Introduction. Chapter 1. Statement of the Problem

Transcription

1 Chapter 1 Introduction Statement of the Problem The Panchayati Raj Institution (PRI ) through which power is decentralized in a democracy is considered to be an effective machinery of socio-economic transformation and political participation at the grass-root level. It is supposed to be a solid pillar on which a prosperous, dynamic and genuinely democratic rural social system is attempted to be built by the Government of independent India (Desai, 1997, p.533). Towards this end, the 73 rd Amendment of the Indian Constitution, 1992 (received the assent of the President on April 20, 1993 and published in the Gazette of India, extra, Part II, Section I, dated 20 April, 1993) is a landmark which has sought to institutionalize democracy at the grass-root level by making periodic elections mandatory to the local bodies. This could be done by curtailing the power of the state governments to suspend these institutions for an indefinite period as it has happened too often in the past. The Act provided for a set of inter-connected democratic popular institutions at the village, block and district levels through which representatives of the people can function for development of their respective areas. Though the Act emphasized on a three-tier system of panchayat raj, different states and union territories have adopted their own methodology in forming the PRIs in accordance with their local conditions and tradition. Panchayati Raj system in Assam is a well-knit three-tiered structure of

2 Chapter 1 2 Gaon Panchayat at the village level, Anchalik Panchayat at the intermediate (block) level and Zilla Parishad at the apex (district) level. Structure of PRIs in Different States/ Union territories One-tier system Two-tier system Three-tier system Jammu & Kashmir, Nagaland (Traditional council) Goa, Manipur, Sikkim, Lakshadweep, Daman & Diu, Pondicherry, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Meghalaya, (Traditional councils) Mizoram, (Traditional councils) Andaman & Nicobar, Andra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Chandigarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, West Bengal. Source: PRIs in India, 2006, Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India, New Delhi.

3 Chapter 1 3 Panchayati Raj system offers an institutional innovation for planning from below. It has sought to give space to the weaker sections and women to participate in the decision-making process and development at the grass-root level. It has also aimed at decentralizing power and removing gender imbalance in rural local government institutions with the objectives of empowering women and ensuring greater participation of people who are uptill unrepresented in the political process. With the Seventy-third (Constitution) Amendment Act, 1992 PRIs have become so constitutionalised that it is no longer considered as agent of state government but as self government at the local level. The Act (under Article 243 -G) unambiguously defines the panchayat as the institution of self-government constituted for the rural areas. It has not only to implement the decisions of the state government taken at the state capital but should also provide the forum in which people will take decisions and execute the same at the local level. In this way, it brings the government at the door of the governed and hence it is considered as a vital instrument of realizing the goals of democratic decentralization, popular participation in decision-making and development at the rural level. However, the achievement of these goals needs a correct attitude and creative leadership at the rural level having linkage with political leadership at the highest level (Dutta, 1989, p.1) as well as the rural masses. The historic 73 rd Amendment Act, 1992 had not only reinvented the PRI but also added a new expectation for transparency, responsiveness and accountability to ensure good governance at the rural level. The structural strength of panchayati raj, indeed, lies in its ability to provide the right type of leadership which can generate the fruits of decentralization to the benefit of all. Thus, the successful implementation of the objectives of Panchayati Raj depends, to a large extent, on the efficiency and commitment of the leaders and their preparedness to shoulder the responsibilities as provided by the Article 243-G (Part-IX) of the Constitution of India. But experiences show that the leaders at the local level often do not perform their functions efficiently. It is generally observed that irregular elections to the panchayat bodies, lack of public awareness, corruption and absence of accountability towards people are the factors that deter the emergence of a

4 Chapter 1 4 progressive leadership at the grass-root level. But without evolving a sound and transparent political culture that helps the emergence of an efficient leadership at the rural level, the goal of democratic decentralization can not be fully realized. Thus, in the realization of this goal, the role of panchayat leader is significant. A panchayat leader is one who has won the election at the local level and thereby occupies a position in one of the three-tiers of the PRI. Thus, winning of the election is mandatory in case of panchayat leaders also. But the process of election is not always right to select a right man for the leadership. Instead, it leads to the emergence of such people on the rural political scenario who win elections to serve the interests of various political parties. Although it was advocated at one stage that PRIs should remain free from party politics, yet it did not happen and today it is the vital instrument through which political parties recruit leaders, mobilize grass-root support and use developmental funds to promote party interests. As a result, the people at the helm of affairs choose the aspirants to the electoral offices of the PRIs adhering to the party interests. However, there are exceptions. People do fight as independent candidates but by and large they do so as members of one or the other political formation (Vhora, 2004, p.1). This process of politicization of the panchayat system has added a new dimension to the rural politics and in this context the study of the patterns of leadership at the panchayat level has become further relevant. Theoretical Framework of the Study After being strengthened and induced with the spirit of popular participation by the 73 rd Amendment Act, panchayati raj system has become the soul of democracy in India. It endeavours to develop a self-sustaining rural administration which can address all the aspects of rural life. With the aim of decentralization of power it provides a wider scope for democratic leadership at the rural level to implement the programmes of development with people s co-operation. The leaders holding positions in different tiers of PRI are supposed to play a guiding role in the matter of formulation and implementation of the programmes of rural development. They

