Economic and Political Empowerment of Rural Women in India with Special Reference to Bihar

Transcription

1 Economic and Political Empowerment of Rural Women in India with Special Reference to Bihar The world over women are struggling to break the shackles that bind them and challenging the unequal distribution of power in society. Empowerment of women in all spheres, importantly in economic and political sphere is critical for their advancement and the foundation of a genderequal society. This paper is divided into three sections: section l deals with the theoretical proposition of empowerment. Section ll focuses on some affirmative action programmes of government of India as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and its implementation in the state of Bihar. Section lll deals with political empowerment of women through reservation (quota) in grass root ( Panchayati Raj Institutions[PRIs]) representation including conclusion and suggestion. In empowerment the key word indeed is power : it is power to access, control and make informed choices. The term empower literally means to give power or authority. To understand empowerment it is essential to know the concept of power and its various dimensions. As viewed by famous sociologist Max Webber, power is one s capacity to have control over others, and as their capacity is legitimized, it becomes authority. The dictionary meaning of empowerment is to give somebody the power or authority to do something and also to give somebody more control over their own life or the situation they are in. Power could be defined as control over human, social, material or intellectual resources. Power is not a commodity that is given and taken; but there is the potential for all parties to gain. I Feminist theorists have identified four dimensions of power viz., power from within, power to, power with, power over (Wong, 2003). Power within refers to personal psychological power and empowerment. It is the process whereby someone develops a sense of selfconfidence and self-respect that was previously lacking. It is critical in terms of overcoming internalized oppression which often underpins more tangible and structural forms of power. Power to is the capacity to make decisions and take action to change one s life s circumstances. This is typically linked to the notion of human capital development stemming from access to economic resources, information, education and other services. Power with focuses on collective action and the ability to solve problems and claim citizenship rights through cooperation and networks. Power over, however, can be viewed both as positive and negative. It can be negative in the sense that it entails forcing others to do something against their will, but such power may be necessary to overcome unequal power structures and bring 1

2 about more fundamental, political, social and economic transformation. Ideally this fourfold framework should be seen as interconnected and dynamic about both process and outcomes. By writing a thought provoking book The Second Sex (Groult B. 1990), in 1949 Simone De Beauvoir became the first philosopher who systematically raised the issue of sexual discrimination. Exploring the causes of sexual discrimination Beauvoir rejected as too simplistic, the commonly accepted biological, psychological and economic explanation for women s marginal condition, instead the context of social values and attitudes connected more than the physical facts themselves. She opined that woman is defined with reference to man is deprived of her subjectivity, individuality and independence. Beauvoir observed that women have gained what men have been willing to grant. They have taken nothing, they have only received. As her thesis, in a sexiest society, man is universal and woman is the particular, he is the One and she is the Other. She is basically defined in comparison to man and as his counterpart but never as an individual completely independent from man. She believes that it is through values and choices that one makes its own place in society. Beauvoir writes For us, woman is defined as a human being looking for values in the midst of a world of values, world whose economic and social structure needs to be studied and understood. Would women accept their freedom of choice, they would slowly gain strength in their relationship with men and reach equality. She observed in her own time that changes take time and that abstract freedom (such as voting right) was useless in changing women s social status if those latter were deprived of education, health and economic power. Changing the status of women is a twofold task; first getting women to believe in their value, freedom and power to impact the world and then getting men to recognize those changes in attitude and both accept and encourage them. Women have to be empowered for such status. Empowerment is the process of enabling or authorizing an individual to think, behave, take action and control work in an autonomous way. It is the way of feeling of self-empowered to take control of one s own destiny. It includes both control over resources (Physical, Human, Intellectual and Financial) and over ideology (Belief, Values and Attitudes)(Batliwala 1994). Kabeer (2001) defines empowerment as the expansion in people s ability to make strategic life choice in a context where this ability was previously denied to them. For her, empowerment entails a process of change. Empowerment in general requires institutional transformation. Empowerment of women requires systematic transformation not just of any institution but specifically of those supporting patriarchal structures. (Malhotra and Schuler 2005).It is also visualized as an enabling process for the disadvantages section. By creating social environment suitable to the development of women, they can be given opportunity to take decisions and make choice of their own, either individually or collectively for their upliftment. By changing power in all spheres women become empowered. While empowerment literally means to invest with power, in the context of women empowerment the term has come to denote women s increased control over their own lives, bodies and environment. Emphasis is often placed on 2

