Volume 45, Number 4, Winter How Gen der of Ex-Of fend ers In flu ences Ac cess to Employment Opportunities

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1 Volume 45, Number 4, Winter 2014 How Gen der of Ex-Of fend ers In flu ences Ac cess to Employment Opportunities Rebecca L. Rich ard son Shawn M. Flower Ab stract -- While both male and fe male ex-of fend ers face many of the same dif fi cul ties while find ing em ploy ment, some bar ri ers are unique to ei ther males or fe males, or are more prob - lem atic for one gen der. The pur pose of this ar ti cle is to re view gen der dif fer ences in bar ri ers to em ploy ment for ex-of fend ers with dis abil i ties. There is lit tle re search on dis abil i ties and of - fend ing pop u la tions what ex ists ex plores the prev a lence of men tal health, sub stance abuse, and intellectual or developmental disabilities (James & Glaze, 2006; National Center on Ad - dic tion and Sub stance Abuse, 2010). Fur ther, the body of re search that ex am ines bar ri ers to employment specifically for ex-offenders with disabilities is extremely limited. Consequently, this review will explicitly reference ex-offenders with disabilities where possible, but generaliza tions about this jus tice-in volved pop u la tion are re quired. The au thors hy poth e size that many of the existing gender-neutral and gender-specific barriers to employment are exacer - bated by the pres ence of a dis abil ity or dis abil i ties. Dis ad van tages for ex-of fend ers are com - pounded in a fash ion that makes find ing a job a daunt ing task. Keywords: employment barriers, gender, ex-offenders, disability The in car cer a tion rate in the United States has fallen in re cent years, but the num ber of in di vid u als im pacted by in volve ment in the crim i nal jus tice sys tem is far from triv ial. In 2012, 609,800 ad mis sions were made into state and fed eral pris ons, the low est num ber since At the end of the year 2012, the com bined US adult cor rec tional sys tems su per vised ap prox i mately 6.94 mil lion of fend ers, down by about 51,000 from the pre vi ous year (Glaze & Herberman, 2013). About 650,000 in di vid u als are re leased from state and Fed eral pris ons back into the com mu nity ever year States (Travis, 2005). In ad di tion, 11.6 mil lion peo ple cy cle in and out of lo cal jails and de ten tion cen ters an nu ally (Minton, 2013). In di vid u als re en ter ing so ci ety are faced with a mul ti tude of chal lenges that make it dif fi cult to adopt a non crim i nal life style. One of the ma jor chal lenges fac ing newly re leased pris on ers is find ing em ploy ment. Le gal em ploy ment re - duces the risk of re cid i vism, pro vid ing needed in come, but also fos ter ing prosocial val ues, in for mal so cial bonds, a daily rou tine, and the sat is fac tion of do ing mean ing ful work (Flower, 2010; Petersilia, 2003; Rose, Michalsen, Wiest & Fa bian, 2008). For ex-of fend ers, how ever, jobs are of ten dif fi cult to find and dif fi cult to keep. Ex-of fend ers face many bar ri ers to em ploy ment, due to both their crim i nal records and their demographic characteristics. The task of lo cat ing em ploy ment upon prison re - lease is even more prob lem atic for ex-of fend ers with dis - abil i ties. From a le gal stand point, any phys i cal or men tal im pair ment that sub stan tially re stricts at least one of an in - di vid ual s ma jor life ac tiv i ties can qual ify as a dis abil ity (Amer i cans with Dis abil i ties Act, 1990). Such im pair ments in clude clearly vis i ble dis abil i ties such as those re quir ing the use of a wheel chair, as well as a wide va ri ety of less ob - serv able dis abil i ties such as di a be tes, learn ing dis or ders, and psy cho log i cal ill nesses. Al though the Amer i cans with Dis abil i ties Act of 1990 pro hib its em ploy ment dis crim i na - tion based on dis abil ity, the gen eral pop u la tion with dis abil - i ties still tend to fare worse in the labor market (Stapleton & Burkhauser, 2003). Fur ther, men and women do not face iden ti cal dif fi - cul ties while seek ing em ploy ment. Struc tural as well as in - dividual-level characteristics give male and female of fend ers some unique chal lenges in their job searches. The pur pose of this ar ti cle is to re view gen der dif fer ences in bar - ri ers to em ploy ment for ex-of fend ers with dis abil i ties. It will be gin with a brief de scrip tion of the of fend ing pop u la - tion, par tic u larly with re spect to gen der. It will then move to 35