5 Chapter 1 5 are also expected to initiate the process of involving masses in decision-making. Thus, the role of leaders at the grass-root level is very significant. The success or failure of the objectives of panchayati raj depends, to a large extent, on the quality and capability of the people who form rural leadership. Under such circumstances, a study on the pattern of leadership becomes important as it can throw light on the role of leaders in the realization of the goals of panchayati raj in our country. The present study entitled Patterns of Leadership in the Panchayati Raj Institutions in Assam: A Study of Hailakandi District is thus relevant to understand the patterns of leadership that prevail in the different tiers of PRI. As the emergence of a progressive leadership is underway along the traditional leadership, the study is being made on patterns of leadership instead of pattern. The study is undertaken in Hailakandi district as it is the smallest as well as one of the most backward districts of Assam which has per cent and per cent of rural population and territory respectively. As almost whole of the district is under rural set up life of the people is being influenced, to a great extent, by the working of the PRIs and the leaders associated with it. Thus, a study to investigate the emerging patterns of leadership in such a district is expected to throw important light to understand the role of panchayat leaders in rural development. Since the present study deals with leadership at the Panchayati Raj Institutions, an attempt has been made to explain the meaning of Panchayati Raj and Leadership. The concept of Panchayati Raj: The word panchayat occupies a remarkable position in the history and social system of India. The literal meaning of Panchayat indicates its formation and function. Panch + Ayat = Panchayat. It is derived from the Sanskrit word Panchen and Ayatanam. The Sanskrit word Panchen means five members. A body of five persons formed to arbitrate and settle disputes is called Panchas. Further, Ayatanam denotes the place of functioning of Panchas. So, in this sense, panchayat means the office of Panchas. According to Indian mythology, these five members are of utmost importance and are representatives of God. Each one of them stands for the five elements that have

6 Chapter 1 6 constituted the earth. This conception of Panchas is believed to have originated from the Sanskrit word Panchayatani which means group of five deities. They are Ganapati, Vishnu, Sankar, Devi and Surya. Taken together, they constitute the Parameshwar, the great God of Justice (Dey, p.5). Thus, the wisdom of Panchas, according to our mythology, is infallible. However, Panchayati Raj as a system of governance evolved out of the concepts of decentralization and Gram Swaraj which were popularized in early 20 th century with a view to make rural India self-dependent. It refers to a democratic institution which aims at the development of the rural society through participation of the common people. It is a government at the local level to look after the development of rural India. However, different meanings have been attached to the concept of panchayati raj to define its nature and scope of activities. It is considered as an institution of rural local self-government, a mechanism of rural development and also an agency of state government to undertake specific developmental activities. Panchayati Raj is also defined as a system for the realization of the goals of the Community Development Programmes and an idea to realize democracy at the village level (Maheshwari, p.11,12). There are three basic rationales which are considered important behind the creation of Panchayati Raj i.e., to make Community Development Programme relevant to the needs and problems of the people, to transfer decision-making authority to the villages and to realize the values of participatory democracy at the grass-root level (Dubey, p.254). Panchayati Raj is also understood as an institution which provides certain basic amenities to rural life like roads, electricity, drinking water, sanitation, school, market and so on. From political point of view, Panchayati Raj is an institution to carry out village welfare and developmental functions. It is also an institution of democratic decentralization- an autonomous body capable of deciding its own affairs and implement at the village level (Khan, p.113). The major stake holders of the Panchayat system are government officials, rural elite and weaker sections of the community and each one s perception of Panchayati Raj differs from the other. To the rural elite, it is an instrument for the involvement of the rural masses in functional politics. To the weaker sections, it is a means to fulfill their

7 Chapter 1 7 necessities (Dasgupta, p. 37) and to the government officials, it is an agency of higher units of government to realize democracy at the village level. Panchayati Raj as a system of government shifts the power of decision making to the hands of the people and thus initiates the process of democratization at the grass-root level. As an instrument of rural development and democratization, it also provides the opportunity for the emergence of an active leadership at the rural level (N.L. Dutta, p.1). Thus, it may be said that the Panchayati Raj is an institution of rural development. It provides opportunity for the emergence of an active and democratic leadership at the most rudimentary level and brings the decision-making authorities nearer to the people. It encourages popular participation at the grass-root level of administration. For the purpose of the present study, Panchayati Raj is understood as an institution of self-government in rural India. It is an autonomous body to decide and implement developmental programmes at the local level. Its objective is to help the process of decentralization, thereby creating space for the emergence of an efficient and democratic leadership at the grass-root level. The concept of Leadership: Generally, a leader is understood to be the one who has the capability of mobilizing and leading people in different circumstances. But in context of the present study, the leader is understood to be one who has contested and won elections at the local level of our democratic political set up. But the role of a leader does not end with mere winning of elections. Instead, his role begins with the winning of elections as he is supposed to ensure village development with the participation of the masses. This demands the competence of the leaders. Leaders at the grass-root are like the agents to fulfill the goals of the 73 rd Amendment Act by giving panchayat a popular and pervasive character. Thus, the role of leadership under the new PRIs is much more far-reaching and important as the realization of democracy at the village level, depends to a large extent, on the capacity and commitment of leadership.

