Return Migration and Transnationalism: Evidence from Highly-skilled Migration

Transcription

1 Return Migration and Transnationalism: Evidence from Highly-skilled Migration Presentation at Migracion de Retorno seminar, UNAM, Mexico City, May 6, 2013 Wei Li, Ph.D., Professor of Asian Pacific Ame Studies & Geography, Claudia Sadowski-Smith, Ph.D., Associate Professor of English, and Wan Yu, PhD Student, School of Geog Science & Urban Planning, Arizona State University, USA (acknowledging: ASU IHR, Hao Wang, Sarah McCool and Anna Epifanova; title page photos: courtesy of Osvaldo Muniz (NCGE Project)) 1

2 Highly Skilled International migration From: Martin Pasqualetti To: L.ORG.LA.SGSUP.FAC I hate to see such talented people leave. How can we better recruit some equally smart people to train who will stay in the US when they finish? more educated Chinese tend to return; v more educated Mexican immigrants tend to stay in the United States (Aguilar Esteva, 2013) 2

3 Conceptual Framework Return Migration Approaches Migration Theories Perspectives on Return Migration Neoclassical economic approach (Todaro, 1969) New economic approach (Stark, 1991) Income differentials and wage inequalities are key factors for migration Migration as a calculated household strategy involving risk and opportunity evaluation Outcome of a failed migration Result of successful migration experience Structural approach (Gmelch 1980; Lewis and Williams 1986) Social and institutional factors in the sending countries and receiving countries Part of a circularity of movements, not the end of a migration cycle Adopted from Li and Lo,

4 Conceptual Framework Transnationalism Circular movements (Vertovec 1999, 2009) Sustain social and economic contacts in multiple countries (Levitt 2001; Portes 1999) Constantly travel across boundaries and interconnect with multiple societies (Al-Ali and Koser eds. 2002) Identity relates to multiple nations (Glick Schiller et al. 1999) 4

5 Connection Between Return Migration and Transnationalism Similarities Goal of migration is to enhance migrants economic wellbeing and social status return migration is an outcome of migrants strategic decision but also bound by societal conditions (Glick Schilleret al. 1995; Smith 2006) Return migration involves some level of transnational connections (Guamizoa 1997; Ho 2011; Tsuda 2003) re-migrate after returning home or move among different countries during various life stages (Ley & Kobayashi 2005) Return migration should be viewed as part of a broader pattern of transnational connection: those who have come to the United States with the notion of going back truly have their feet in two societies (Foner 1997, 66; Glick Schiller 1999). 5

6 Theoretical Gap What has been studied: Causal factors for return (Morawska 2004; Siguiera 2006, 2008; Wadhwa et al. 2009, 2011 ) Political and social context of return in each country (Chacko 2007; Lessinger 1992; Zweig et al. 2008) Regions where returnees tend to go in each country (Golgher 2008) Where is the gap: Previous theory--- Economy and society in immigrants home countries remain less developed BRIC countries--- origin countries can develop rapidly in a short period of time, which will influence transmigrants decision to stay, return, or move to another country 6

7 Research Questions 1. What characterizes transnational activities of BRIC migrants? 2. How do the transnational connections sustained by highly-skilled BRIC migrants inform their awareness of their home countries and the US situation? 3. How may the transnational activities help or hinder their decisions to return to their home country or stay in the US? 7

8 Research Background Significant increase of highly-skilled migrants to the US since 1990s Economic and Political changes in BRIC countries Brazil - economic crisis, hyperinflation, and political instability Russia - dissolution of the former USSR, change from socialist property regimes to a market economy that led to high unemployment India - abandoning its largely socialist economic policies in favor of free-market reforms in 1991 (Chacko 2007). China - economic reform policies in 1992; Chinese universities significantly increasing their annual admissions in 1993 (Li and Yu 2012). US Immigration and Nationality Act in 1990 Emphasize the employment-based migrants to the US 8

9 Legal Status Student visa F-1 Optional Practical Training H1-B temporary work visa LPT Green card US citizen (?Years) USCIS website 9

10 Person Number of BRIC Migrants with H1-B visas and Obtained Legal Permanent Residency by Employment-based Preferences, ,000 Brazilian H-1B 140, ,000 Russian H-1B Indian H-1B 100,000 Chinese H-1B 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 Brazilian employment -based Russian employment -based Indian employmentbased Chinese employment -based

11 SPECIALTY Interviewees and Methods art/ humanity social science natural science engineering business/ law TOTAL Brazilian Russian Indian Chinese RANK Professor Assoc Prof Assistant Professor Lecturer Male Female Brazilian Russian Indian Chinese