2 Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling a dis cus sion of gen der-neu tral and gen der-spe cific em ploy - ment bar ri ers, fol lowed by rec om men da tions and re sources for re ha bil i ta tion counselors who work with ex-offenders with disabilities. A pau city of re search on dis abil i ties and of fend ing pop u la tions ex plores any topic other than the prev a lence of mental health, substance abuse, and intellectual/developmen tal dis abil i ties (James & Glaze, 2006; Na tional Cen ter on Ad dic tion and Sub stance Abuse, 2010). Fur ther, the body of re search, which ex am ines bar ri ers to em ploy ment spe cif i cally for ex-of fend ers with dis abil i ties is ex tremely lim ited. For ex am ple, the au thors iden ti fied no pub lished re - search re lated to the im pact of phys i cal dis abil i ties such as blind ness, hear ing im pair ment, or pa ral y sis. Con se quently, this re view will ex plic itly ref er ence ex-of fend ers with dis - abil i ties where pos si ble, but gen er al iza tions about this jus - tice-in volved pop u la tion are re quired. The au thors hy poth e size that many of the ex ist ing gen der-neu tral and gender-specific barriers to employment are exacerbated by the pres ence of a dis abil ity or dis abil i ties. Disadvantages for ex-offenders are compounded in a fashion that makes finding a job a daunting task. De scrip tion of Of fend ers Men have al ways con sti tuted a far greater pro por - tion of the in car cer ated pop u la tion in the United States than women. In 2009, 18% of the cor rec tional pop u la tion (prison, jail, and com mu nity su per vi sion) was fe male. In 2010, there were 113,000 women of fend ers in car cer ated in state and fed eral fa cil i ties, com pared to 1,500,000 men. Males were im pris oned at 14 times the rate of fe males in 2011 (Car son & Golinelli, 2013). The large gen der gap, how ever, has been slowly shrink ing. Since 2000, the fe male in car cer a tion rate has in creased by 2.2% for women and only 1.6% for men (Carson & Golinelli). Male and fe male pris on ers dif fer in the types of of - fenses for which they are in car cer ated. Drug of fend ers ac - counted for 25% of fe male state prison in mates but only 17% of males in 2010, while 29% of women and only 18% of men com mit ted prop erty crimes (Car son & Golinelli, 2013). Men, on the other hand, were more likely to have com mit ted vi o lent crimes (54% vs. 37%), al though court com mit ments of women for vi o lent of fenses in creased 83% be tween 1991 and 2011 (Carson & Golinelli). Path ways into crime also ap pear to vary by gen der. The as so ci a tion be tween prior vic tim iza tion and of fend ing is stron ger for women. Most fe male of fend ers have his to ries of phys i cal or sex ual abuse, and in ti mate part ner abuse is more prev a lent for in car cer ated women than for both in car - cer ated men and women in the gen eral pop u la tion (Chesney-Lind, 2002; Covington, 2007; O Brien, 2002). Women are also more likely to be in tro duced to crime, as well as to drugs, through their re la tion ships with fam ily, friends, and sig nif i cant oth ers (Cobbina, 2009). Ro man tic in volve ments with men who are also in volved in crime in - crease crim i nal op por tu ni ties and ex po sure to crim i nal val - ues (Mullins & Wright, 2003; Simpson, Yahner, & Dugan, 2008). Gen der-neu tral Bar ri ers to Em ploy ment Work as a re ha bil i ta tive ideal is based on the es tab - lish ment of in for mal so cial bonds that can in crease an of - fender s self-con trol and en gen der be hav ioral change from par tic i pa tion in crim i nal ac tiv i ties (Petersilia, 2003; Uggen, 2000). De spite the doc u mented pos i tive im pact of sta ble em ploy ment on desistance from crime, many bar ri ers, both gen der-neu tral and gen der-spe cific, stand in the way of of - fend ers find ing and main tain ing jobs. A large pro por tion of in car cer ated and de tained in di vid u als, both male and fe - male, suf fer from a sub stance abuse or other se ri ous health-re lated prob lem. A re port from the Na tional Cen ter on Ad dic tion and Sub stance Abuse (CASA) (2010) re ports that 85% of prison and jail in mates are sub stance-in volved dur ing in car cer a tion or de tain ment; 1.5 mil lion in mates in 2010 met the med i cal cri te ria for sub stance abuse or ad dic - tion, and an other 458,000 had his to ries of sub stance abuse. Only 11% of all in mates with sub stance in volve ment, how - ever, receive any addiction treatment during incarceration (CASA, 2010). In ad di tion, other dis eases plague pris on ers it has been es ti mated that nearly 1.5% of state and fed eral prison in mates (Maruschak, 2012) and 1.3% of jail inmates (Maruschak, 2004) have HIV/AIDS. Travis (2005) estimated that 18% have Hepatitis C. Men tal ill ness is also overrepresented among in car - cer ated of fender pop u la tions. On a given day in state pris - ons, 2 to 4% of in mates are es ti mated to have schizo phre nia or an other psy chotic dis or der, 2 to 4% have bi po lar dis or - der, 13 to 18% have ma jor de pres sion, 6 to 12% have an anx i ety dis or der, 22 to 30% have Post-Trau matic Stress Dis or der (PTSD), and 26 to 45% have an ti so cial per son al ity dis or der (Veysey & Bichler-Rob ert son, 2002). Re search has con sis tently in di cated that the rate of di ag nosed se ri ous men tal ill ness among prison pop u la tions is be tween 16% and 18% ap prox i mately three times the rate in the nor ma - tive, non-in car cer ated pop u la tion (Kubiak & Siefert, 2008; O Keefe, Klebe, Stucker, Sturm, & Leggett, 2010). How - ever, a re port by