8 Chapter 1 8 The concept of leadership is defined in various ways. It is understood as the activity of influencing people towards some common goals in pursuit of general well-being (Tead, p.20). Leadership is also defined as a process of mutual stimulation which, by the successful interplay of relevant individual differences, controls human energy in the pursuit of a common cause (Singh, p.12). Any person who is more than ordinarily efficient in carrying psychological stimuli of others and is thus effective in conditioning collective responses may be called a leader (Sharma, p.258). Thus, the leader is a person who can mobilize a number of people and exert special influence on them. Depending on various features, leadership is classified into various types. Such classification identifies leaders as political bosses, the democrats, the bureaucrats, the diplomats, the reformers, the agitators and the theorists. On the basis of the mode of exercise of leadership, leaders may also be classified as authoritarian, democratic and charismatic. On the basis of origin, leadership has been classified as self-appointed leaders, group-appointed leaders and executive-appointed leaders. Finally, on the basis of objectives, leadership has been classified as political leaders, executive leaders and intellectual leaders (Sharma, p.258) Besides, leadership is studied with various approaches, such as, the positional approach, the reputational approach, the functional approach, the situational approach and the decisional approach. Most studies on community leadership have used one or a combination of more than one approach to identify leaders. The positional approach considers those as panchayat leaders who are occupying a position in one of the three tiers of PRI. This approach has been used extensively for the study of community leadership in India. It is a simple approach which focuses on the persons occupying a formal position in the community organization. Researchers using the positional approach proceed by listing positions and offices in formal organizations in the community to identify community leaders (Dutta, p.5). It considers those persons as leaders who hold some specific position in

9 Chapter 1 9 an organization or institution. Therefore, persons who possess institutional position may be considered as leaders (Sharma, p.256). The reputational approach considers reputation or popularity as a determining factor for leadership. It considers those persons as leaders who are most popular in the community and can exercise influence over its members. In reputational approach, the members of a community are asked to name people, whom they think to be influential and powerful in their respective society. The great advantages of this approach are transportability which means to have a powerful, agreeable, and often overwhelming emotional effect on someone and his mode of operation as it simply takes into account the reputation of the leader in the society. Under this approach the respondents have to be asked to name the leader whom they like most (Harson, p.817). However, this approach is not free from criticism. Robert A. Dahl criticizes reputational approach for its limitation to measure leadership instead of reputation. Functional approach to study community leadership identifies community leaders on the basis of their role and function in the community affairs. It explains leadership in terms of the functions which they perform for the community. Hence, those persons who possess the ability to do something for the community under different circumstances may be called a leader. Leader, therefore, emerges as a consequence of the needs of a group and of the conditions under which the group is to function for its existence (Sharma, p ). Situational approach, on the other hand, recognizes leadership as a situation specific phenomenon. Leadership evolves out of a particular situation only. Different situations demand different leadership and the variables which are required to produce leaders are determined by the particular situation. Another approach which helps to determine leadership is decisional approach. It considers those persons as leaders who make key decisions on community issues. It involves the action of leaders in decision-making on specific issues or events. The major advantage of this approach is that it enables the researcher to measure power directly from the concrete observable behaviour of the participants in community actions.

10 Chapter 1 10 An overview of the concept of leadership yields the following formulations: Leader is one who is holding a position in a community organization and takes key decisions on community issues. He can strengthen local self-government, promote development through the implementation of various programmes, encourage mass participation in the development process and promote justice and equality by spreading the benefits of development to all the sections of the society. He is a popular figure in his community and exerts considerable influence on it. He is one who makes decisions on specific issues of rural concern. For the purpose of the present study, leader is taken as an individual who has won the election and is occupying a position in one of the three tiers of the Panchayati Raj Institution. Thus, it may be said that largely the positional approach to the study of leadership is adopted in the present context. Review of Relevant Literature Since the present study deals with democratic leadership at the grass-root level, studies available on panchayati raj system and more particularly on patterns of rural leadership have been reviewed. Democratic Decentralization and Grass-root Leadership in India (Subhabrata Dutta 2009) is an empirical study of grass-root leadership in Birbhum district of West Bengal. It studies the socio-economic condition and educational attainment of the panchayat leaders, their social support base, their participation and activities in the political process. It also examines the perception and knowledge of the panchayat leaders and their value orientation. So far as the socio-economic condition and educational attainment of the panchayat leaders are concerned; the study reveals that majority of the panchayat leaders belong to the age group years and are mostly from the general caste. Regarding the factors that determine