3 women s decision making roles, their economic self-reliance and their legal rights to equal treatment, inheritance and protection against all forms of discrimination.(germaine and Kyte, 1995) in addition to the elimination of barriers to their access to resources such as education and information. II In the backdrop of the concept of empowerment, women as a whole in world over suffer from secondary status and in the Indian context they are at the lowest level of hierarchy. India has been ranked at a poor 115 by a global survey on women empowerment scale which looked into the level of economic empowerment of women in 128 countries. Women form almost half of the population of India. Rural women in India suffer more than their urban counterparts both because of extreme destitution, hardship caused due to gender insensitive socio-eco-political structures resulting into gender discrimination and gender equity. In the given state of affairs there is impending need of sincere state intervention with flagship programmes- both general and gender specific for empowerment of women in rural India. MGNREGA for Empowering Women in Bihar The introduction of National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) is one of the affirmative programmmes. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act was passed in Parliament in August,2005 and notified on 7 September 2005 and it was launched on February 2, 2006 from Anantpur in Andhra Pradesh and initially covered 200 of the poorest districts of the country. In 2007, 130 districts were added in the scheme and it was spread to over 625 districts in the country in During , the NREGS was rechristened as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA) through an amendment.the association of the name of Mahatma Gandhi with NREGA, 2005 was expected to reinforce the Act s thrust towards equality and inclusiveness. The Act was premised on rural households volunteering to do unskilled manual labour and the association of Mahatma Gandhi s name with it underscores the dignity of labour. It was, therefore, considered befitting that the said act bears the name of the Father of the Nation Mahatma Gandhi as it was a concrete expression of his vision of development. Accordingly, the title of the said act was amended as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act. The MNREGA thus covers the entire country with the exception of districts that have a hundred percent urban population. Salient Features of the Act Registration: Adult members of a rural household willing to do unskilled manual work may apply for registration either in writing, or orally to the local Gram Panchayat (GP). The unit for 3

4 registration is a household. Under the Act, each household is entitled to a 100 days of employment every year. Job Card: After due verification of place of residence and age of the member/s (only adult members are eligible for employment), the registered household is issued a Job Card (JC). Job Card forms the basis of identification for demanding employment. A JC is to be issued within 15 days of registration. Each JC has a unique identification number. The demand for employment in the GP, or at block level has to be made against the JC number. Job Cards are also supposed to be updated with days of work and payment made to the beneficiary as and when the work is undertaken. Application for Work: A written application seeking work is to be made to the GP or Block Office, stating the time and duration for which work is sought. The GP will issue a dated receipt of the written application for employment, against which the guarantee of providing employment within 15 days operates. Unemployment allowance: In case employment is not provided within 15 days, the state (as per the Act) will pay an unemployment allowance to the beneficiary. Provision of Work: While allocating work, the below mentioned considerations are followed: Work is provided within 5 kilometers (kms) radius of the village. In case, work is provided beyond 5 kms, extra wages of 10 per cent are payable to meet additional transportation and living expenses. Priority is awarded to women, such that at least one-third of the beneficiaries under the Scheme are women. At least 50 per cent of works, in terms of cost, are to be executed by the GPs. Wages: Wages are to be paid as per the state-wise Government of India (GoI) notified MGNREGA wages. Wages are also to be paid according to piece rate, as per the Schedule of Rates (SoRs). Payment of wages has to be done on a weekly basis and not beyond a fortnight in any case. Payment of wages is mandatorily done through the individual/joint bank/post office beneficiary accounts. Planning: Plans and decisions regarding the nature and choice of works to be undertaken in a FY along with the order in which each work is to be taken up, site selection, etc. are all to be made in open assemblies of the Gram Sabha (GS) and ratified by the GP. Works that are inserted at Block and District levels have to be approved and assigned a priority by the GS before administrative approval can be given. The GS may accept, amend or reject them. Cost Sharing: The GoIbears the 100 per cent wage cost of unskilled manual labour and 75 per cent of the material cost, including the wages of skilled and semi-skilled workers. Worksite Management: To ensure that the workers are directly benefitted under the Scheme, the Act prohibits the use of contractors or machinery in execution of the works. To ensure that the spirit of the Act is not diluted and wage employment is the main focus, MGNREGA mandates that in the total cost of works undertaken in a GP, the wage expenditure 4

