AFRICA POLICY INSTITUTE TAFITI CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON VIOLENT EXTREMISM

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1 AFRICA POLICY INSTITUTE Overview TAFITI CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON VIOLENT EXTREMISM CONCEPT NOTE FOR THE METHODOLOGY WORKSHOP ON CVE IN AFRICA: SETTING THE RESEARCH AGENDA Nairobi, January 15, 2016 The global surge of terrorist attacks by groups linked to either al-qaeda or ISIS in 2015 turned a sharp spotlight on countering violent extremism (CVE). It also inspired an intense dialogue in the form of global and regional conferences across the world on the present and future approaches to countering violent extremism and terrorism. The overarching lesson from the flurry of conferences in 2015 was the urgent need for empirical policyrelevant research to provide evidence to drive responses to violent extremism and terrorism. It is this need for evidence-driven CVE efforts that has inspired the Africa Policy Institute to convene a methodological workshop in Nairobi on January 15, The workshop s main objective is to bring together a team of experts on violent extremism and terrorism from across disciplines and professions to deliberate on and set a comprehensive research agenda on countering violent extremism in Africa. This API initiative is a multi-pronged partnership with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the National Counter Terrorism Center (NCTC) (Kenya), and the Center for Counter- Terrorism Studies at the Institute of Diplomacy and International Studies (IDIS). Trends in Violent Extremism and Terrorism Research reveals that terrorist attacks in Africa as elsewhere have increased 1

2 sharply since the September 11, 2001 Al Qaeda attacks on America. 1 The appeal of radical ideologies to communities, individual citizens and refugees alike has also increased across racial, gender and generational lines. The rise of the various al Qaeda-inspired groups globally and the founding of Islamic State in Syria and Iraq with its growing number of affiliates has greatly eroded global security. 2 In Africa, the rise of Al-Shabaab in Somalia the late 1990s, Boko Haram in Nigeria in 2002 and other numerous indigenous terrorist groups as syndicates of international terrorist organizations has undermined the already fragile states and undermined peace and security. The quest for empirical research to drive responses to violent extremism follows recommendations by a series of meetings in The White House Summit on Countering Violent Extremism held on February 19, 2015 in Washington D.C set the stage for no less than ten major conferences in nearly every region across the world. 3 In Africa, the Africa Policy Institute (API) teamed up with the Institute of Diplomacy and International Studies (IDIS) at the University of Nairobi to organized a highly successful conference on Countering Terrorism: In Search of a Grand African Strategy held in May The proceedings of the Nairobi University symposium fed onto the equally successful Regional conference on Countering Violent Extremism in Africa, held on June 2015 in Nairobi Kenya. This flurry of meetings across the world was a logical response the deepening problem of terrorism the quest for effective response to violent extremism and terrorism. Research reveals that terrorist attacks in Africa as elsewhere have increased sharply since the September 11, 2001 Al Qaeda attacks on America. 4 The appeal of radical ideologies to communities, individual citizens and refugees alike has also increased across racial, gender and generational lines. The rise of the various al Qaeda-inspired groups globally and the founding of Islamic State in Syria and Iraq with its growing number of affiliates has greatly eroded global security. 5 In Africa, the rise of Al-Shabaab in Somalia the late 1. See, Terrorism in the Horn of Africa, United States Institute of Peace Special Report, 113, January For an analysis of terrorism in Africa see, Peter Kagwanja, Counter-Terrorism in the Horn of Africa: New Security Frontiers, Old Strategies, African Security Review, Vol. 15 No. 3 September 2006, pp.72 86; Jakkie Cilliers, Terrorism and Africa. Africa Security Review 12 (4) These CVE conferences in 2015 included, The Balkans Regional Summit on Countering Violent Extremism (Tirana, Albania, May 19-20, 2015); Youth against Violent Extremism Conference (Oslo, June 4, 2015); European Conference on Countering Violent Extremism (Oslo, June 5, 2015); Regional Summit to Counter Violent Extremism (Sydney, Australia, 11-12/ June 2015); Central and South Asia Regional Conference on Countering Violent Extremism (Astana, Kazakhstan, June ); Conference on Countering Violent Extremism (New York, December 17, 2015); and The International CVE Research Conference 2015 Organized Hedayah and Edith Cowan University (Abu Dhabi, UAE, 6-8 December 2015). 4. See, Terrorism in the Horn of Africa, United States Institute of Peace, Special Report No. 113, January For an analysis of terrorism in Africa see, Jakkie Cilliers, Terrorism and Africa. Africa Security Review 12 (4)