11 Chapter 1 11 the emergence of the panchayat leaders, it is found that political parties play a significant role. Most of the leaders in the study were found to be motivated to contest election due to party affiliation. The role of caste and religion are found to be insignificant in the process of shaping of leadership. Gram Sabha was found to be a very active body. The leaders take initiatives to involve people in the functioning of the Gram Sabha. Both leaders and people play an active role in the Gram Sabha meetings. Regarding political participation and knowledge of the leaders, it is found that almost all (95.80 per cent) are affiliated to the political parties. Majority (56.70 per cent) of the leaders wer e found to have been people with moderate political knowledge, although male leaders were found ahead of their female counterparts in political awareness. Tribals and Panchayats of Central India (R.D. Maurya 2009) is an empirical study of the functioning of the new Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in tribal dominated Bastar and Jhabua districts of united Madhya Pradesh. Different dimensions of relationship between traditional tribal panchayats and the new PRIs and the emerging pattern of leadership is studied and the areas of cooperation and conflict between traditional and new panchayati raj leadership is being discussed. The issue of women participation at the local level (in the new PRIs) and its impact on their socio-economic development is also being focused upon. The findings of the study show that the developmental infrastructure in tribal dominated districts of Bastar and Jhabua is very poor and the common tribals are still living without even two square meal a day. So far as the emerging pattern of leadership is concerned; the study reveals a clear cut demarcation between non-tribal and tribal leaders in terms of education, income and level of awareness. In the context of traditional panchayats and their operational linkages with new PRIs, it was found that traditional panchayats are still functional for tribal community in the districts of Bastar and Jhabua. Thus, although officially the traditional panchayats have got replaced by the new PRIs following the seventy-third Amendment Act, yet they still continue to have remarkable influence over the tribal people of the areas. Thus, the new PRIs were welcomed by the people for economic and other all-round development of these otherwise backward tribal districts, yet they did not totally

12 Chapter 1 12 disown the traditional panchayat and still share their loyalty to it. This dichotomy hinders the pace of functioning of PRIs. Panchayati Raj System and Development Planning (Hariprasad Chhetri 2008) studied the structure and functioning of Panchayati Raj in Sikkim with special reference to empowerment of women, devolution of powers, participation of weaker sections of people in the process of development, resource mobilization, the extent of autonomy enjoyed by the Gram Panchayats and the role of bureaucracy. Regarding the determinants of changing pattern of leadership, it identified age, sex, caste and ethnicity, education, occupation and political affiliation as factors influencing leadership pattern at the rural level. It is, however, pointed out that majority of elected leaders belong to lower income group i.e. up to Rs. 1000/- p.m. and almost all are affiliated to political parties. It also highlighted an exemplary role performed by panchayat leaders in Sikkim in social welfare, rural infrastructure development, creation of employment avenues and improving the overall conditions of the rural people. Grassroot Politics and Panchayati Raj (Shakuntala Sharma 1994) is an empirical study of Panchayati Raj in Himachal Pradesh. It traces the genesis and growth of panchayats from ancient time to the present day and discusses various aspects of panchayat institution including the pattern of leadership and voting behaviour. Regarding the socio-economic determinants of leadership, it is found that younger, active and educated persons having upper caste identity are coming to power in larger number in rural politics. This signifies the emergence of a progressive leadership but one factor that is delaying the change is the aggressive involvement of political parties in rural politics. Local leaders are still to serve as vote banks to Assembly and Parliament elections. The New Political Leadership: From Panchayat to Parliament (Gautam Vohra 2004) is a study carried out in Raigad district of Maharashtra. The study reveals the differences that exist in emerging trend of leadership of Adivasi and Marathas. It is found that the average landholding of the Adivasi leaders (1.70 acres) is much

13 Chapter 1 13 lower than the Maratha leaders (3.25 acres). There also exists disparity between the two groups of leadership in terms of education. Local leaders from the Maratha community are generally found to be more educated than their Adivasi counterparts. While all Maratha Gram Panchayat leaders are found to be literate, only per cent of the Adivasi leaders are found to be literate. It is also found that in the three-tier system of Panchayati Raj Institutions, the leaders of the Zilla Parishad and Anchalik Panchayat are economically and educationally more well off than their counterparts in Gram Panchayat. The average landholding of the Zilla Parishad and Anchalik Panchayat leaders is acres, while the average landholding of the Gram Panchayat leaders is 2.20 acres. However, at the Gram Panchayat level, the landholding of the Maratha leaders is higher than their Adivasi counterparts. As regards women members in Maratha leadership, it is observed that they belong to upper economic class and are supported by influential male members of their family. Village Panchayats in India (N.L. Dutta 1989) is based on an empirical study of Panchayati leadership in Assam. It unfolds the leadership pattern in the village Panchayats and their role in the process of politicization, modernization and decision making at the grass-root level. Regarding the leadership pattern in the village Panchayats, it is found that the traditional determinants of Panchayati leadership, i.e. caste, religion, land holdings, income, occupation, sex, social status and family status are on decline and are being replaced by competitive factors like education, political affiliation and involvement with community organizations. Panchayati Raj System in India (S. Dharmaraj 2008) analyses the origin, growth and latest developments in the field of Panchayati Raj. It is based on a study conducted in two major states, namely, West Bengal and Bihar to gather perception about PRIs in the fields of rural development. The study identifies that the political parties and the PRIs act as agents of political socialization to raise the level of awareness about our democratic political process.

