Corruption and Good Governance: The Case of Bangladesh

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1 SUST Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 22, No.2, 2014; P: Corruption and Good Governance: The Case of Bangladesh (Submitted: July 20, 2011; Accepted for Publication: January 1, 2014) Sebak Kumar Saha Department of Sociology, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh Abstract Corruption is a governance issue and a key obstacle to sustainable and equitable development. The sustained reduction of deeply entrenched corruption requires improvement in the quality of governance. This paper highlights the view that corruption can be combated if good governance can be put into practice, i.e. good governance has been viewed as a key strategy to curb corruption. The argument is developed in three sections: in the first section, the article focuses on the conceptualization of corruption, governance and good governance. In the second section, the article examines corruption-good governance nexus and in the final section, the article outlines issues and experiences related to corruption in Bangladesh. Keywords: corruption; governance; good governance; corruption-good governance nexus 1. Introduction Corruption is a global problem and found almost in all countries of the world in varying degrees (Pope, 2000; TIB Annual Report 2006; World Bank, 1997). It is The single greatest obstacle to economic and social development (World Bank 2006, cited in Andersson & Heywood, 2009:747).It undermines development (Iftekharuzzaman, 2005; Pope, 2000; TIB Annual Report 2006; World Bank,1997) because it lowers the ability of government to enact and implement policies in an appropriate manner (World Bank,1997).Corruption prevents the rule of law, democracy, realization of human rights and citizen s access to basic public services (Iftekharuzzaman,2005; TIB Annual Report 2006) and discourages foreign investment and impedes the effectiveness of aid (World Bank,1997). Also, corruption affects the poor disproportionately since it directly increases the cost of essential public services targeted to the poor and indirectly reduces the prospect of poverty all eviation (Iftekharuzzaman, 2005; Todaro & Smith, 2003; World Bank, 1997). Corruption is in existence since the inception of humankind and can never be completely eradicated (Pope, 2000). But corrupt practices should be kept within bearable limits; otherwise it will grow gradually. Once the practice of corruption is institutionalized and the moral authority of people at higher level is lost, their ability to control their subordinates dissipates (Pope,2000).Corruption thrives where decision-making process is not transparent, institutional checks with regard to the exercise of power and discretion are absent, accountability of public institutions is weak, civil society is not so developed conditions that are particularly prevalent in many developing countries like Bangladesh (World Bank,1997:5).Sustainable and equitable development requires the control of corruption. Fighting corruption has progressively become an important issue to donors, nongovernmental organizations, and governments and citizens in both developing and developed countries (Andersson & Heywood, 2009; Pope, 2000; World Bank, 1997). The search for effective methods of curbing corruption has provided a widely recognized idea that corruption is basically a problem of governance (Hellman et al., 2000:4). Since corruption has been viewed as a symptom of fundamental governance failure (Huther & Shah, 2000:2; Schacter & Shah, 2001:4; Shah & Schacter, 2004:42), combating corruption requires the establishment of good governance. A country cannot achieve sustained reduction in corruption without improving the quality of governance. That is why, promotion of good governance should be considered as the key strategy to combat corruption.