3 1990s, Boko Haram in Nigeria in 2002 and other numerous indigenous terrorist groups as syndicates of international terrorist organizations has undermined the already fragile states and undermined peace and security. The year 2015 opened ominously with the brutal upsurge of terrorist attacks, with almost every region of the world not spared by the scourge. The 2015 bout of terrorist attacks started in Europe with the Charlie Hebdo shooting in Paris on January 7, In Europe, the year closed with even more bloodshed. On November 13, 2015, 130 people were killed and 368 others wounded in suicide bombings and mass shootings in the wake of the series of coordinated Islamic terrorist attacks that occurred in Paris, France. Even America was not spared. The ISIS-inspired shooting in San Bernardino, California on December 2, 2015 left 14 dead and 22 others injured. In Africa, home-grown terrorist groups inspired by either al-qaeda or ISIS have wreaked havoc across the four corners of the continent. In West Africa suicide bombers and gunmen linked to Nigeria s Boko Haram extremist group killed thousands of people, mainly civilians, in Nigeria, Cameroon and Chad. In East Africa, the Al Shabaab violent extremist group in Somalia, has significantly threatened security in Kenya, Uganda, Burundi, Ethiopia and Somalia. 6 In early April 2015, Al-Shabaab gunmen massacred 148 people, mainly students, at the Garissa University College in Northern Kenya. In Tunisia and Mali, attacks by ISIS-inspired groups have crippled the tourist s industry marking a new low to regional economies. On 26 June 2015, an armed gunman shot and killed 38 people, 30 of them British citizens, at a tourist resort at Port El Kantaoui, Tunisia. Earlier on, a terrorist attack on March 18, 2015 in the Bardo National Museum in Tunis killed twenty-two people, including twenty foreigners visiting the museum. On October 31, 2015, the downing of a Russian the Airbus A321 over Egypt s Sinai desert by ISIS killed all 224 passengers on board including 17 children. The lesson arising from these acts of terror is clear: We need a clear and nuanced understanding of the problem of radicalization and violent extremism is urgently needed by practitioners, policy makers and academics. This, in turn, calls for a well-coordinated and policy-oriented research agenda to generate new perspectives and evidence to drive approaches and policy on countering violent extremism. Countering Violent Extremism: The Concepts and its Relevance for Research Violent extremism is as old as the hills. What is new is the ever-changing perspectives, concepts and contexts. As a concept that connotes beliefs and actions of people who support or use violence to achieve ideological, religious or political ends, violent extremism encompasses forms of violence relating to terrorism, politically motivated and communal violence. What separates violent 6. Burns Avery, Feeling the Pinch: Kenya, Al-Shabaab, and East Africa s Refugee Crisis, Refuge Journal 27, 1 (2010). 3