14 Chapter 1 14 Panchayati Raj in Kangra District (S. Bhatnagar 1974) deals with a case study of Panchayati Raj in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh. It focuses mainly on social background of the panchayat leaders, their attitude towards their role and their understanding of the developmental problems. So far as the nature of leadership is concerned; the study reveals that per cent of the leadership at Gaon Panchayats and Panchayat Samities is in the hands of the privileged section of the society, while only per cent leadership is at the hands of marginalized section of the society. Leadership in Rural India: An Analysis of Some Trends, (K.D. Gangrade 1974) studies the socio-economic basis of the emerging leadership at the Panchayat level. It identifies two types of leaders at the village level i.e. formal and informal. Formal leaders are those who are elected to the panchayat bodies and are occupying a position in it, while informal leaders are those who by virtue of their power and resource enjoy a special position in the PRIs without being members. It is also found that the formal leaders are mostly from the landless agriculturists and are younger and educated having an upper caste identity, while the informal leaders are generally older people belonging to the owner cultivators group and exert influence over elected members. Patterns of Emerging Leadership in Rural India (S.N. Mishra 1977) is a study of Daruli Gaon Panchayat of Bihar. It deals with the process which is shaping the emergence of the panchayat leaders and their attitude towards their role. The emergence of leadership is determined by various factors and the attitude is formed corresponding to the variety of factors. Philanthropic image, championship of majority or minority as the case may be, past record of good work, personal familiarity, influential family background, caste identity, money and muscle power are generally the factors that shape the leadership pattern at the Panchayat level. Although it is the interplay of various factors that determine the leadership pattern at the local level, yet the influence of caste and financial strength are found to be of utmost importance.

15 Chapter 1 15 Grass-root Politics in Assam (Amalendu Nag 2008) examines in detail the conceptual framework, growth and development of urban local self government in Assam and particularly in Hailakandi district. Regarding the leadership pattern of the urban local self government bodies, it is found that there is an emerging trend of younger leaders with better educational attainment at the local level and almost all are affiliated to the political parties. Village Politics (K. Ranga Rao 1980) is an empirical study of village politics in Talengana. It deals with the socio-economic structure of the rural society, social base of the rural leaders and their role in the development of the village community. The study brings to light the dynamics underlying political power and conflict at grass-root politics, how does caste play a determining role in it. According to the study, Panchayati Raj System suffers from both localized and diluted caste conflict and exacerbated factionalism. Emerging Leadership Pattern in Rural India: An Empirical Study (G.D. Bhatt 2006) is a case study of Pithoragarh district in Uttar Pradesh. It examines the emerging pattern of leadership in rural India and their level awareness and knowledge relating to various aspects of Indian democracy and government. It also considered the general views of the members of Panchayati Raj on various socioeconomic values, such as women empowerment, Scheduled Castes and child marriage. It is found that the importance of caste factor in obtaining a place in Panchayati Raj is decreasing, while education, membership of a political party, and economic status are gaining ground to influence the leadership pattern at the local level. Local Government in India: Policy and Practice (Rashmi Sharma 2009) studies the development of panchayati raj system in India and examines the functioning of Panchayati Raj Institutions in Kerala on the basis of a detailed field survey undertaken in Data reveal that the Gram Panchayat in Kerala is an institution with greater responsiveness and accountability than the macro level governmental institutions, while it is poor in terms of its technical and

