I. Overview of Industrial Revolution (IR) Notes on the Industrial Revolution (1780-1850) A. Machines start to replace human & animal power in production and manufacturing of goods B. Europe gradually transforms from an agricultural & commercial society into a modern industrial society C. Economic changes of the IR do more than any other movement to revolutionize life in Europe and western civilization II. England is the first country to industrialize A. Begins in 1780s (not complete until 1830s at the earliest) B. Economic and social factors 1. Land & geography a. Geographic isolation provides protection and separation from continental wars b. Large supply of coal and iron c. Canal network built in Britain after 1770 facilitates transportation of goods 2. Agricultural revolution a. Supply of cheap labor increases as the enclosure movement forces many landless farmers to move to urban areas b. Increase in agricultural productivity leads to lower food prices and in turn enabled ordinary people to purchase industrial goods 3. Role of government a. Gov t is sympathetic to industrial development, has effective central bank, and allows economy to operate w/few controls (thus encouraging personal initiative and the free flow of credit) b. Gov t is stable (i) England isn t left devastated by Napoleonic Wars 4. Colonial Empire a. Gives Britain access to raw materials needed to develop many industries 1
b. Colonies provide growing market for English goods C. A growing demand for textiles leads to the creation of the world s first large factories 1. Perpetual thread shortage in textile industry focuses attention on how to improve spinning (transforming cotton into thread) 2. Technological advances that improve spinning a. 1765, James Hargreaves invents spinning jenny, which mechanizes the spinning wheel c. 1769, Richard Arkwright invents the water frame, which improves thread spinning d. 1790, Samuel Crompton invents the spinning mule, which combines best features of spinning jenny and water frame i. Results in all cotton spinning gradually being done in factories 3. Improved methods for spinning cotton make cotton goods much cheaper a. Underwear/body linen (made of cotton) becomes much more widely available than it had been 4. Note: the creation of world s first modern factories in British cotton textile industry marks the beginning of the IR in Britain D. Steam engines and coal 1. The use of coal to power steam engines is one of hallmarks of the IR a. Revolution in energy involves transition from wood-burning to coal burning b. Coal i. Provides steam power used in many industries By 1850, England produces 2/3 of world s coal 2. Steam engine a. Thomas Savery (1698) and Thomas Newcomen (1705) invent steam pump to pump water out of mines i. Both engines are extremely inefficient Used to replace mechanical pumps powered by animals b. James Watt in 1769 invents and patents first efficient steam engine 2
i. By late 1780s, steam engine is regularly used in production in England c. Steam engine is most fundamental advance in technology -- marks first time in history that humanity has almost unlimited power at its disposal i. Steam-power begins to replace water power in cotton-spinning mills during the 1780s d. Steam power transforms iron industry E. Transportation Revolution i. Increasing supplies of coal boost iron production and give rise to heavy industry: the manufacture of machinery and materials used in production 1. Steam power dramatically improves transportation 2. Facilitates distribution of finished goods and delivery of raw materials to factories 3. New canal systems 4. Railroads a. 1803, first steam wagon used on streets of London b. 1825, George Stephenson makes railway locomotive commercially successful c. Impact of Railroads i. Greatly reduce cost of shipping goods over land i Spur growth of regional and national market for goods Facilitate growth of urban working class coming from rural areas F. Great Britain ( the workshop of the world ) in 1850 1. Produces 2/3 of world s coal 2. Produces more than ½ of world s iron and cotton cloth 3. Produces 20% of world s industrial goods (by 1860) 4. Population growth in Britain a. 1780 9 million 3
1851 21 million b. Thomas Malthus i. Argues that population will always tend to outgrow food supply b. David Ricardo i. Argues that wages would always sink to subsistence level bcs of pressure of population growth (Iron Law of Wages) III. Industrialization in Continental Europe A. National variations... different countries follow different routes 1. Belgium and the U.S. follow Britain s lead 2. France shows only gradual growth in the early 19 th century 3. By 1913, the U.S. surpasses Britain in per capita production & Germany is fast approaching levels in Britain B. Challenge of Industrialization 1. Factors contributing to slower industrialization on the Continent a. Napoleonic Wars devastate European continent b. Difficult for continental manufacturers to compete w/inexpensive British goods c. Technology of steam power is expensive d. Continental workers lack technological skills British works have developed 2. Advantages of Continental Countries a. Most continental countries have a tradition of a successful putting-out system b. Continental countries need not duplicate the wheel... can simply borrow British technology c. Cont. countries have strong independent gov ts C. Agents of Industrialization 1. Talented workers leave England and introduce new technology and methods abroad 4