2 46 Sebak Kumar Saha 2. Corruption Corruption is traditionally defined as the abuse of public office for private gain (Hellman et al., 2000:20).The World Bank visualizes corruption in the same way (Huther & Shah, 2000:1; World Bank, 1997:8). But it also occurs in the private sector (Klitgaard, 1998:4; World Bank, 1997:11). The World Bank is aware of corruption in the private sector, although the bank is primarily concerned with corruption in the public sector. In spite of placing the public sector at the core of the definition of corruption, the bank is able enough to incorporate most of the forms of corruption it experiences because the bank primarily deals with government. Corruption in the public sector, particularly in developing countries, is a more serious problem than that of the private sector and creates burden on the private sector corruption (World Bank, 1997). Nevertheless, a comparatively wider as well as more exhaustive conceptualization of corruption, which includes both the public and private domains, is crucial in order to grasp the real meaning of corruption. The definition of corruption as conceived by Transparency International (TI) includes both the public and private domains. Transparency International (TI) interprets corruption as the misuse of entrusted power for private benefit (Pope, 2000:1). Here the term power is independent of any particular power, i.e. it covers both the public and private domains. The meaning of corruption forwarded by Klitgaard also includes the private sector and shares the same spirit. 1 Corruption is not limited to bribery, but can assume a number of other forms such as extortion, influence peddling, nepotism, fraud, the use of speed money (money given to government officials for speeding up their consideration of a business matter falling within their jurisdiction), embezzlement etc. (Klitgaard, 1998:4). Shah and Schacter (2004) mention three broad forms of corruption: petty administrative or bureaucratic corruption, grand corruption and state capture/influence peddling. Petty corruption means isolated corrupt transactions by individual public officials who abuse their office; grand corruption occurs when vast amounts of public resources are devoured or abused by state officials usually members of the political or administrative elite and state capture/influence peddling takes place when actors of private sector operate in collusion with public officials or politicians for their mutual and private gain (Shah & Schacter, 2004:41).Corruption threatens the viability of democratic institutions and market economies. Corrupt environment allows resources to be diverted towards non-productive areas such as the police, the armed forces and other organs of social control and repression (Pope, 2000:3-4). Amaryta Sen cautions that a high level of corruption can make public policies ineffective and can also draw investment and economic activities away from productive pursuits toward the towering rewards of underhanded activities (Sen, 2000:275). 3. Governance Governance occupies central stage in the development discourse and is considered as the crucial component to be included in the development strategy (Hye, 2000). But great variation in terms of the meaning of governance is found in different literatures. The term has no agreed definition since different institutions have defined the term in different ways. The World Bank (1992) captures governance as the use of power in the management of a country s economic and social resources for development (cited in Khan, 2009: 164).The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) denotes the same broad view but states it in a somewhat different way: the exercise of economic, political and administrative authority to manage a country s affairs at all levels (UNDP, 1997).UNDP considers three domains of governance the state, the private sector and civil society and each has to play its unique role for achieving sustainable human Development. UNDP (1997) states that governance encompasses the state, but it transcends the state by including the private sector and civil society organisations (UNDP, 1997). Hye (2000) has proposed the following conceptualization of governance: The undertaking of activities, management of resources, organization of men and women by groups of people, communities, local government bodies, business organizations and the branches of the state (Legislature, Judiciary and Government) through social, political, administrative and economic arrangements that meet the daily needs of people and ensure sustainable development (Hye,2000:2). Hye s conceptualization of governance gives rise to a new pattern of governance where both formal (Legislature, Judiciary and Government) and informal (local government bodies, private sector and civil society) organs of state become partners, share power and exercise governance in their own rights in clearly demarcated 1 Corruption is the misuse of office for unofficial ends (Klitgaard 1998, p.4).

3 Corruption and Good Governance: The Case of Bangladesh 47 areas (Hye, 2000). In most of the developing countries, formal organs of state especially the executive branch- the government, monopolized governance since informal organs are weak. Instead of governing as autonomous actors in their own areas, informal organs become governed (Hye, 2000). 4. Good Governance Although the notion of good governance is being increasingly used in development literature, consensus on the meaning of the term is elusive. Various definitions, just as in the case of governance, differing in scope, rationale and objectives have been forwarded. A variety of definitions have created confusion regarding the boundaries of the term (Santiso, 2001). The notion of good governance is not so old. The year 1989 marked the first contemporary public appearance of the notion of good governance in the World Bank s report on Sub-Saharan Africa, which considered the crisis in the region as a crisis of governance (Leftwich, 1993:610; Santiso, 2001:5). The bank considered good governance as a core component of its development strategy (Santiso, 2001:3). The bank introduced this notion due to lack of aid effectiveness, lack of recipient countries commitment to reform and rampant corruption in developing countries. Governance quality of a country determines the ability of achieving its