16 Chapter 1 16 administrative capabilities. Role of Gram Sabha and people s participation in it is not up to the level of expectation. But this does not mean that the Gram Panchayat is cut-off from people, rather people s influence is mediated through pressure exerted upon elected representatives instead of direct participation. Regarding the socio-economic background of the leaders, it is found that the panchayat leaders tend to be ordinary people, rather than elites. Representation of Schedule Castes, Schedule Tribes and women have been ensured through reservation and across the sample Gram Panchayats, per cent of panchayat leaders were women and 2.50 per cent of the leaders belonged to SC and ST categories. It is interesting to note that where there is no reservation, there is not even marginal representation of SCs, STs or women. The example of Standing Committees of the Panchayat may be cited in this regard. As the policy of reservation does not apply in the Standing Committees, the SC/ ST or female representation is hardly found in the Standing Committees. If at all a member from SC/ ST or women category is being made a chairperson, generally he/she is being assigned to head a less important Committee like Development and Welfare Committee instead of Finance Committee. In this study, it is also observed that in Kerala, the monthly income of the panchayat leaders generally do not exceed the limit of Rs /-. Most of them are found to be people without car or motor bikes. About per cent of the panchayat leaders in the state come from the category of daily wage-earners. Apart from books, some articles are also reviewed below; Panchayati Raj in India: Under Threats (M.R. Biju 2003) deals with the concept and meaning of decentralization in Indian context and discusses the impact of 73 rd Constitution Amendment Act on India s grass-root democracy. The evaluation of the working of the PRIs since 1993 reveals that several state governments have not given any serious attention to conduct election to panchayat bodies regularly, civil servants are indirectly given powers over PRIs. Similarly, administrative and technical personnel of the PRIs in several states are still working under departmental heads and the PRIs have absolutely no control over them. Moreover, majority of the Ministers, MLAs have strong feeling that the power they

17 Chapter 1 17 enjoyed so far will diminish if PRIs become really powerful. Further, low literacy rate and lack of political consciousness are found as challenges to the PRIs. Panchayati Raj Under Seige: An Analysis of Orissa s Experiment with Rural Local Government (Avinash Samal and B.S. Bahargava 1999) highlights the difficulties on the way of the functioning of Panchayati Raj institutions and the attitude of the state government towards these bodies. Data reveal that that the political bosses at the state capital have always been eager to capture power in these local government bodies and hence they do not take any interest in conducting regular election. It also shows an unprecedented kind of unity among the major political parties in postponing the panchayat elections in the state. Democracy and Development at the Local Level (B. Mohanan 2003) discusses the nature and dynamics of Gram Sabhas in Kerala. The study focuses that the people s participation rates in Gram Sabha does not correspond to Kerala s high literacy rates and higher level of political participation that is registered at the upper level. The non-involvement of mass organizations affiliated to CPI(M) in local politics and also the apathy of leading NGOs to involve people in the political process at the grass-root level are considered to be the causes of low participation in Gram Sabhas. Leadership Pattern in Rural Maharashtra (V.M. Sirsikar 1974) reveals that in the name of decentralization there is a perceptible trend of centralization of social, economic and political power. Decentralization of power has not reached to the weaker sections of the society rather it is exercised and enjoyed by the leaders belonging to privileged classes of the society. There is still the constraint on the way of management of Panchayati Raj Institutions like absence of clear functional jurisdiction, little flexibility, lack of technical assistance, supervision and so on. All these together did not allow decentralization to become a success.

18 Chapter 1 18 Status of Panchayati Raj Institutions in the Scheduled Area of Orissa: An Empirical Study (N. K. Behura and N. Panigrahi 2004) describes the importance of traditional tribal polity and explains the growth of modern Panchayati Raj institutions in the scheduled areas of the State of Orissa. In comparison to non-tribal localities, the development of modern PRIs is slow in tribal areas. This is because the tribal societies are still very backward in many respects in comparison to the non-tribal societies and are governed by traditional practices. They are in a sense caught between the politics of their traditional and closed society and modern Panchayati Raj institutions. From the above study, it appears that different factors influence the pattern of leadership at the panchayat level. Some studies emphasize that factors like caste, class, sex and religion are on decline and are being replaced by the competitive ones like educational attainment, charisma, political linkage, social status, organizing ability and so on. Others opine that the traditional factors still continue to be the significant determinants of leadership at the rural level. Again some studies regard panchayat leadership as nothing but vote banks to the Assembly and Parliament elections. In this backdrop, the study of the emerging patterns of leadership in PRIs of Hailakandi district may be an interesting one to understand the dynamics influencing the formation of leadership in rural India. It is further important as no such study has so far been conducted in this part of Assam. Objectives of the Study To study the socio-economic and political determinants for the emergence of leadership in the Panchayati Raj Institutions. To study the level of awareness of the panchayat leaders. To study the opinion of the electorates about panchayat leaders. To investigate the voting behaviour and its impact on the election of the leaders. To study the growing trend of participation in panchayat elections.

19 Chapter 1 19 Research Questions The following questions that have emerged out of the earlier discussion have been addressed in the present study: Is there any role of socio-economic factor like caste, religion, sex, income and family status in the emerging pattern of leadership in Panchayati Raj Institutions? Are panchayat leaders aware of the objectives of Panchayati Raj system and their responsibilities towards it? What are the factors that influence people s participation in panchayat elections? Do they face any obstacle in the way of participation? Do people share good opinion about panchayat leaders? Is the increasing emergence of women in panchayat leadership active and spontaneous or a mere outcome of reservation? Has the 73 rd Amendment Act, 1992 encouraged participation in panchayat election? Methodology of the Study a) Sampling The present study is an intensive survey of the three-tier system of Panchayati Raj Institutions of Hailakandi district of Assam which is composed of a Zilla Parishad, five Anchalik Panchayats and sixty-two Gaon Panchayats. The study was confined to the Zilla Parishad of Hailakandi district, three Anchalik Panchayats selected through purposive sampling on the basis of the diversity in terms of population, territory, number of Gaon Panchayats covered and distance from the district headquarter. Besides, nine Gaon Panchayats, three from each Anchalik Panchayat, have also been selected on the basis of simple random sampling.