5 to material expenditure ratio should be 60:40. Worksite facilities such as crèche, drinking water and shade have to be provided at all worksites. Transparency and Accountability: Transparency and accountability in the programme is ensured through the following: Social audit, to scrutinize all the records and works under the Scheme are to be conducted regularly by the GS. Grievance redressal mechanisms and rules have to be put in place for ensuring a responsive implementation process. All accounts and records relating to the Scheme should be available for public scrutiny. The presence of women in employment is much below their proportion in the population. They still lack voice, experience exclusion and have poor access to redressal. Half of India or nearly so is poorly empowered. Gender disparities abound in many areas including employment. The mandate of the act is to provide 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in demand in a financial year to every household whose adult volunteer to do unskilled manual work. This flagship programme of the Government of India endeavours to the empowerment of the socially disadvantaged, especially women, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes through the process of right based legislation. MNREGA, thus, with twin objective of rural employment and development has been perceived as a powerful instrument for inclusive growth in rural India because of its triple impact on social protection, livelihood security and democratic empowerment. The focus of this paper is to find out how far MNREGA has benefitted the women of Bihar. How far has it ensured and achieved gender equality and empowerment? Whether there had been some gaps in assurance and performance? For the purpose of the study both secondary and primary resources as government Reports and gazette have been used. Both the provision of the act and related guidelines adopted subsequently, emphatically provide for a share of benefits of the scheme to the rural women, thereby paving the way for their economic empowerment. Profile of Bihar Bihar, the ancient land of Buddha, has witnesses golden period of Indian history. It is the same land where the seeds of the first republic were sown and which cultivated the first crop of democracy. Such fertile is the soil that has given birth to innumerous intellectuals which spread the light of knowledge and wisdom not only in the country but in the whole world. The state has its capital in Patna, which is situated on the bank of the holy river Ganga. For its geographical location, natural beauty, mythological and historical importance, Bihar feels proud of the assets it has been gifted by time. And for its moral contributions in the fields of arts-literature and religion and spiritualism, it knows no competitors centuries old stories related to this land are told even today. The state is the same kingdom, which once upon a time 5

6 ruled the country as well as the neighbouring countries. Many great rulers have lived here and it fills us with a sense of pride when we think of Bihar as the Karambhumi of Buddha and Mahavir. Bihar, to liven up to the glorious tale of which land, words fall short. Bihar at a glance: Area 94,163 sq. kms Population(2011) 103,804,637 Males 54,185,347 Females 49,619,290 Population Density 1,102 Sex Ratio 916 Literacy Rate No. of Sub-Division 101 No. of Blocks 534 (Source- Government of Bihar) Progress of MNREGA in India Table -1: Employment provided to: House Holds (in crore) 2.31 Persondays SCs (23.1%) STs 9.59 (15.33%) Women (55.78%) Others (61.57%) Total Works Taken Up Work Completed Works in Progress lakhs 4.42 lakhs lakhs (Source- Ministry of Rural Development Department, Government of India) For almost 12 years of application, MNREGA has been positive in ensuring livelihood for the deprived people in rural areas. During the year crore households were given 6

7 employment and a total of crore person days of employment have been produced. Out of crore (55.78%) crore were for women, crore (23.1%) for SCs, 9.59 crore (15.33%) for STs and crore (61.57%) for others. A total of lakhs works were taken up of which 4.42 lakhs have been completed so far and remaining lakhs works are in progress. This scheme was successfully carried out in the state of Bihar. MNREGA wages play an important role in the financial life of the job card holder s family. But there are some areas that need some improvement i.e. less contribution of women, no unemployment allowance of number of work days, incomplete target of 100 days employment and no skill work of further development of human resources. Table-2 State: BIHAR As on Total No. of Districts 38 Total No. of Blocks 534 Total No. of GPs 8,529 1 Job Card Total No. of Job Cards Issued (in lakhs) Total No. of Workers (in lakhs) Total No. of Active Job Cards (in lakhs) Total No. of Active Workers (in lakhs) (1)SC worker against active workers (%) (2)ST worker against active workers (%)