12 Transnational Connections Close contact and ties with their countries of origin Modern communication Early migrants (came in 1980s)--- occasional communication, isolated from home country situation Recent migrants---close contact with their families via Skype and online calling, better access to information in both countries Advanced transportation technologies for home country visit 1980s--- every few years due to high cost and lack of transportation facilities, mainly for family reasons Recently--- every year or two, combined family and career reasons 12

13 Awareness & Assessment of Home Country & US Transnational awareness Obtaining information via home country news outlets using one s native language Aware of and pleased with the rapid economic growth in their respective homelands Confident about their countries future Concerns: corruption in home country Seek to live and work in a just society, in addition to financial rewards US academy--- decisive advantage Academic freedom Open and merit-based research environment 13

14 Still X Plus One Syndrome? Transnational activities Factor into consideration of return, stay, or move to another country What we always used to think, we will work for x years and in x+1 we will come back.... ultimately ending up in a situation where people never came back. This was for people who migrated in the 1960 s, 70 s, and 80 s. What I found different among my classmates who came here in the 90 s when the economic opportunity became much better, a lot of them actually decided to go back, which was something that was not heard of in the earlier groups. I hear more and more stories of my classmates deciding to go back (I36m). 14

15 Changing Conditions in BRIC Countries Awareness of programs geared at attracting highly-skilled migrants India s participation in the United Nation Development Programme s Transfer of Knowledge Through Expatriate Nationals since 1990 Among BRIC countries, Chinese government has input the largest policy effort on attracting highlyskilled returnees Chinese governmental agencies Educational and research institutions Industrial sectors 15

16 Level Yr Program Name Policy Sponsor Nati onal 1994 Hundred Talents Program ( 百人计划 ) 1996 Spring Sunshine Plan ( 春晖计划 ) 1998 CheungKong Scholars Programme ( 长江学者奖励计划 ) 2008 Recruitment Program of Global Experts ( 千人计划 ) 2010 Recruitment for Global Youth Experts ( 青年千人计划 ) $310,000 start-up funding; $78,000 housing subsidy; $16,000 living stipend No restrictions on nationality $793 monthly stipend for assistant professor; $1,111 for associate prof; $1,270 for prof $31,000 annual bonus for specially invited professor ( 特聘教授 ); $ 4,700 monthly bonus for seminar professor ( 讲座教授 ) $ 158,000 bonus; employers must match or exceed what returnees had in previous institution; No nationality restrictions $79,000 bonus; $158-$475k research funding in 3 yrs Chinese Academy of Science Departme nt of Education Dept. of Education Organizat ional Dept of the CCP ditto Loc al Project Attracting Oversea Talents to Beijing; - Tianjin Recruitment Program of Global Experts; - Shanghai Recruitment Program of Global Experts $ 158,000 bonus; Local Hukou Status Local Governme nt

17 Changing Conditions in BRIC Countries Concerns on changing societal and political conditions Brazil- high cost of living Russia-high cost of living, lack of political transparency China- environmental degradation, socioeconomic polarization, and persisting lack of freedom India- lack of infrastructure, political corruption 17

18 BRIC Academics- A New Form of Transnationalism? Virtual Return Circular and seasonal transnational migration Back and forth travel Maintain intellectual and professional connections to their homelands Academic collaboration Part-time work opportunities Live and work in the United States most of the time Rest of family members in the US Position in the US 18

19 Virtual Return- Brain Circulation? Migration/mobility as a constant lifestyle [By the time we came here] we did not come with plans of immigrating to the US. We move, it s normal for us (R4f). I m a global soul, I can readily go to different centers, and still get my work done as long as what I m doing here exist; and I don t think it existed for people who came in 1980s, and they came to US and US was it (I1m). I like the situation I have, having one foot here and one foot there. I think this is ideal (B7m). 19

20 Virtual Migration- Brain Circulation? Constant connection with home country while having a foothold in the US Most of them still try to keep [working in home country] as a part-time job and not completely disconnect with what they have in Europe or in US (R6m) For now, I care more about collaborative research and jointly training graduate students. We want to still have our base here [in THE US (C10m). 20

21 Thank You Questions? Your feedback and suggestions are greatly appreciated! 21

22 Career Stage Early career faculty stay in the U.S. for around 5 yrs to get higher up in career ladder to a senior level then go back to India (I17f) Mid-career faculty we don t want to go into a system & work our way up. We want a lateral movement (I36f) Late-career faculty depending on recruitment efforts, own retirement plan, or predict their children s return 22

23 Highly-skilled Academics in the US Science and Engineering Doctorates Awarded by U.S. Universities, by Citizenship Status Citizenship Status Foreign citizens 5,557 9,475 9,788 8,892 9,213 9,480 11,518 13,548 14,111 U.S. citizens 12,966 14,559 16,112 15,915 15,049 14,635 14,912 16,022 19,509 Percentage of Foreign Students on Temporary Visas Receiving S/E PhD who were in the US 5 years after graduation Country of origin China India Brazil all countries