4 extremism and criminal violence is the desired goal of violent extremists to change society through fear and intimidation rather than through peaceful or constitutional means. Conceptually, violent extremism and terrorism has been viewed through the prism of political theories and ideologies of collective violence such as anarchism 7 or fascism. The resurgence of Islamic terrorism in recent decades is attributed to Islamic Fascism 8 as the agenda of contemporary radical Islam. However, the phenomenon of violent extremism and terrorism is more complex than these theories suggest. Violent extremism reflects deep-seated and multiple inter-locking root causes and contexts within specific groups or communities. In this regard, framing a comprehensive strategy to counter violent extremism and terrorism demands a clear understanding of the motives, causes and contexts of radicalization of communities, groups and individuals. The new focus on countering violent extremism must be understood and an appreciation of this reality. By and large, the popularity of the new CVE perspective in official circles reflects the manifest failure of approaches informed by hard power strategies. After the September 11 attack on America, hard power approaches dominated responses to international terrorism. Despite this, violent extremism continues to challenge and show symptoms of resilience to western-driven global war on terror. 9 As shown earlier violent extremists are becoming bolder, their attacks have increased and become more and deadlier while their strategies of recruiting and radicalizing new fighters have become increasingly sophisticated and globalized. This failure of past approaches has pushed policy makers to shift focus to the technologies of soft power that stresses social and economic development and justice as the main recipe to addressing all forms of violent extremism. 10 This shift in focus is significant: it marks the change from solely countering terrorism that underpinned the global war on terror to Countering Violent Extremism (CVE). Together with violent extremism is the coming into vogue of the idea of radicalization, defined as a process by which an individual or group comes to adopt increasingly extreme political, social, or religious ideals and aspirations. Radicalization s poses two interrelated threats to the ideals of liberalism: 1) it rejects or undermines the status quo; and 2) it rejects and/or undermines 7. Larry Jimenez, 10 Acts of Anarchist Terrorism that Shocked the World. Retrieved on 06 January, 2016 from 8. Islamic Fascism: The Nazi Connection. Retrieved on 05 January, 2016 from americanthinker.com/articles/2012/12/islamic_fascism_the_nazi_connection.html 9. Lauren Ploch, Countering terrorism in East Africa: The U.S. response, Congressional Research Service, November 3, Taspınar Ömer, Fighting Radicalism, not Terrorism : Root Causes of an International Actor Redefined, SAIS Review, XXIX, 2 (Summer Fall 2009): pp

5 contemporary ideas and expressions of freedom of choice. 11 Thus, viewed from the standpoint of radicalization, the preponderant rise of violent extremist movements poses the greatest threaten the post-cold War liberal order and its core values and principles, including freedom, human rights, the rule of law, democracy and equal opportunity. The unique conceptualization of radicalization is paramount to underscore the importance of CVE through evidence based research in Africa. Implications for Research in Africa Scholarly interpretations of violent extremism in Africa can be synthesized into three main categories. The first is the view of the continent as a generator of violent extremism, which tends to give legs to the view of terrorism as home grown in Africa. Africa has had its own traditionally radicalization processes and revolutionary or liberation movements based on violent extremist ideologies. Hence, the saying: one man s terrorist is another man s freedom fighter. 12 The second interpretation is that Africa is a hapless target and victim of externally generated violent extremism and terrorism, giving rise to the theory of the continent as a mere collateral damage in the clash between the West and the rest. In this regard, radicalization is aided by the process of globalization and the new communication technology. Recruitment, radicalization, training, planning, gathering of information, communication, preparation, financing and execution of attacks are effectively taking place in the cyberspace through and social media channels. 13 The third interpretation views Africa as an incubator of foreign violent extremist movements such as the al-qaeda with Sudan, Somalia and the Indian Ocean Islands viewed as havens of international terrorists. The workshop seeks to expound on these interpretations and their implications to efforts to counter violent extremism. Issues in CVE Research in Africa: Old and New Africa has kowtowed to an agenda on violent extremism set and defined by the imperatives of the American-led war on terror. In the initial stages, the war on terror was informed by an Us-versus-them logic, and inclined to the clash of civilizations paradigm, 14 which highlighted people s cultural and religious identities as the primary source of conflict in the post-cold War era. 11.Randy Borum, Radicalization into Violent Extremism: A Review of Social Science Theories. Journal of Strategic Security. 4, (Issue 4, 2011): pp Ganor Boaz, Defining Terrorism: Is One Man s Terrorist Another Man s? Freedom Fighter, Police Practice and Research, 3, (2002):pp Nicole Perlroth and Mike Isaac, Terrorist mock bid to end use of social media, New York times, December 7, Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, Publisher: Simon & Schuster,