8 2 Progress FY FY FY FY FY Approved Labour budget (in lakhs) Persondays Generated so far (in lakhs) % of Total LB % as per Proportionate LB SC persondays % as of Total persondays ST persondays % as of Total persondays Women persondays out of Total (%) Average Days of Employment provided per Household Average Wage rate per day per Person (Rs.) Total No. of HHs completed 100 Days of wage employment Total Households Worked (in lakhs) Total Individuals Worked (in lakhs) ,565 14,274 57,954 30,

9 Differently abled persons Worked Works Number of GPs with NIL exp , Total No of Works Taken up (New + Spill Over) (in lakhs) Number of Ongoing Works (in lakhs) Number of Completed Works % of NRM Expenditure (Public + Individual) ,176 92,422 71,827 1,08,844 1,15, % of Category B Works % of Expenditure on Agriculture & Agriculture allied Works Financial Progress Total center Release Total Availability Percentage Utilization Total Exp (Rs. In lakhs) 74, ,93, ,19, ,62, ,07, Wages (Rs. In Lakhs) 54, ,76, ,43, ,02, , Material and skilled wages (Rs. In lakhs) 15, ,04, , , ,

10 Material (%) Total Adm Expenditure (Rs. In lakhs) 4, , , , , Admin Exp (%) Liability (Wages) (Rs. In Lakhs) Average Cost Per Day Per Person (In Rs.) % of Total Expenditure through EFMS % payments generated within 15 days 7, , , , , (Source- Ministry of Rural Development Department, Government of India) The author has taken two districts of North Bihar i.e. Muzaffarpur, politically very conscious and Sheohar, the second least populous district. Table-3: Households completed in 100 Days in Financial Year Sl. No. District House Holds Employed Persondays Generated 1 Muzaffarpur 356 out of 15,565 (2.287%) 35,989 out of 15,66,305 (21.45%) 2 Sheohar 09 out of 15,565 (0.0578%) 904 out of 15,66,305 (0.058%) (Source- Survey) Table-4: Statement of Job Card in Financial Year Sl. No District Block Panchayat Job 1 Muzaffarpur Mushahri Shekhpur Sheohar Tariyani Sonbarsa 1377 (Source- Survey) 10

11 Table-5: Employment Provided in Financial Year Sl No. District HouseHold Employed Persondays Generated 1 Muzaffarpur 68,781 out of 22,49,229 21,11,237 out of 8,17,84,407 2 Sheohar 19,042 out of 22,49,229 7,37,541 out of 8,17,84,407 (Source- Survey) As per analysis, women s participation in MNREGA, though has not brought absolute equity but has definitely cast positive effect in improving their economic status. India s star programme NREGA has raised the bar for rural women who now work outside their home, enjoy an equal status with their fellow male workers in the field. Though social hurdles persist, but they visualize the scheme evolving to become more women friendly.(reetika Khera and Nandini 2011 & Hirway, I., and S. Batabya, 2012). All these studies pertaining MGNREGA leads us to the following findings about gender equity and empowerment: MGNREGA has helped women to spend for educational and other needs of the children and meet family expenses. Women s participation in MGNREGA is increasing. MGNREGA enabled women to stop working for local landlords, who paid women less than men. Their economic power has led to women s social respect. 75 percent of them are getting or collecting their wages directly through their bank accounts. MGNREGA has helped the single women, e.g. widows to uphold their self-respect and offers a great relief to those widows not getting pension. Realization of greater number of persondays ensures better individual-level effects. Flip Side of MGNREGA: The fallouts of MNREGA for Women Participation (WP) are multi-angular. These are the byproduct of archaic social relations (wherein women are seen subordinate or subservient to men irrespective of their higher caliber and higher share in running the family in comparison to their male counterparts and this attitude is carried forward in public arena as well), lack of gender sensitivity in the society, her own physical limitations, her familial responsibility particularly child rearing and, flawed execution of the programme. These have sustaining social, economic and political inequalities. 11