the U.S. Bu reau of Jus tice Sta tis tics eval u - ated prison in mate self-re port ques tion naires and con cluded that as many as 56% of state pris on ers, 45% of Fed eral pris - on ers, and 64% of jail in mates have at least one se ri ous men tal health prob lem (James & Glaze, 2006). The in car - cer a tion ex pe ri ence may also serve as a stim u lus for men tal health con cerns. One pris oner re en try study in ter viewed 324 pris on ers both prior to and af ter re lease, and one in five re spon dents re ported symp toms as so ci ated with PTSD in the first months af ter re lease (Visher, LaVigne, & Travis, 2004). These symp toms in clude ag i ta tion while speak ing of prison, re pet i tive dis turb ing memories, and avoidance or emotional numbing, which can be highly disruptive during an ex-offender s transitional period. The ma jor ity of ex-of fend ers are ra cial or eth nic mi nor i ties; Af ri can Amer i cans and La ti nos alone con sti tute more than 60% of im pris oned of fend ers (Guerino, Har ri son, & Sabol, 2012), and ra cial and eth nic mi nor i ties make up nearly 66% of all in mates held in prison or jail (West, Sabol, & Greenman, 2010) and 64% of adults on pa role or pro ba - 36

3 Volume 45, Number 4, Winter 2014 tion (Glaze, Bonczar, & Zhang, 2010). Al though the ex tent to which mi nor i ties are dis ad van taged by la bor mar ket dis - crim i na tion ap pears to be de creas ing (Pager & Shep herd, 2008), mi nor ity sta tus may still make ac quir ing em ploy - ment or earn ing higher wages more dif fi cult (Harwin, 2013; Schmitt & Warner, 2010) (see S.M. Feist-Price in this is sue for a dis cus sion of the re la tion ship be tween dis abil ity, eth - nic ity and ex-of fend ers). A re port by Decker, Spohn, Ortiz, & Hedburg (2014), for ex am ple, con cluded that for men, be ing black or His panic neg a tively im pacted the like li hood of re ceiv ing a call back af ter an in ter view. For women, be - ing black neg a tively im pacted the likelihood of receiving a positive response from employers after submitting a resume online. The of fend ing pop u la tion tends to suf fer from low educational attainment, as well as inadequate literacy and math skills (Blitz, 2006; Harlow, 2003; Lynch & Sabol, 2001). 51% of of fend ers have ei ther a high school di ploma or GED, com pared to 76% of the gen eral pop u la tion (LoBuglio, 2001). There are sub stan tially fewer of fend ers with de vel op men tal or learn ing dis abil i ties com plet ing a high school ed u ca tion or GED; only 34% of state prison in - mates with such a dis abil ity reach this level of ed u ca tional achieve ment. Fur ther, Hirsch et al. (2002) found that ap - prox i mately half of of fend ers are func tion ally il lit er ate. Over all, low ed u ca tional achieve ment, along with re duced cog ni tive skills, ren ders an ex-of fender both less com pet i - tive and re stricts the num ber and types of em ploy ment op - por tu ni ties avail able to them. While vo ca tional pro gram ming may be able to as sist of fend ers in their em - ploy ment ef forts, cog ni tive, de vel op men tal, and men tal health disabilities exacerbate the challenges associated with receiving beneficial rehabilitation services (Tschopp, Perkins, Hart-Katuin, Born, & Holt, 2007). Vo ca tional pro - gram ming re quires ac tive par tic i pa tion and learn ing by ex-of fend ers in or der to be valu able. Dis abil i ties that in ter - fere with the learn ing and un der stand ing pro cess, or with pro gram per for mance, can ren der pro gram ming in ef fec tive. Such dis abil i ties are wide-rang ing and may in clude gen eral learn ing dis abil ity and spe cific learn ing dis abil i ties such as dys lexia or at ten tion def i cit hy per ac tiv ity dis or der, trau - matic brain in jury, and neurodegenerative dis eases such as de men tia. Lim ited work ex pe ri ence fur ther plagues ex-of - fend ers op por tu ni ties for em ploy ment. Of fend ers work experience accumulated prior to incarceration tends to fall short of non-of fend ers work his tory, and the re moval of of - fend ers from the tra di tional la bor mar ket dur ing in car cer a - tion pe ri ods only wid ens this dis par ity. A bul le tin by the Bu reau of Jus tice Sta tis tics con cluded that 31.5% of pris on - ers did not have jobs dur ing the month prior to ar rest (Harlow, 2003). A study of Mary land prison releasees found that 45% of those who had en tered prison had been fired from at least one pre vi ous job (Visher, LaVigne, & Travis, 2004). Dur ing prison, while of fend ers are re moved from the tra di tional la bor mar ket and their so cial net works, their marketable job skills may deteriorate, and the strength of their professional ties and references may erode. In an increasingly high-skilled, technology-oriented society, ex-offenders with little up-to-date training have few viable job prospects. Jail de tain ees and in di vid u als who are not con - victed also ex pe ri ence dis rup tions dur ing and af ter ar rest that may have neg a tive ef fects on em ploy ment. Woe fully little research has