economic and social development. The switch from the notion of governance to good governance entails a normative dimension addressing the quality of governance (Santiso, 2001:5). Good governance denotes that not all governance is good governance unless the quality of governance is ensured. The European Union conceives good governance as the transparent and accountable management of human, natural, economic and financial resources for equitable and sustainable development (cited in Aminuzzaman, 2006:15).Good governance is viewed by the World Bank (1997) as: Predictable, open, and enlightened policy making, a bureaucracy imbued with a professional ethos acting in furtherance of public good, the rule of law, transparent processes, and a strong civil society participating in public affairs (cited in Mehta, 2000:322). The key characteristics of good governance as identified by UNDP are participation, rule of law, transparency, responsiveness, consensus orientation, equity, effectiveness and efficiency, accountability and strategic vision (UNDP, 1997).Good governance necessarily demands and requires the management of public affairs in a transparent, accountable, participatory and equitable manner. It ensures effective participation in public policy formulation, the rule of law and an impartial judiciary, institutional checks on power and effective watchdog agencies (Santiso, 2001). From the above discussion, the following essential elements of good governance can be identified: Political freedom periodic and fair election, peaceful transfer of power, respect for opposition. The rule of law and protection of human rights impartial and accessible judicial system and protection of individual rights. Participation people s participation in decision-making and implementation of plans. Accountability public officials (both elected leaders and bureaucrats), the private sector and civil society organizations should be accountable to public. Transparency transparency in activities of public sector and also in specific areas of private sector wherein public interest is involved. Responsiveness institutions and processes will address the needs of the public within a reasonable time frame. Equity equal opportunities for all irrespective of gender, race, class and religion. Consensus orientation mediation of the different interests to reach a broad consensus for the sake of the betterment of the whole community. Devolution of powers to local authority and decentralization of planning and implementation in national activities. Independent media a functional mode for raising public awareness of, investigating and reporting on corruption. (Khan, 2009; Muhith, 2000; UNDP, 1997) 5. Corruption and Good Governance: Exploring the Nexus Corruption is a problem associated with governance (Hellman et al., 2000:4; Huther & Shah, 2000:2; Schacter & Shah, 2001:4; Shah & Schacter, 2004; World Bank, 1997:5). Corruption needs to be viewed within a broader governance framework because it is a symptom of fundamental institutional weakness (Hellman et al., 2000).As corruption has been conceived as a symptom of governance failure, curbing corruption demands addressing the causes of mis-governance (Huther & Shah, 2000:2).Lack of accountability, transparency and people s participation

4 48 Sebak Kumar Saha in decision-making process, absence of the rule of law, disrespect for human rights, misallocation of resources and controls over the press are the most important features of deeply flawed governance environment which create conditions where corruption can thrive easily. According to the World Bank (1992), characteristics of poor governance are:(a) no clear separation between what is public and what is private which helps to direct public resources for private gain; (b) arbitrariness in the application of rules and laws;(c) excessive rules and regulations;(d) misallocation of resources due to priorities inconsistent with development;(e) non-transparent decision making (Khan, 2009: ). In a country where corruption is widespread, programs intended to tackle corruption should focus on eradicating underlying weaknesses of governance environment which cause corruption. The removal of these weaknesses requires the reversal of governance quality, i.e. the establishment of good governance. Because good governance, in the words of the European Union, entails clear decision-making procedures at the level of public authorities, transparent and accountable institutions, the primacy of law in managing and distributing resources, and capacity building for elaborating and implementing measures that aim to prevent and combat corruption (cited in Aminuzzaman, 2006:15). The lack of noteworthy progress in curbing corruption can be attributed to the fact that programs are not targeted to remove the underlying causes of flawed governance. Since systemic failures result widespread corruption, attempts to combat corruption should emphasize reforming and changing systems (Pope, 2000:34).Nature of anti-corruption initiatives should depend on a country's existing quality of governance. Countries with high corruption have a low quality of governance (Huther & Shah, 2000; Schacter & Shah, 2001; Shah & Schacter, 2004).In a country with high corruption and a low quality of governance, the priorities in anti-corruption efforts should be given to establish the rule of law, strengthen institutions of participation and accountability and limit government interventions (Huther & Shah, 2000:12; Schacter & Shah, 2001:4; Shah & Schacter, 2004:42).Corruption should be checked by reducing the opportunities for corruption through the amelioration of governance quality. Schacter & Shah state that, Because corruption is a symptom of fundamental governance failure, the higher the incidence of corruption, the more an anti-corruption strategy must focus on the underlying attributes of the governance environment that make it possible for corruption to attain endemic proportions (Schacter & Shah, 2001:4). 