12 MGNREGA Cluster Facilitation Team Roll Out Plan: Recently The Ministry of Rural Development is implementing two flagship programs- Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) and the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) both addressing the rural poverty unemployment and from different facets. This project is to synergize the functioning of the two so as to substantially enhance the quality of assets being created in the MGNREGS and thereby ensure better sustainability of rural livelihoods. There is, therefore, a commonality of purpose and natural synergy between NRLM and MGNREGA. The Rural Development Department, Government of Bihar has selected Jeevika, Bihar Rural Livelihoods Promotion Society(BRLPS), which has been already designated as the State Rural Livelihoods Mission (SRLM) as the Civil Society Organization (CSO), to implement the Cluster Facilitation Team Pilot Project in Bihar in 25 blocks across 10 districts. III Political Empowerment of Women The development of women has been the central focus in development planning in India. There have been various shifts in policy approaches from the concept of welfare in the 70sto development in the 80s and now to empowerment in the 90s and afterwards. The emphasis is now on the inclusion of women in decision making and their participation at the policy formation level in local self-governance. The Government of India had declared the year 2001 as the year for the Empowerment of Women but the struggle to reach the stage has been long and arduous. In 1992 and 1993 the 73 rd and 74 th amendments to the Indian Constitution provided 33 percent reservation for women in panchayats-the rural local bodies and urban local bodies. These amendments, of course, as a strategy of affirmative action proved a major breakthrough towards ensuring women s equal access and increased participation in political power structures. Thus political participation and grass root democracy have been strengthened considerably by the above mentioned constitutional amendment. While many faced resistance initially to their presence in the office of responsibility, but overtime acceptance of women within the Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs) has been increasing. 12

13 There are total of 29,17,336 Elected Representatives (ERs) in the country while the number of Elected Women s Representatives (EWRs) in PRIs across 28 states and Union Territories is 13,41,773, that is 46 percent. As declaration of the Government of Bihar, the state is committed to strengthen PRIs as a part of its vision of decentralization. To achieve it the GoB and the World Bank and the World Bank have prepared a Bihar Panchayat Strengthening Project (BPSP). Objective of the Project is to improve the autonomy, capacity and accountability of PRIs. Speciallythe objectives encompass (1) In select districts, improving PRIs governed capacity to implement government anti-poverty schemes and undertake discretionary development initiations that are responsive to community needs; and (2) improving the policy and administrative environment to enable PRIs function. However, lack of capacity in PRIs in Bihar has been identified as one of the key constraints in promoting decentralization and effective functioning of PRIs. Moreover, poor levels of awareness among communities about the roles and responsibilities of PRIs, about government programmes, and the lack of social accountability mechanism pose major bottlenecks in assuring good governance and services from the PRIs, leading to elite capture, leakage and effective performance. 50 percent Reservation for Women in Bihar in Grassroot Governance Bihar is the first state to provide 50 percent reservation (quote) for women in PRIs by an Amendment in Bihar Panchayati Raj Act. Bihar is the third most populous state of India. The present status of the state has been shown in the table-1 below: Total Area Rural Area Urban Area TABLE-6 94, sq. kms 92, sq. kms sq. kms Districts 38 Blocks 534 Number of Revenue Villages 45,103 Number of Panchayats 8463 Total Population 10.3 crore Literacy 63.8 Male Literacy Female Literacy 53.3 (Source-Government of Bihar) 13

14 Bihar is divided into 38 administrative districts. The 2011 census reaffirmed that Bihar is one of the most educationally backward states in India. While the total literacy rate of India is 75.9 per cent, the literacy rate of Bihar is 63.8 per cent. Table 7: Sex Ratio Year India Bihar (Source Census) A fresh legislation was enacted in Some important salient features of the new Act are as follows: Reservation to all categories would be under 50 per cent. The SC and ST reservation would be in proportion to their population. In all maximum 20 percent reservation would be provided to the backward class. In all categories 50 per cent reservation would be provided for the women candidates. Table 8: Number of elected representatives in each level (2016) Members of the Body Unreserved Reserved for Total Women SC ST OBC ZilaParishadMembers ZilaParishad Chairperson Panchayat Samiti Pramukh (chairman) Members of Gram Panchayat Mukhia (Head of the GP) Panch Sarpanch (Judicial Head of GP) 1464 (Source-State Election Commission, Bihar) 14