examined the collateral consequences of short-term de ten tion and in car cer a tion, but work by Weisheit & Mofas (1989) con cludes that jail of ten re sults in long-last ing prob lems. Nearly one quar ter of de tain ees in the study re ported los ing their hous ing while in jail, and nearly two-thirds who were em ployed be fore en ter ing jail lost their job or felt that it was in jeop ardy. Pogrebin, Dodge, & Katsampes (2001) call for more re search on the of ten com plex costs to the in di vid ual as so ci ated with short-term in car cer a tion, and re port that jail terms destabilize in di vid u als in a va ri ety of ways, in clud ing emo - tional and fi nan cial dis rup tion to fam ily mem bers, pub lic post ing of the detainees arrest record, and repossession of personal property. Several systemic barriers, the result of employers and other in sti tu tions rather than in di vid ual of fend ers, ex ist as well. The stigma of a crim i nal re cord is it self a bar rier to find ing em ploy ment. Pager (2003) ran domly as signed crim i nal re cords to ac tors pos ing as job ap pli cants and found that a crim i nal his tory was in deed a sig nif i cant bar - rier to em ploy ment; the ap pli cants who were as signed as hav ing crim i nal re cords were be tween one-half and two-thirds less likely than the ap pli cants with out re cords to be given a call back for an en try-level po si tion. Job ap pli ca - tions of ten in quire about whether or not ap pli cants have a crim i nal re cord, and this in for ma tion may be used when mak ing hir ing de ci sions. Al though Ti tle VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 for bids em ploy ers from re fus ing to hire an in di vid ual due solely to the ex is tence of a crim i nal re - cord, con cerns about trust wor thi ness, de pend abil ity, or the pos si bil ity of fu ture crim i nal be hav ior for those ap pli cants who ad mit to a crim i nal his tory may still come into play (Har ris & Keller, 2005; Stoll & Bushway, 2008). Em ploy - ers may fur ther fear neg li gent hir ing claims; if a back - ground check is not con ducted, an em ployer can be held liable for harms caused by employees behavior that occurs during or because of work (Clark, 2004). Ex-offenders are systematically excluded from a num ber of jobs by law as well. Laws re strict ing the ob tain - ment of cer tif i cates and li censes by ex-of fend ers re move them from a wide range of oc cu pa tions (Petersilia, 2003). In di vid u als with crim i nal re cords may be ex cluded from jobs in child care, health care, ed u ca tion, fi nance, per sonal ser vice (e.g. cos me tol ogy, bar ber ing), and some union ized trade in dus tries (Flower, 2010). Iron i cally, as Petersilia (2003) notes, la bor econ o mists in di cate that these are some of the fast est grow ing sec tors in the US econ omy. The job ar eas in which ex-of fend ers may have oth er wise been most able to find work (par tic u larly personal service and trade industries) are off-limits. Re search has shown that home less ness is both a pre dic tor and con se quence of crim i nal of fend ing (Greenberg & Rosenheck, 2008a, 2008b) and find ing hous - ing is one of the first strug gles ex-of fend ers face. In turn, 37

4 Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling this chal lenge im pedes ob tain ing gain ful em ploy ment. Pub - lic hous ing laws now pro hibit per ma nently reg is tered sex of fend ers and in di vid u als who have man u fac tured or pro - duced meth am phet amine in fed er ally as sisted hous ing from uti liz ing sub si dized pub lic hous ing. Pub lic hous ing agen - cies must fur ther ban in di vid u als us ing any il le gal drug while in pub lic hous ing res i dence (HUD reg u la tions 24 C.F.R , 24 C.F.R , & 24 C.F.R ). Other ex-of fend ers may lose their hous ing when they go into prison, and long res i den tial wait ing lists pre vent them from im me di ately tak ing up res i dence in the same lo ca tion upon re lease. This forces some prison releasees to take up res i dence in crowded shel ters, spend ing their time search - ing for other liv ing ar range ments rather than search ing for em ploy ment. More over, both male and fe male ex-of fend ers rely heavily on per sonal con nec tions to find em ploy ment (Visher, De bus-sherrill, & Yahner, 2011; Visher, Kachnowski, LaVigne, & Travis, 2004). Most ex-of fend ers re turn to their pre vi ous com mu ni ties, which are fre quently neigh bor hoods with low so cio eco nomic sta tus that of fer few skilled jobs and house peer groups that of fer lit tle so cial and emo tional sup port (Kubrin & Stew art, 2006). The so - cial net works on which ex-of fend ers can de pend are small, offering limited connections to the legitimate working world and little access to resources that can assist with job search efforts. Gen der-spe cific Bar ri ers to Em ploy ment While both male and fe male ex-of fend ers face many of the same dif fi cul ties while find ing em ploy ment, some bar ri ers are unique to ei ther males or fe males, or are more prob lem atic for one gen der. Male of