20 Chapter 1 20 b) Location of the Sample c) Sampling Design Hailakandi District Hailakandi Zilla Parishad Algapur (Anchalik Panchayat) Lala (Anchalik Panchayat) South Hailakandi (Anchalik Panchayat) North Narinpur (Gaon Panchayat) Soidbond (Gaon Panchayat) Kalinagar (Gaon Panchayat) Nischantapur (Gaon Panchayat) Nizvernerpur- Sarbanandapur (Gaon Panchayat) Koiya-Ramchandi (Gaon Panchayat) Manipur-Niskar (Gaon Panchayat) Karicherra- Dharirghat (Gaon Panchayat) Gharmurda- Bhagcherra (Gaon Panchayat)

21 Chapter 1 21 All the elected representatives of the Gaon Panchayats, Anchalik Panchayats and Zilla Parishad constituted the sample. Furthermore, thirty Gram Sabha members from each Gaon Panchayat have also been selected through stratified random sampling (stratification on the basis of gender) to study the socio-economic profile, political participation and voting behaviour of the electorates. The sampling has been made from the Electoral List. For the purpose of selection of respondents from the huge number of Gram Sabha members, a separate list of male and female was prepared and every tenth person has been chosen as a respondent. As the Zilla Parishad of Hailakandi consists of 11 members including its Chairperson, all of them were taken as respondents and were interviewed with the help of an interview schedule. Table: 1.01: Members Interviewed at the Zilla Parishad Level Hailakandi Zilla Parishad Total no. of members (including Chairperson) 11 No. interviewed 11 Among the sample Anchalik Panchayats, there has been 13, 18 and 09 members (including Chairperson) at the Algapur, Lala and South Hailakandi Anchalik Panchayats respectively and all of them were interviewed with the help of an interview schedule. Table: 1.02: Members Interviewed at the Anchalik Panchayat Level Total no. of Members (including Chairperson) No. interviewed Algapur Lala South Hailakandi Total As there is uniformity in terms of number of members of the Gaon Panchayats, (each consists of a president and 10 other members elected directly by the people),

22 Chapter 1 22 for the purpose of the present study all the leaders of the nine sample Gaon Panchayats were taken as respondents and were interviewed with the help of an interview schedule. Table: 1.03: Members Interviewed at the Gaon Panchayat Level Anchalik Panchayats Gaon Panchayats Total no of elected Leaders (including President) No. interviewed No. of Voters interviewed Male Female Algapur Lala South Hailakandi North Narainpur Kalinagar Soidbond Nishchintapur Nizvernerpur- Sarbanandapur Koiya- Ramchandi Manipur-Niskar Karicherra- Dhariarghat Gharmurda- Bhagcherra Total Besides, 30 electorates (15 male and 15 female Gram Sabha members) from each Gaon Panchayat were also interviewed with the help of a separate interview schedule. Techniques of Data Collection Data for the present study have been collected both from primary and secondary sources. For the purpose of primary data collection, two interview schedules were used. Schedule-(I) was used to collect data relating to the socio-economic background, political affiliation and political awareness of the elected leaders and Schedule-(II) was used to collect some similar type of information about the

23 Chapter 1 23 electorates (Gram Sabha m embers) like their socio-economic background, their participation and voting behaviour in panchayat elections and their opinion about panchayat leaders. Other important data have been collected from the Election Office, Zilla Parishad Office, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Guwahati, District Economics and Statistical Branch, Hailakandi and the Block Development Offices. Besides, books, journals, periodicals and internet have also been consulted for the purpose of gathering secondary data. Chapterization For an elaborate presentation of the findings, the thesis has been divided into six chapters: Chapter 1 Introduction This chapter provides a detailed outline of the research plan under the following heads: The Statement of Problem Theoretical Framework of the Study Review of Relevant Literature Objectives of the Study Research Questions Methodology of the Study Chapterization Profile of the Sample area which is discussed at the last of the chapter. Chapter 2 Origin and Evolution of Panchayats in India with Special Reference to Assam This chapter is divided in to three sections which deal with: Panchayat Institutions of Ancient and Medieval Periods The Evolution of Panchayats during the British Period Post-Independence Developments in Panchayat Institutions