15 Political Presence and Participation of Women In 2006 a reform prescribed 50 per cent reservation (quota) for women in the three layers of three PRIs. While in general only 33% of seats were reserved for women, the state of Bihar took the bold step of reserving 50%. Currently elected women representatives occupy 54% seats in Bihar s Panchayat. This reform is unique both in a national and international comparison. However, the effective power of women in the PRIs of India is often described by being surrounded by a range of hindering factors. Reservation is rotated at the time of Panchayat election i.e. every 5 years. It is found that many of the women are elected due to the status of their male relatives. Such women seemingly function as proxies of their male relatives. It is also noticed that the husbands had being panchayat representatives earlier and when the seats were reserved for women, the husbands put their effort and get their wife elected. There are also instances of self-determinate role played by women elected representatives. The objective of this section is to take account of the states and location of women in Panchyati Raj and how the PRIs have impacted the lives of women through progressive legislation for their participation and empowerment. Women s performance can be measured in Panchyat in the following criteria: Women s initiatives Participation in panchayat activities Knowledge about panchayat politics Change at the personal and family level Research Methodology of this section is largely empirical, based on primary survey conducted in the selected district of Bihar i.e. Muzaffarpur. The data has been collected on the basis of interview from the selected respondents comprising SC, OBC and other PRI members. The author conducted the field survey in one of the politically conscious district of Bihar on the basis of its socio-economic characteristics and mixed population. The area of study has been selected on the basis of various gender-based selective indicators such as- sex ratio, literacy rate etc. 15

16 Table 9: Demographic and Social Indicators of Muzaffarpur Indicators Muzaffarpur Bihar Area (sq. kms) 3,172 94,163 Population (in lakhs) Population Density 1,514 1,102 Sex Ratio (per 1000) Women Literacy 54.67% 53.3% 60 women representatives were selected based upon purposive sampling method and unstructured interviews were made at various levels of respondents at Panchayat level, at Block level and at District levels. The author prepared a questionnaire consisting of (i) participation in Gram Sabha (ii) initiation of new Proposals (iii) knowledge of progress in Works under MGNREGA (iv) development Works in their Constituencies (v) political and social obstacles. Table 10: Awareness about Rights and Duties Sl. No. Nature of Response No. of Respondents Percentage 1 Yes No Don t Know (Source-Survey) The data presented in the above table shows that 16 (26.7%) women are aware of their rights and duties and play active role in concerned affairs. But 27 (45%) women are not aware of their authoritative position whereas 17 (28.34%) did not reply and told that their husbands know which means they are unaware. It means that majority of women i.e percent are far away from the women empowerment. Table 11: Political Obstacles Sl. No. Obstacles No. of Respondents Percentage 1 Family Background Lack of Political Awareness 3 Male Dominated Political System (Source-Survey)

17 It is evident from this table that family background of elected women of PRIs as per their answers (20%) is a major ingredient of women empowerment. 20 respondents (33.33%) showed their political awareness, 30% faced male dominated political system. Table 12: Social Obstacles Sl. No. Obstacles No. of Percentage Respondents 1 Illiteracy and ignorance Inhibiting Belief Demotivating attitude of the Family Members (Source-Survey) As per this table, the author obtained view of 60 women representatives and found that illiteracy and ignorance act as obstacles before % respondents in the way to women empowerment % of women ERs are of the view that cultural ethos and inhibiting belief prevent women to be benefitted from the empowerment process and 35% expressed the view that family members discourage them to come out from social barriers. Findings and Conclusions On the basis of data presented in these tables we may state that lack of general awareness, low level of women literacy in the state, ignorance and preventing women to be powerful in the patriarchal society are some of the reasons at the grass root level. The intensive discussion with the respondents led to the exploration that male dominance is widely known in this state. Mary Wollstonecraft (1982), the feminist personality, also attributes to a false system of education and observes that deeply rooted prejudices defeat the purpose of best education and habit of independence. Suggestions/Corrective Measures 1. Women in general should be awared of their rights and duties as representatives to stand on their own feet. The government should organize awareness camps in rural areas from time to time. 2. To face the officials and to work for devolution the elected women representatives have to stand on their own and for which strategies have to be evolved. One of the important strategies may be federating the elected women representatives. The training 17