fend ers, for ex - am ple, are sig nif i cantly more likely to have com mit ted a vi - o lent of fense or a sex ual of fense (Fed eral Bu reau of In ves ti ga tion, 2012). Rel a tive to crim i nal re cords of drug con sump tion and other mi nor of fenses, vi o lent or sex ual crim i nal his to ries ren der ex-of fend ers less em ploy able. Em ploy ers may pre sume that of fend ers with a his tory of these types of se ri ous of fenses are less de pend able, lack char ac ter, or have a higher like li hood to recidivate (Tewksbury & Lees, 2006). Sex ual of fend ers are also com - monly ob structed when their names are per ma nently listed on pub licly ac ces si ble sex of fender reg is tries, as well as when they are man dated to live a spec i fied dis tance away from schools and other child-care cen ters (Barnes, 2011). Em ploy ers may choose not to hire such ex-of fend ers, pre - fer ring to avoid the stigma as so ci ated with sex of fenses and the in con ve nience of work ing around ex-of fend ers geo - graphic re stric tions. Men with phys i cal or other dis abil i ties are also more likely to have dif fi cul ties find ing sta ble em - ploy ment in some fields. Jobs re quir ing man ual la bor, for in stance, which are typically good options for men without extensive work experience, are difficult for individuals with physical limitations. How ever, women ap pear more dis ad van taged than men in the search for em ploy ment. In gen eral, the ma jor ity of fe male of fend ers are eco nom i cally marginalized and face sub stan tial bar ri ers upon re turn ing to the com mu nity that make it dif fi cult to ob tain and main tain em ploy ment (O Brien, 2002; Zarch & Schnieder, 2007). Sim i lar to male of fend ers, women of fend ers are un der-and un-em ployed, but women also work fewer hours, make less per hour than their male coun ter parts and are of ten em ployed in non-per - ma nent low-level or en try level oc cu pa tions with lit tle chance for ad vance ment (Blitz, 2006; Delveaux, Blanchette & Wickett, 2005; James, 2004; McCampbell, 2005; Rose, et al., 2008; Tonkin, Dickie, Alemagno & Grove, 2004; Zaitzow, 2006). Over all, the em ploy ment pros pects of most fe male of fend ers typ i cally con sists of low-wage jobs, but even for those with skills and ex pe ri ence suf fi cient to ob tain a better job, women are chal lenged by re spon si bil i ties as pri mary care taker of mi nor chil dren. The ma jor ity of fe male of fend ers have mi nor chil dren and were the cus to dial par ent prior to in car cer a tion (Greenfeld & Snell, 1999). As cus to - dial par ents, pub lic hous ing re stric tions are par tic u larly prob lem atic for women of fend ers, who need af ford able and safe hous ing not only to main tain their so bri ety and to avoid vi o lent vic tim iza tion (Berman, 2005), but also to meet the needs of their chil dren. Time spent meet ing the needs of their fam ily (Flavin, 2004) and the lack of ad e quate and af - ford able childcare (Berman, 2005; Harm & Phillips, 2001; Travis & Waul, 2003) are bar ri ers to em ploy ment. Other lo - gis ti cal chal lenges in clude that daycare pro vid ers usu ally op er ate only dur ing reg u lar busi ness hours, yet many jobs re quire al ter na tive shifts. Fur ther, pub lic trans por ta tion for al ter na tive shifts may not be available, or women may feel unsafe taking public transportation late at night or in unsafe neighborhoods (Berman, 2005). The re stric tions that pre clude of fend ers from ob - tain ing cer tain jobs cre ate a dis pro por tion ate dis ad van tage for women. Oc cu pa tions where fe male of fend ers may be well suited (given they are gen er ally low-skill work ers with lit tle ex pe ri ence) in clude the care-giv ing and ser vice in dus - tries of home health care, child care, and cos me tol ogy. These po si tions are likely to have more flex i ble hours and al low women to work part-time, pro vid ing women with more time to care for chil dren or to seek train ing and achieve ed u ca tional goals to im prove long-term em ploy - ment op por tu ni ties. How ever, even for those who are able to ob tain these types of po si tions, pro hi bi tions against higher skilled po si tions such as nurs ing, ac count ing, and trades bar women from ad vanc ing up from these care-giv - ing and ser vice po si tions into a profession which is more likely to provide a living wage and benefits. In ad di tion to chal lenges re lated to skill lev els and fam ily ob li ga tions, women of fend ers also have greater psychosocial chal lenges than male of fend ers and have higher rates of child hood trauma and sex ual abuse. Ex ist ing re search on in car cer ated women sug gests that women ar riv - ing in the cor rec tional sys tem are far more likely to have psy chi at ric dis or ders than their male coun ter parts (Binswanger et al., 2010; Hart well, 2001; Wil liams, Dutta, Kundu, & Welch, 2008). An es ti mated one-half to three-quarters of all women entering correctional facilities re quire men tal health treatment (James & Glaze, 2006). 38