6. Corruption in Bangladesh: Issues and Experiences In a poor country like Bangladesh effects of corruption are most insufferable. Corruption has appeared as an important issue of public interest in Bangladesh not merely because of Transparency International s ranking, which ranked Bangladesh at the top of the list of countries where corruption is perceived to be the highest for the fifth successive year from and in 2009 at number thirteen, but more importantly because it hurts the lives of the common people. Bangladesh has continued to be among countries where corruption is omnipresent though its position in TI ranking improved (TIB Annual Report 2006 and 2009). Democracy is yet to be institutionalized in Bangladesh. Bangladesh was fated to experience autocratic rule owing to colonialism and military regime for a long time in the past and many of the country s corruption problems arose from earlier periods of non-democratic regime (World Bank, 1996). Political and administrative corruption is evident in Bangladesh during almost all political regimes after its independence (Khan, 2009). Bangladesh has witnessed a continuous increase in corruption over the years (Siddiqui, 1996). All the organs of government have become contaminated by corruption and state apparatuses have been used for personal and group benefits at the cost of citizens and the state. The public sector in Bangladesh lacks accountability and transparency; its decision making is mostly opaque. Corruption is endemic in the society and the civil service plays a vital role in keeping it up (Khan, 2009).But it should be kept in mind that bureaucratic corruption does not exist in isolation and it reflects predominant behavioral modes and cultural mores in society and political leaders are also responsible for this because their corruption has a substantial demonstration effect throughout the public service (World Bank, 1996:68). Robert Klitgaard s following equation regarding corruption can be applied to depict rampant corruption in the public sector of Bangladesh: C = M + D A. Corruption equals monopoly plus discretion minus accountability (Klitgaard, 1998:4). In Bangladesh, monopoly of power of public officials (both elected leaders and bureaucrats) over goods and services and the discretion to use that power is large on the one side but accountability is weak on the other since the watchdog institutions such as the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General and the Anti- Corruption Commission are not strong enough yet to fight against corruption which result in promotion of corruption and which is evident from the rampant corruption of the country (Khan, 2009;World Bank,1996). Besides, the absence of the office of the Ombudsman is another encouraging factor for frustrating accountability.

5 Corruption and Good Governance: The Case of Bangladesh 49 Since power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely 2 (Lord Acton, cited in Pope, 2000: 26), monopoly of power over goods and services needs to be circumscribed and discretion to use that power must be made clear and accountability and transparency must be enhanced by improving monitoring and ensuring access of the citizens to information (Klitgaard, 1998). Whether the activity is public, private, or nonprofit, and whether it is carried on in Ouagadougou or Washington, one will tend to find corruption when an organization or person has monopoly power over a good or service, has the discretion to decide who will receive it and how much that person will get, and is not accountable(klitgaard, 1998: 4). Corruption is exacerbating the existing levels of abject poverty in Bangladesh. It not only generates poverty, making the country economically underdeveloped but also ensures violation of economic, social, political and legal rights of people (Alam, 2007; Iftekharuzzaman, 2005; Pope, 2000). Corruption creates favorable social environs for misappropriation of public resources which in turn impedes economic development and reduces the possibilities of poverty alleviation. According to an estimation of the World Bank (2000), if Bangladesh could reduce its corruption level to those prevailing in countries with highest reputation for honest dealing it could add between 2.1 and 2.9 percent to annual per capita GDP growth. This would contribute to a sustainable reduction in poverty (quoted in Iftekharuzzaman, 2005:9). Most citizens of Bangladesh believe that corruption takes place at almost all levels of government (World Bank, 1996). All institutions of public life have become tainted by corruption (Khan, 2009). Findings of surveys undertaken by various organizations provide evidence in support of the pervasiveness of corruption due to lack of quality governance in Bangladesh. A survey to assess people s perception on government effectiveness carried out by Power and Participation Research Centre (2007) found that 68.2% people had negative perception on government effectiveness in the area of control of corruption. Transparency International Bangladesh s (TIB) National Household Survey 2010 revealed that from June 2009 to May 2010, 84.2% of the households of Bangladesh during their interactions with different public and private service sectors for receiving services experienced corruption (not only bribery but also negligence of duty, nepotism, embezzlement of funds, deception and capturing money or wealth through application of force and other irregularities); while National Household Survey 2007 on Corruption carried out by TIB found that 66.7% households experienced corruption during interactions with various service sectors between July 2006-June The survey in 2010 indicated that judiciary (88%) was the most corrupt sector, followed by law enforcement agencies (79.7%) and land administration (71.2%); whereas the survey in 2007 found that 96.6% of the households who had interacted with law enforcing agencies experienced corruption, followed by local government (62.5%), land administration (52.7%) and judiciary (47.7%) (TIB, 2008; TIB, 2010). Level of corruption has increased dramatically in the judiciary, income tax, vat and customs, land administration and electricity sectors; while decreased in education, local government, law enforcement and health sectors in 2010 compared to The overall extent of corruption has increased in 2010, although signs of improvement have been found in some sectors in 2010 compared with the survey results found in 2007 (TIB, 2010). Figure:Rate of Households falling victims of Corruption (%) in different service sectors of Bangladesh 2007 in and Source: Data from Transparency International Bangladesh, Lord Acton made this observation in a letter to Mandell Creighton, 5 April 1887 (Pope, 2000: 26).

