995, p

13 PASOK appeared to be a political party with European orientation as a member of Socialist International and the Party of European Socialists. Being a part of the European social democracy indicated its will to be transformed into a modern political party, which followed the international economic and political trends with the emphasis given on the modernisation of the economy and the society. PASOK appeared to have the appropriate economic program in comparison to the other political parties. The Communist Party was not a real threat for PASOK because its power and its influence were decreased, since it could not realise that the Greek society had changed. Moreover, it seemed to lose power after the collapse of the East European economic and political system. For Synaspismos, its economic policy was almost identical to PASOK s economic program, adopting the pivotal role of the private sector, the privatization of the public companies and the economic support to the small businesses with the policy of economic incentives. 53 The party of New Democracy had no substantial differences in the economic policy. Moreover under the pressure of the public opinion about the poor performance of the Greek economy during its government, declared that we are a political party neither socialistic, nor neo liberal The economic development has to come together with the social justice. 54 The main goals of PASOK s economic policy appeared to guarantee the economic and social reproduction of the country s model of development. Moreover, it managed its policy to become acceptable both from the businessmen, and from the working class. For the businessmen, the policy of PASOK seemed to be the appropriate one for increasing their profits and for the working class it was better than the neo-liberal economic policy of the conservative party. Thus PASOK came even closer to the state, its policy was considered as the most appropriate for the society as a whole, guaranteed the equal participation in the EU, and seemed to have capable leadership. In 1996 the victory of Kostas Simitis underlined this development. PASOK was now completely transformed from a movement of protest in 1974, to a hegemonic party which was dominating the Greek party system in Resolutions of the Central Political Committee towards the 2 nd Congress of Synaspismos, Kiriakatiki Avgi, 10/12/1995, pp, New Democracy, Analysis of Ideological Principals of ND, 3 rd Congress, in Chalkidiki, Athens 1994, p.12. See also 1996 Elections. The Differences in Programs are Limited, Kathimerini, 22/9/1996, p.4. 13

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