5 Volume 45, Number 4, Winter 2014 In terms of trauma, an es ti mated 61% of men and 51% of women in the gen eral pop u la tion ex pe ri ence at least one trau matic event in their life time, but women are at a higher risk than men for pa ren tal ne glect, child hood abuse, sexual molestation, domestic violence, sexual assault, and sud den death of a loved one (Hart well, 2001; Norris, Fos ter, & Weishaar, 2002). For women, the prev a lence of trauma is even more ex ten sive among of fend ing pop u la tions. For ex - am ple, be tween 77% and 90% of in car cer ated women re - port ex ten sive abuse (Messina & Grella, 2006). Those with a greater ex po sure to child hood trauma ex pe ri ence a youn - ger on set of a myr iad of be hav ioral and health prob lems in - clud ing sub stance abuse (com monly used to self-med i cate), de pres sion, PTSD, panic eat ing dis or ders, sex u ally trans - mit ted dis eases, poor cop ing and prob lem solv ing skills, as well as en gage ment in pros ti tu tion and other crim i nal be - hav ior (Bloom, Owen & Covington, 2005; Covington, 2007; McLean, Robarge & Sherman, 2006; Messina & Grella, 2006; O Brien, 2002). Women of fend ers of ten have poor health out comes, in part be cause they do not have the means to ac cess health ser vices in the com mu nity. They are typ i cally im pov er ished, with in ad e quate trans por ta tion and re sources, lim it ing their ac cess to com mu nity-based health sys tems (Messina & Grella, 2006, p. 1842). Health is sues are also re lated to sub stance abuse women who are dependent on alcohol experience more severe physical con se quences, in clud ing more heart, mus cle, and liver de te - ri o ra tion and faster brain at ro phy, than sim i larly sit u ated men (Mann, Ackermann, Crois sant, Mundle, Nakovics, & Diehl, 2005). As the chal lenges faced by fe male of fend ers fre quently co-oc cur (e.g. men tal health chal lenges, poor health, trauma from past abuse, and/or sub stance abuse (James & Glaze, 2006)), the fail ure to di ag nose and treat these in a com pre hen sive and coherent fashion contributes to the challenge of finding stable employment for this population (Peters, Strozier, Murrin, & Kearns, 1997). Over all, the re search on women of fend ers and bar - ri ers to em ploy ment sup port ho lis tic ap proaches (Richie, 2001), which try to ad dress not only the in di vid ual s needs (hous ing, ed u ca tion, re la tion ship coun sel ing, fam ily sup - port, sub stance abuse, and men tal health treat ment), but also to re spond to gen der-spe cific needs and risk fac tors (Berman, 2005; Bloom, Owen, & Covington, 2003; Salis - bury & Van Voorhis, 2009). As the prob lems are multi pli - ca tive, com plex, and com pre hen sive, the so lu tions should be like wise. Our recommendations conclude this review. Rec om men da tions As Flower (2010) dis cusses, most re search in di - cates a need for contextualized, multisystemic treat ment meth ods. Prac ti tio ners as sist ing ex-of fend ers, there fore, must be pre pared to speak to the full range of an in di vid - ual s needs. Last ing em ploy ment and re ha bil i ta tion de pend upon the ex tent to which all of an ex-of fender s prob lems are ad dressed. Ap pro pri ately han dling some risk fac tors and ig nor ing oth ers will likely be less effective. Ac cord ingly, our first rec om men da tion is that vo - ca tional train ing and em ploy ment as sis tance ef forts for women and men dif fer to ad dress gen der-spe cific con cerns, and fur ther take into ac count dis ad van tages brought on par - tic u larly by dis abil i ties. Men are less likely than women to ex press in ter est in and seek out ser vices af ter de tain ment or in car cer a tion (Hart well, 2001; Spjeldnes, Jung, & Yamatani, 2014). There fore, it is im por tant that prac ti tio - ners reach out to ex-of fend ers, par tic u larly men, and in form them of avail able ser vices. The in di vid u als most in need of help may be ig nored if they are not en cour aged to take ad - van tage of avail able programs and if counseling services are not properly advertised. Job searches for women must also be sen si tive to prob lems that are ei ther unique to or in ten si fied for fe male ex-of fend ers. For ex am ple, aware ness train ing may en able coun sel ors to as sist in neu tral iz ing em ploy ers neg a tive at - ti tudes to ward women and in di vid u als with dis abil i ties (Wil liams, Dutta, Kundu, & Welch, 2008). Fur ther, given the high rates of trauma among the of fender pop u la tion, we rec om mend prac ti tio ners en sure that all staff from su per - vi sors to coun sel ors to front-line per son nel prac tice trauma-in formed care. The Na tional Cen ter for Trauma-In - formed Care, funded by the Sub stance Abuse and Men tal Health Ser vices Ad min is tra tion (SAMHSA) pro vides re - sources, train ing and tech ni cal as sis tance to pro mote the implementation of trauma-informed care. Organiza - tion-wide train ing may be re quired to en sure that all staff un der stand the im pact of trauma, and learn how to re spond ef fec tively in a man ner that does not re-traumatize