6 50 Sebak Kumar Saha The practice of paying bribes to get access to various services such as education, medical-care, is nothing but the mere reflection of the violation of basic human rights. Corrupt practices in politics, law enforcing agencies, land administration, judiciary, income tax, vat and custom and local government seriously endanger human rights in Bangladesh.TIB Household Survey 2010 revealed that 71.9% of the households who interacted with different public and private service sectors for receiving services had to pay bribe. Among the households who interacted with law enforcing agencies, 68.1% paid bribe, followed by land administration (67%) and judiciary (59.6%). Out of households who received services from income tax, vat and custom, agricultural sector and local government, 43.9%, 38.1% and 36.7% of them were compelled to pay bribe respectively (TIB, 2010). Education is one of the most powerful instruments for the improvement of living standard of people (van Aardt, 2008; TIB, 2010). Unfortunately, the education sector in Bangladesh is also victim of corruption. The prevalence of corruption in this sector is an obstacle to ensuring quality education. Students faced corruption and irregularities in the case of students admission, obtaining free books and getting stipends (TIB, 2010). Among students of surveyed households who received upabritty (sub-scholarships), 22% faced irregularities and out of them, 74.6% paid on an average Tk as bribe for getting scholarship (TIB, 2008). Health services available in both the public and private sector in Bangladesh are distributed in an inequitable manner because low income and rural people do not have equal access to services like the rich and urban people. Moreover, the presence of corruption in the public health sector where normally poor and rural people come to receive services impedes the progress of a sustained growth in this sector. Negligence of duty, private practice of doctors during office hours, sale of drugs at cheaper prices in the market (pharmaceutical/ drug shop owners) by the hospital personnel, unofficial fees in the form of bribes and payments to receive the services which people are entitled to receive free of cost are common practices in the public health sector in Bangladesh (Jahan and Salehin,2006).Among government hospitals, 38.4% of the households who received health services from upazila health complex faced irregularities and corruption while receiving services, followed by general hospital (35.2%) and medical college hospital (33.6%) (TIB, 2010). Widespread corruption due to lack of transparency, accountability and efficiency in the public sector health service delivery of Bangladesh would seriously jeopardize the country s commitments to attain health-related MDGs (also targets envisioned in PRSP) by reducing under five mortality rate by two-thirds, maternal mortality rate by three quarters (75 percent) and by reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS, malaria and other major diseases by Agriculture is the most important sector in Bangladesh and employs around 50% of the total labour force and contributes about 21% of the total GDP (Gross Domestic Product) of the country. Agricultural development is very much needed for poverty alleviation, food security and sustainable development (The 2008 Agriculture Census, Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics). But, the existence of corruption in this sector impedes the desired development of this sector. About 95% of the households who faced corruption and irregularities in getting fertilizer were forced to pay on an average additional Tk. 314 and 85.9% did not get fertilizer in time (TIB, 2010). The hidden cost of doing business in Bangladesh is very high. Bureaucrats increase the cost of doing business by corrupt practices. The World Bank (1996) reported about the side-payments required to get a trade licence and a factory construction licence to set up a garment factory in Bangladesh. A trade licence takes almost one year, but to finish the procedure in a week businessmen need to provide a side-payment of $ A factory licence normally takes a month, but in practice takes much longer. A side-payment required for local authority approval is $500, for clearance by the Chief Inspector of Factories is $ , and for the factory licence itself is $125. As a result, the costs of bureaucracy and corruption come to 340 percent of the initial estimated official costs (World Bank, 1996). A survey of 1001 manufacturing firms in Bangladesh carried out by the World Bank and the Bangladesh Enterprise Institute (BEI) in 2002 revealed that firms paid bribes on an average of more than Tk.70, 000 in 2001 and the customs and tax departments were most corrupt departments. The survey also revealed that 54 firms on an average provided the gas company side-payment of Tk.100, 000 for gas connection, 103 firms and 241 firms provided on an average Tk. 30,000 and Tk.11,000 for electricity and telephone connection respectively (World Bank & BEI, 2003). 