18 institutions have to facilitate the elected women representatives to form federation and enable them to run it successfully on their own. 3. The training institutions of the state governments should conduct training programme for local governance leaders continuously. They have to cover the entire population. Academic institutions and civil society organizations can also join government to carry out the training programme. 4. The author reiterates that economic empowerment precedes all other empowerment. This gives confidence, leisure and power which are pre-requisites for participating in political institutions. For injecting real equality in the programme, a correction needs to be made by raising women s share in MGNREGA to 50 per cent from present 33 per cent. 5. This much-appreciated affirmative programme of India, is also suffering due to implementation deficit and accountability- deficit at various levels resulting into its underperformance particularly when seen from women s perspective. So there is an urgent need to assess training needs of members of PRIs. As per the training needs analysis, orientation programmes have to be started especially for newly elected members. Training has to be imparted in such a way that the members should obtain knowledge and skill related to matters such as scope of decentralized governance, role of PRIs, duties and responsibilities of elected representatives of PRIs and rules and regulations. Priority has to be accorded for developing decision making capacity of elected representatives. 6. Exposure of elected representatives through both print as well as electronic media can play an important role in generating awareness. Publishing of News Bulletin also helps in dissemination of views, opinion and ideas. 7. Persistence social and community mobilization and pro-active role for the state can compensate some of the social and cultural deficits. This would be helpful in bridging the gap between assurance and performance. 8. It can be conclusively stated that there has been a radical change in the movement for empowerment of women. Recognition is dawning that women are indeed becoming a political force, both nationally and internationally. But women in India have to go a long way to attain the empowerment in political, economic, social and cultural field. The needs of the hour are: not welfare, not even social security but social and gender justice if the women are to flourish in the given situation. Notes: 1. times/indiatimes.com , Retrieved on India suffers from substantial poverty (41.6% of the population living below the new International Poverty line of $1.25(PPP) per day). World Bank further estimates that 20.6% of global poor now reside in India. (World Bank) Moreover, the percentage of the rural population living below the national rural poverty line in 2012 had been 25.7% 18

19 References: 1. Julien F. Sociology of Max Weber, New York, Random House, Wong, K.F (2003) Empowerment as a Panacea for Poverty-Old Wine in New Bottle?, Reflections on the World Bank s Conceptions of Power, Progress in Development Studies, 3,4,pp Groult B (1990), Le Deuxieme Sexe (The Second Sex), Preface, The Journal of Development Management and Communication, Volume 1, NO.1, January- March Baltiwala, Srilatha,1994 The Meaning of Women s Empowerment: New Concepts from Action in Population Policies Reconsidered, Health Empowerment and Rights. G. Sen, A. Germain and L.C. Chen, ed. Harvard University Press 5. Kabeer N (2001) Resources Agency Achievements: Reflection on Measurement of Women s Empowerment, in SIDA, Discussing Women s Empowerment. Theory and Practice. 6. Malhotra, A., and S. Schuler (2005) Women s empowerment as a variable in international development, in D. Narayan-Parker (ed.) Measuring empowerment: Cross-disciplinary perspectives, Chapter-3. World Bank 7. Germaine, Adrienne and Rachael Kyte (1995): The Cairo Consensus: The Right Agenda for the Right Time, International Women s Health Coalition. 8. Reetika Khera and Nandini, Nrega:Women Battle on, Excerpts from The Battle for the Employment Guarantee; edited by Khera, Reetika and Nandini (2011) Oxford University Press 9. Mary Wollestonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, DEN: London, Melbourne and Toronto, Every Man s Library,