6 This approach tended to follow hard power strategies with minimal success in dealing with the root causes of terrorism. The shift of focus to countering violent extremism points to the need for a deeper dialogue among African experts to shape the future of research to broaden the understanding of the violent extremism and drive policy action to counter the threat on the continent. A place to begin in charting a new research agenda on countering violent extremism in Africa is Alex Peter Schmid s long list of 50 un-researched and under-researched topics in the field of counter-terrorism studies. 15 Broadly, Schmid s fifty topics can be re-categorized into nine clusters each of which has specific research sub-topics as shown in table 1 below. These include the concepts, methodologies and technics in the study of CVE; Frameworks, programmes and policies on CVE; ideologies, strategies and tactics of terrorist groups; approaches to strengthening community/public resilience to violent extremism; role of non-state actors such as civil society in CVE; human rights versus counter-terrorism; the economic dimensions of violent extremism/ terrorism; preventing radicalization in public institutions such as prisons and schools; and the impact of violent extremism and terrorism on society. Table 1: Potential topics for empirical research on Countering Violence Extremism in Africa No. Research Topic Research Sub-topics 1. Concepts, Methodologies and technics in the study of CVE Relations between terrorism and violent extremism Differentiating terrorism from other forms of political violence and human rights violation; Measuring and evaluating counter-terrorism policies; Terrorist audiences and public opinion surveys Relevance of academic research and the knowledge requirements of policy communities; Link between the expansion of terrorism/ violent extremism and state failure/collapse 15. Alex P. Schmid, 50 Un- and Under-Researched Topics in the Field of (Counter-) Terrorism Studies, Perspectives on Terrorism, 5, 1 (2011), available: pt/index.php/pot/article/view/schmid-under-researched-topics/html, accessed, January 13,

7 2. Frameworks, programmes and policies on CVE Comparison of national policies and prgrammes Best practices and lessons in demobilization and rehabilitation of ex-terrorists Documenting failed or foiled attacks by terrorist groups Strengths and gaps in national, regional and international counter-terrorism architectures. Recognizing and Minimizing the unintended effects of counter-terrorism measures and policies Endgame scenarios and exit strategies of states from terrorist zones (Somalia, Afghanistan). Implementing the UN Counter-Terrorism strategy 3. Ideologies, Strategies and tactics of Extremists Competing visions and paradigms of jihadists Countering Conspiracy theories by extremist. Messaging and communication policies of terrorist groups What threat statements, communiques and internal writings of terrorists tell us about their thinking Islamophobia and antisemitism as grievances and rhetorical weapons How various terrorist groups conduct their campaigns Websites associated with terrorist groups 7

8 4. Strengthening Community Resilience to violent extremism 5. Non-state Actors in CVE; 6. Human Rights Versus Counter-terrorism 7. Economic dimensions of Violent Extremism Policies of individual states in preventing and responding to violent extremism Strategies for identifying and countering extremist ideologies on the internet The role of faiths including Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Jews, Buddhists and traditional Africans in preventing and responding to violent extremism Lessons learnt and best practices in warning the public prior, during and after terrorist attacks Strategies of countering violent extremism on the internet Ensuring the security and role of victim associations in court cases against terrorists Strengthening the role of civil society The role Non-Governmental Organizations Measures to preventing media and the internet from promoting the agendas of extremists while upholding the freedom of speech and expression; Links between violent extremism and Immigration, Diasporas and Refugees Gender-specific perspectives on violent extremism, including women responses. Responses of human rights groups to violations by terrorist groups Upholding human rights and humanitarian law in the context of counter-terrorism How should Courts balance between incitements to terrorism and the freedom of speech Relations between intelligence and security forces and prosecution and punishment in dealing with terrorists Safeguarding Citizens privacy from undue surveillance Impact of violent extremism on development Response to the grievances of terrorists Connection between economic crises and escalation of extremism (eg global economic crisis) 8