7. Conclusion Corruption is the tip of the iceberg. It has deleterious effect on the development process of a country. The existence of corruption clearly denotes that there is something wrong in the management of the state affairs, because it is the visible sign of underlying governance failures. A number of fundamental changes must be brought immediately to reduce deeply entrenched corruption in Bangladesh. Consecutive governments in Bangladesh have tried to reduce corruption by taking isolated punitive measures but they have mostly failed to address the underlying structural issues. Addressing the underlying governance failures, successful anti-corruption programs should be targeted to decrease the opportunities for corruption. Efforts targeted to fight corruption should take into account the

7 Corruption and Good Governance: The Case of Bangladesh 51 underlying causes of corruption or in other words, drivers of dysfunctional governance; otherwise these efforts will not be able to generate desirable and sustainable results. As corruption is a symptom of governance failure at the country level, fighting corruption requires pulling out the traits of bad governance which act as the stimulants of corruption. Since poor quality of governance gives birth to rampant corruption, attempts to combat corruption should emphasize replacing bad governance by good one. Promoting good governance calls for fundamental changes in the existing governance quality of the country. The good governance approach simply strives to tackle corruption focusing on increasing accountability, ensuring transparency, imposing institutional checks on power and discretion, strengthening civil society, increasing people s participation in decision-making, ensuring rule of law and protecting human rights, reforming public sector management for ensuring quality public service delivery and reducing misallocation of resources incompatible with development. References [1] Alam, M. Shah. Broadening the Jurisprudential Basis of Human Rights to Fight Corruption: Domestic and International Perspectives. Human Rights and Corruption. Ed. Mizanur Rahman. Dhaka: Empowerment through Law of the Common People (ELCOP), Print. [2] Aminuzzaman, Salahuddin M., ed. Governance and Development: Bangladesh and Regional Experiences. Dhaka: Shrabon Prokashani, 2006.Print. [3] Andersson, Staffan, and Paul M. Heywood. The Politics of Perception: Use and Abuse of Transparency International s Approach to Measuring Corruption. Political Studies 57.4 (2009): Web. < [4] Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. The 2008 Agriculture Census (Preliminary Report). Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh.Web.6 July < eportlists.aspx?parentkey=44>. [5] Hellman, Joel S., et al. Measuring Governance, Corruption, and State Capture: How Firms and Bureaucrats Shape the Business Environment in Transition Economies. Policy Research Working Paper EBRD and the World Bank, April 2000.Web. 5 august < [6] Huther, Jeff, and Anwar Shah. Anti-Corruption Policies and Programs: A Framework for Evaluation. Policy Research Working Paper Washington, D. C.: World Bank, 2000.Web. 5 August < [7] Hye, Hasnat Abdul, ed. Governance: South Asian Perspectives. Dhaka: The University Press Limited, Print. [8] Iftekharuzzaman. Corruption and Human Insecurity in Bangladesh (Draft). Paper presented at the seminar organized by Transparency International Bangladesh to mark the International Anti-corruption on day 9 December Web. 5 August < [9] Jahan, Rounak and Salehin, Masudus. Health Care for Rural People of Bangladesh: Overview of Some Governance Issues. Governance and Development: Bangladesh and Regional Experiences. Ed. Salahuddin M. Aminuzzaman. Dhaka: Shrabon Prokashani, Print. [10] Khan, Mohammad Mohabbat. From Government to Governance: Expanding the Horizon of Public Administration to Public Management. Dhaka: The University Press Limited, 2009.Print. [11] Klitgaard, Robert. International Cooperation Against corruption. Finance & Development 35.1(March1998): 3-6.Web.6 august < >. [12] Leftwich, Adrian. Governance, democracy and development in the Third World. Third World Quarterly 14. 3(1993): Web. < [13] Mehta, Dinesh. Urban Governance: Lessons from Asia. Governance: South Asian Perspectives. Ed. Hasnat Abdul Hye. Dhaka: The University Press Limited, Print. [14] Muhith, Abul Maal A. Governance and International Development Community. Governance: South Asian Perspectives. Ed. Hasnat Abdul Hye. Dhaka: The University Press Limited, Print. [15] Pope, Jeremy. TI Sourcebook Confronting Corruption: The Elements of a National Integrity System. Berlin and London: Transparency International, 2000.Web. 6 August <

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