the in di - vid ual. An other com mon bar rier for women re turn ing to the com mu nity is that for those with young chil dren, they may need as sis tance lo cat ing both jobs with flex i ble sched - ules and child care, and may also ben e fit greatly from pa - ren tal skills train ing. Women with out sup port ive, prosocial fam ily and peer en vi ron ments may need as sis tance to de - velop these so cial net works, which in turn will pro mote pos i tive be hav iors and lead to a life style con du cive to long-term em ploy ment. Women with his to ries of abuse and trauma may need ex ten sive men tal health treat ment or ac - cess to re la tion ship counseling. Without these services, the task of finding stable employment may be insurmountable for many female ex-offenders with disabilities. Our sec ond rec om men da tion is fo cused on sup port - ing fam ily re la tion ships. Re search in di cates that one of the great est re sources in re en try plan ning is the fam ily, who may pro vide hous ing, fi nan cial sup port, emo tional sta bil ity, and pro fes sional con nec tions for re turn ing pris on ers (Visher, LaVigne, & Travis, 2004). Hence, the strength en - ing of fam ily ties, both for mal (e.g. fam ily coun sel ing ses - sions) and in for mal (e.g. spend ing fam ily time to gether), should gen er ally be en cour aged. Ex-of fend ers of ten re port a re li ance on per sonal con nec tions through fam ily and friends while search ing for jobs, so fos ter ing greater fam ily bonds is im por tant. The role of fam ily can be es pe cially impactful for fe male ex-of fend ers who are less likely than male ex-of fend ers to have help ful pro fes sional net works. How ever, it should be noted that many fe male of fend ers re - port be ing ini tially led into crim i nal ac tiv ity and away from le gal em ploy ment by sig nif i cant oth ers, fam ily mem bers, 39

6 Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling and other peers who were al ready crim i nally in volved (Mills & Codd, 2008; Cobbina 2009). If the fam ily is at the heart of a fe male s of fend ing be hav iors, then this woman may need to dis tance her self from family members illegal activities to provide the best chance at finding and keeping legitimate employment. While op por tu ni ties are lim ited, our third rec om - men da tion is that prac ti tio ners en cour age ex-of fend ers to accumulate meaningful work experience and as many job skills as pos si ble im me di ately af ter in car cer a tion. This will likely in volve tak ing ad van tage of any avail able post-in car - cer a tion vo ca tional pro gram ming and tran si tional ser vices geared to ward help ing in di vid u als to re build work his to ries and dem on strate mo ti va tion to find em ploy ment. Con cerns about the ero sion of ex-of fend ers job pro fi ciency and so - cial net works, as well as work dif fi cul ties caused by dis abil - i ties, can be par tially re duced if in di vid u als are will ing to work and have a de sire to ac cu mu late job skills. Re search in di cates that par tic i pa tion in a vo ca tional pro gram by in di - vid u als with dis abil i ties may re duce the im pact of per sonal characteristics such as race, marital status, parent status, ed - u ca tion, and his tory of med i cal ser vices (Martz & Xu, 2008; Xu & Martz, 2010). There are tran si tional job pro grams that as sist ex-of fend ers by pro vid ing sup port ive em ploy - ment op por tu ni ties and ser vices in clud ing tem po rary paid jobs and other types of needed sup port, in clud ing case man - age ment and re fer rals for an cil lary ser vices. The Cen ter for Em ploy ment Op por tu ni ties (CEO) is one such com pre hen - sive em ploy ment pro gram, and a rig or ous eval u a tion found that ac cess to CEO s job bank and ser vices did sub stan tially in crease em ploy ment for ex-of fend ers in the im me di ate post-re lease pe riod, al though the ef fects did fade over a three-year time pe riod (Redcross, Millenky, Rudd, & Levshin, 2011). Pro vi sional jobs give ex-of fend ers a source of le gal in come dur ing the pe riod in which they are most vul ner a ble to re cid i vism and other det ri men tal be hav iors. Ad di tion ally, transitional programs give trained staff the opportunity to assess and provide counsel on ex-offenders workplace issues, better preparing them for stable, productive employment in the workplace. Criminal records are a formidable barrier, and many workforce de vel op ment train ing pro grams in clude coach ing of fend ers on how to ex plain their crim i nal his tory to po ten tial em ploy ers. Our fourth rec om men da tion is that of fend ers should be en cour aged to at tend these types of train ing pro grams, and when ap pli ca ble, em pha size the non vi o lent na ture of their re cords with po ten tial em ploy ers. A study of over 600 Cal i for nia firms re vealed that some em - ploy ers were will ing to hire ex-of fend ers who had com mit - ted rel a tively mi nor in frac tions (e.g. drug rather than vi o lent of fenses), sug gest ing that em ploy ers con sider more