9 8. Preventing Radicalization in Prisons and other institutions 9. The Impact of Violent Extremism and terrorism on society 10. The future of terrorism/violent extremism Making sense of terrorism versus organized crime Should terrorists and common criminals be mixed in prisons Preventing radicalization of prisoners Rehabilitation of terrorists in Prisons Countering rehabilitation in schools, colleges and universities Careers of terrorists released from prisons Role of ex-terrorists in countering violent extremism Assessing empirical research on the tactical and strategic impact of terrorism The impact of paying or not paying ransoms to terrorists after kidnaps Comparative impacts of terrorism and criminal homicides, natural disasters and epidemics Implications of the Arab Awakening/Spring for terrorism and international counter-terrorism cooperation Relations between terrorist groups and political parties. Regional and global trends New Developments in CVE Scenarios (best and worst cases) Source: Adapted and modified from Alex P. Schmid, (2011) with additions from API Emerging areas of Focus on CVE Research in Africa Five orientations are shaping public debates and more increasingly research on violent extremism in Africa as elsewhere. These include: o Human Rights/rule of law approach to security in countering violent extremisms. This brings a sharp focus the need for collaboration between national security and justice institutions (police, intelligence, 9

10 criminal justice system, prisons) and communities and their structures in addressing violent extremism. o o A development approach 16 championed largely by United Nations agencies such as UNDP to understand and mitigate the negative effects of violent extremism on socio-economic development in societies affected by terrorism. UNDP developed a framework that focused on three pillars: institutions, individuals and ideology, to coordinate local, national and regional efforts to prevent and respond to extremist violence. This approach is often perceived as an attempt to introduce socio-economic initiatives to benefit vulnerable groups such as the youth in the flashpoints of violent extremism. This development approach to violent extremism has also been adopted by African states and regional actors, including the African Union. A community turn with a special focus on the resilience of communities and religious institutions to the effects of violent extremism. The focus here is on strategies and efforts to strengthen the capacity and resilience of communities and their structures including religious institutions to overcome the effects of violent extremism. Communities have a key role to play in preventing and responding to violent extremism. But why some communities have been resilient to terrorism while others are not is a question for research. The community approach to CVE tend to focus on two strategies: community engagement and community-oriented policing. 17 Also drawing the attention of researchers and policymakers to the community approach is the need to cultivate a comprehensive, multi-stakeholder and inclusive approach to preventing and countering violent extremism. o A gender perspective, including the role of women in countering violent extremism. Traditionally, in various CVE discourses, policies and programs women are perceived as victims and not as agents in their own right. Yet, women have women play important roles in the implementation of the activities and agendas of extremist groups in the process of attacks as sympathizers, mobilizers and perpetrators. 18 Samantha Lewthwaite (the White Widow ) became iconic of the role of women as foremost actors in terrorism during the Westgate Mall attack in Kenya in September Many high women from highly 16. UNDP, Preventing and Responding to Violent Extremism in Africa: A development Approach: UNDP Regional and Multi-country Project Document, Alex P. Schmid; 50 Un- and Under-Researched Topics in the Field of (Counter-) Terrorism Studies, Volume 5. Issue 1, Perspectives on Terrorism 18. Krista Couture, A Gendered Approach to Countering Violent Extremism: Lessons Learned From Women in Peacebuilding and Conflict Prevention Applied Successfully in Bangladesh and Morocco, Policy Paper, Center for 21 st Century Security and Intelligence, Is Samantha Lewthwaite really a terrorist mastermind? 10