24 Chapter 1 24 Chapter 3 Socio-Economic Profile of the Electorates, their Voting Behaviour and its Impact on Emergence of Leadership This chapter is divided into three sections. Section I deals with the socio-economic profile of the rural electorates, section II deals with their voting behaviour and the hindrances they have to face in the way of casting vote in panchayat elections and section III is an analysis of the opinion of the electorates about the leaders of PRI. Chapter 4 Socio-Economic Determinants and Pattern of Leadership in Panchayati Raj Institutions This chapter is divided into three sections. Section I deals with the socio-economic profile of the leaders of the threetiers of the PRI. This section throws important light on the patterns of leadership that are emerging at the rural level of our democracy. Section II deals with the issue of the representation of women in panchayat bodies and section III is an analysis of the level of awareness and aptitude of the leaders of the PRIs. Chapter 5 Political Participation and Leadership: Changing Trend This chapter deals with the changing trend of participation of people in panchayat elections on the basis of a comparative analysis of data of three panchayat elections of 1992, 2002 and Chapter 6 Findings and Conclusions This chapter summarizes the findings of the study. Besides, the limitations of the study and scope of further research are discussed in this chapter.

25 Chapter 1 25 Profile of the Sample Area Hailakandi district which constitutes the universe of the present study is one of the smallest districts in Assam. It is situated in the southernmost corner of Assam surrounded by river Barak in the North, Cachar in the East, Mizoram in the South and East and Karimganj in the West. Hailakandi was one of the oldest subdivisions in the state of Assam. It was constituted as a civil subdivision on 1 st June Subsequently, it was upgraded to a district and declared as the 24 th district of Assam in 1989 by a Government of Assam Notification No. AAA.98/89/Pt/I, dated 29/09/1989. The district Headquarter is at Hailakandi town which is located 341 k.m. away from the state capital of Guwahati. The inter-state border of the district stretches over 76 k.m. in the south-east. Several myths are associated with the name Hailakandi. According to historical records, Kukies were the first inhabitants of this area. After some time Bodo- Kacharis (Dimasas) entered and settled down in different places in the north of the district. Some historians believe that the word Hailakandi has been derived from both Kuki and Bodo-Kachari language. The Kuki word Halam which means a small state and Kundia, a Bodo-Kacahari word which means a plot of land for temporary ploughing was later combined and came to be known as Hailakandi. Another view is that in Barak Valley dyke is constructed for preserving water in paddy land. This dyke is colloquially pronounced as Ail or Hail. Hail later combining with Bodo-Kachari Kundia came to be known as Hailakandi. Population As per census of India, 2011 the district has a total population of comprising (51.39 per cent) males and (48.61 per cent) females. Out of its total population, (92.70 per cent) reside in rural areas, while only (7.30 per cent) reside in urban settlements.

26 Chapter 1 26 Table: 1.04: Population-wise Distributions in the District Total Male Female Population (100%) (51.39%) (48.61%) Rural (92.70%) (56.23%) (43.77%) Urban (7.30%) (50.60%) (49.40%) Source: Census Report 2011 The composition of population by gender is not uniform in rural and urban settlements of the district. The rural population of the district is composed of per cent of male and per cent of female, while the urban population is divided into male and female at the rate of per cent and per cent respectively. Geographical distribution of population belonging to rural and urban areas of the district is highly disproportionate per cent of the total population belong to rural area, while only 7.30 per cent belong to urban area. Literacy rate The literacy rate of the district is per cent which is comparatively a little bit better than the state average of per cent. However, the literacy rate in the district in terms of rural and urban population and male and female is not uniform. Rural literacy rate is per cent, while urban literacy rate is per cent. Similarly, male literacy rate is per cent and female literacy rate is per cent. Table: 1.05: Literacy Rate wise Distributions in the District Literacy Rate Assam Hailakandi Total Literacy Rate per cent per cent Rural Literacy Rate per cent per cent Urban Literacy Rate per cent per cent Male Literacy Rate per cent per cent Female Literacy Rate per cent per cent Source: Statistical Hand Book of Assam, 2011.

27 Chapter 1 27 Territory Geographically the district has an area of 1327 square k.m. which constitutes only 1.69 per cent of the total state territory. Out of its total territory of 1327 square k.m., ( per cent) is rural territory, while only square km. (0.05 per cent) is under urban settlement. Table: 1.06: Land Distribution in the District (in square k.m.) Assam Hailakandi Total Land (1.69 per cent) Rural (1.67 per cent) Urban (0.02 per cent) Source: Statistical Hand Book of Assam, The density of population in the district is 497 per square k.m. against the state average of 397 per square k.m. Linguistic Composition The district has a heterogeneous ethno-linguistic composition. Other than Bengalee, it is the home of a large number of different communities like Meitei, Bishnupriya, Kuki, Reang, Chakma, indigenous Muslims and immigrant population. Majority of the population of the district speaks Bengali, which is the official language of the District. Besides, Hindi (Bhujpuri) and Manipuri are also two important languages of the district spoken by a large minority. Table: 1.07: Linguistic Distributions in the District Language Bengali Assamese Manipuri Hindi Bodo Telegu Others Population Source: Statistical Hand Book of Assam, 2010.