than the ex is tence of a crim i nal re cord while mak ing hir ing de ci sions (Stoll & Bushway, 2008). Al though hav ing a crim i nal re cord is still of ten det ri men tal to an ex-of fend ers em ploy ment search, it is pos si ble that the harm can be less - ened for those with less se ri ous re cords. In ad di tion, de - pend ing on the type of of fense or the stage of the crim i nal jus tice pro cess (e.g., ar rest vs. con vic tion), jus tice-in volved in di vid u als may be able to pe ti tion to ex punge part or all of their record. Practitioners can familiarize themselves with state reg u la tions to as sist for mer of fend ers with this pro - cess. It would also be ben e fi cial to help the of fender ob tain a copy of their crim i nal re cord so that they can re view it for ac cu racy. Publically available criminal record databases are often inaccurate due to both mistaken attribution and identity theft (Dietrich, 2006) Fi nally, given the many bar ri ers for ex-of fend ers in ob tain ing em ploy ment (e.g., le gal re stric tions and the stigma of a crim i nal re cord), a num ber of pro grams around the coun try are train ing ex-of fend ers to be come en tre pre - neurs. Some pro grams are con ducted while par tic i pants are still in car cer ated, while oth ers are car ried out in the com mu - nity. The skills re quired to run a suc cess ful busi ness are many and var ied from writ ing a busi ness plan to net work - ing to ap ply ing for loan to start their busi ness. The Prison En tre pre neur ship Pro gram (PEP) in Texas is one ex am ple of such an ef fort and has been eval u ated by re search ers at Baylor Uni ver sity (John son, Wubbenhorst, & Schroeder, 2013). Par tic i pants in the PEP pro gram had sig nif i cantly lower rates of re cid i vism (mea sured as re turn to in car cer a - tion up to 3 years post re lease) com pared to a con trol group of those who were el i gi ble, but did not par tic i pate in the pro gram. Our fi nal rec om men da tion is that prac ti tio ners may wish to re view these pro grams (see the Inc.Com Guide to Prison En tre pre neur ship Re sources at the end of the article) to see if such an initiative could be implemented within their community. Re sources Expungement of Crim i nal Re cords Website pro vid ing links to in for ma tion by state re - lated to expungement of crim i nal re cords. nd-criminal-records-state-specific-information.html Na tional Cen ter for Trauma-In formed Care Tech ni cal as sis tance cen ter whose pur pose is to ed - u cate and to as sist in the im ple men ta tion of trauma in - formed care. The Riley Guide A website portal listing various references related to em ploy ment and workforce de vel op ment. Na tional Di rec tory of Pro grams for Women with Crim i - nal Jus tice In volve ment Search able list of avail able pro grams, by state, for women in volved with var i ous stages of the crim i nal jus tice system. Na tional Re source Cen ter on Jus tice In volved Women The Na tional Re source Cen ter on Jus tice-in volved Women es tab lished to as sist prac ti tio ners in un der stand ing and ap ply ing the les sons learned from re search, prom is ing 40

7 Volume 45, Number 4, Winter 2014 prac tices, and the in sights of jus tice-in volved women them - selves, as prac ti tio ners strive to trans form the crim i nal jus - tice sys tem into one that is more gen der-re spon sive and ultimately more ef fec tive. Inc.Com Guide to Prison En tre pre neur ship Re sources List of pro grams by state that fo cus on help ing ex-of fend ers be come self-em ployed hip.html Wider Opportunities for Women Their 2006 pub li ca tion en ti tled Reality Check: Pro mot ing Self-Suf fi ciency in the Pub lic Workforce Sys tem A Prom is ing Prac tices Guide for Workforce Boards pro - vides case stud ies doc u ment ing the ef forts of lo cal Workforce In vest ment Boards to as sist women and ex-of - fend ers in achiev ing eco nomic sta bil ity. 20Promoting%20Self-Sufficiency%20in%20the%20 Public%20Workforce%20System%20-%20Working %20with%20Women,%20Youth%20and%20Ex-offe nders.pdf Ref er ences Amer i cans With Dis abil i ties Act of (2000). 42 U.S.C Barnes, J. C. (2011). Place a mor a to rium on the pas sage of sex of fender res i dence re stric tion laws. Crim i nol ogy & Public Pol - icy, 10(2), Berman, J. (2005). Women of fender tran si tion and re en try: Gender re - spon sive ap proaches to transitioning women of fend ers from prison to the com mu nity. Wash ing ton, DC: U.S. De part ment of Jus tice, Na tional In sti tute of Cor rec tions. Binswanger, I., Merrill, J., Krueger, P., White, M., Booth, R., & El more, J. (2010). Gen der dif fer ences in chronic med i cal, psychiatric, and sub stance-de pend ence dis or ders among jail inmates. Amer i can Jour nal of Pub lic Health, 100(3), Blitz, C. L. (2006). Pre dic tors of sta ble em ploy ment among fe male in - mates in New Jer sey: Im pli ca tions for suc cess ful re in te gra tion. Jour nal of Of fender Re ha bil i ta tion, 43(1), Bloom, B., Owen, B., & S. Covington (2005). 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