11 reputable families and professions have volunteered to become jihad brides of extremist fighters in Somalia, Iraq and Syria. The role of women as victims and villains in violent extremism is still understudies. o o Ethnic and religious Minorities: Violent extremism has redefined the notion of what it means to be a marginalized minority group in Africa as opposed to powerful minorities. Kenya s ethnic Somali community, caught in the vortex of Al-Shabaab terrorism, are also part of a larger and disaffected religious minority (Muslims) in Kenya 20 in Northern and coastal parts of the country, now the flashpoints of violent extremism. Yet, in view of the measures taken to address historical injustices, marginalization and underdevelopment within the framework of devolution, the non-somalis in these parts become the new minority. Research is needed to shed light on the deconstruction of the new notion of minorities in relation to VE in Africa. Immigrants, Refugees and Returnees: The risk of radicalization is especially heightened where refugees and asylum-seekers find themselves in protracted situations as an impoverished and disenfranchised community subsisting on the margins of the host society. 21 Well-founded fears that refugees and refugee camps are aiding terrorism, giving currency to the concept of refugee terrorists. Refugee youth are recruited, radicalized, trained to coordinate and execute attacks using their humanitarian status as cover and aid to support extremist operations. Where elements of the local communities are harbouring and aiding extremists, the vulnerability of refugees has also brought to focus role and weaknesses of the state in security and governance. Refugees become victims of weak of failed states. Research should not only focus on the efforts to secure a safe return for refugees but also the disengagement of the radicalized members of the community from extremist groups and reintegration into communities. About the Methodology Workshop The need for research to guide responses to the threat of violent extremism and terrorism has inspired the initiative by the Africa Policy Institute to convene a methodological workshop in Nairobi on January 15, The objective of the experts workshop is to deliberate on and set a comprehensive research agenda on countering violent extremism in Africa. news/samantha-lewthwaite/55272/samantha-lewthwaite-fears-white-widow-revenge-plot date accessed 07/01/ Kenyan Muslims account for less than 10% of the total population. 21. Khalid Koser, IDPs, Refugees, and Violent Extremism: From Victims to Vectors of Change date accessed 08/01/

12 The workshop is convened by the Africa Policy Institute. 22 The initiative is a multipronged partnership with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the National Counter Terrorism Center (NCTC) and the newly formed Center for Counter terrorism Studies (CCS) of the Institute of Diplomacy and International Studies (IDIS) at the University of Nairobi. Participants to the workshop are experts on issues of counter-terrorism drawn from universities, think tanks, government, African regional bodies and UNDP. Discussion during the meeting is expected to examine conceptual issues on violent extremism and terrorism, operational and policy gaps on research and set the agenda to guide future research. Out of the dialogue, and issues discussed, it is expected that the process will flag out issues that will set the stage for new approaches to counter violent extremism research in Africa and beyond. Workshop Objectives The overall objective of the workshop is to deliberate on and formulate a tentative agenda for research to drive approaches to prevent and respond to violent extremism. Specifically, the workshop will seek to: Deepen understanding of the concepts and frameworks on violent extremism to guide empirical and policy-relevant research in Africa. Examine the root causes, drivers and trends in violent extremism in Africa? Identify and shed light on the main areas of research focus which are relevant to the policy communities in CVE Examine the kinds of partnerships and networks that should drive research on violent extremism in Africa. Workshop format and Outcomes. The workshop will take the form of brainstorming sessions involving experts. The entire discussion will be captured and documented by a technical team who will also be part of the workshop. A working paper on Violent Extremism Research in Africa will be generated as the main outcome of the workshop. The document will set the stage for a nuanced counter violent extremism research agenda in Africa and inform our future research and contribution to intellectual and public debates at the national, regional and global levels. The workshop and its outcomes will also form a firm foundation and capacity for research and information sharing by partners and networks working on CVE issues. Finally, the workshop is an initial step in building a network of expert researchers and partners who will drive research on CVE into the future. 22. The workshop is convened by API s Tafiti for Research on Violent Extremism 12