2. Governments a. France imposes tariffs on British goods in order to protect & stimulate French economy and industrial development b. Prussia guarantees interest and principal on bonds issued by railroad developers to private investors c. In 1834 German member states establish a free trade zone and impose a uniform tariff against foreign countries 3. Changes in banking a. Gov ts allow banks to organize themselves as limited liability corporations... this legal status prevents investors in banks from being liable for losses beyond their initial investment and thus stimulates greater investment in the banks b. Banks, in turn, help develop RRs and companies working in heavy industry IV. Social effects/issues related to the Industrial Revolution A. New social order replaces traditional social hierarchy 1. New paradigm: individuals belong to economically determined classes which have conflicting interests a. Well-educated public comes to see itself as the middle class... 19 th Century becomes golden age of the middle class b. The people transform themselves into the working class B. Factory Owners (form part of bourgeoisie see Ch. 23) 1. A new group of factory owners joins the middle class (which previously consisted of merchants and professional people) 2. New opportunities for certain groups arise a. Artisans and highly talented skilled workers become very successful b. Certain ethnic and religious groups become successful (e.g., Protestant and Jewish citizens dominate banking in Catholic France) C. Factory Workers ( proletariat see Ch. 23) 1. Factory workers emerge as a new group in society 2. Early years of IR are tough for workers 5
a. 1780-1820, little increase in purchasing power b. 1792-1815, almost constant warfare w/france leads to high food prices 3. As IR progresses, economic condition of workers improves a. After 1840, there is a significant increase in real wages 3. Critics of IR s effect on factory workers a. Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) lashes out at the middle class in his The Condition of the Working Class in England (1844) i. Argues that new poverty of industrial workers is worse than old poverty of cottage workers and agricultural laborers His ideas will influence Marx and later socialists b. Luddites i. A violent group of upset workers who blame industrialism for their jobs Beginning in 1812, attack factories in northern England and destroy new machines they believe will put them out of work D. Changes in working conditions 1. Factory work means more discipline and less personal freedom a. Cottage workers reluctant to work in factories bcs of impersonal environment and restrictions b. Early factories resemble English poorhouses, where destitute people went to live on welfare 2. Child labor exploitation a. Cottage workers reluctance to work in factories leads to increasing reliance on child labor b. Abandoned children become a main source of labor from local parishes and orphanages i. Owners exercise authority over children much like slave-owners c. Child exploitation not new, however i. Children are doing much of same work they did in the cottage industry 6
d. Factory Act of 1833 i. Limits workday for children ages 9-13 to 8 hours per day i iv. Limits workday of those ages 14-18 to 12 hours Requires factories to establish elementary schools for children under age 9 Employment of children declines rapidly E. Social Effects of Industrialization 1. Urbanization a. Largest population transfer in human history b. During 19 th century, cities become industrial centers (in addition to gov tal & cultural centers) c. But note: in 1850 more British people still work on farms than in any other occupation 2. Working class injustices, gender exploitation and standard-of-living issues become hot button political and social issues of 19 th century 3. Family structure and gender roles w/in family change a. Families as an economic unit are no longer the chief unit of both production and consumption b. New wage economy means families are bound less closely together than in the past c. Productive work moves out of the home and into factories c. Although factories initially hire whole families to work together as a single unit, the Factory Act of 1833 restricting child labor breaks this pattern of families working together d. Gender-based roles at home and domestic life slowly emerge i. Married women are associated w/domestic duties, while men tend to be sole wage earners Women work outside the home only when family needs, illness, or death of a spouse requires them to do so F. Early Labor Movement in Europe 7
1. Working-class solidarity and class consciousness develops in both small workshops and large factories 2. Combination Acts (1799) a. Parliament prohibits labor unions b. Reaction to fear of radicalism in the French Revolution c. Workers widely disregard this law d. Law is repealed in 1824 and unions become more tolerated after 1825 3. Robert Owen (1771-1858) in 1834 organizes the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union a. Scottish industrialist and social reformer who pioneers industrial relations by combining firm discipline w/a concern for health, safety, and working hours b. After 1815, experiments w/cooperative and socialists communities (including one in New Harmony, Indiana) c. His and other unionization efforts fail and British labor movement moves after 1851 in direction of craft unions 4. Craft unions win benefits for members through fairly conservative means 5. Chartist movement a. Organized in the face of Owen s national trade union collapse b. Demand that all men have the right to vote 8