A person or organization having power or control in a particular, typically in a political or administrative, sphere. "The health authorities"

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1 AP Language Vocabulary v Authority: noun: authority; noun: auth.; plural noun: authorities Ø 1. Ø 2. Ø 3. The power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience. "He had absolute authority over his subordinates" The right to act in a specified way, delegated from one person or organization to another. "Military forces have the legal authority to arrest drug traffickers" Official permission; sanction. "The money was spent without congressional authority" A person or organization having power or control in a particular, typically in a political or administrative, sphere. "The health authorities" The power to influence others, especially because of one's commanding manner or one's recognized knowledge about something. "He has the natural authority of one who is used to being obeyed" The confidence resulting from personal expertise. "He hit the ball with authority" A person with extensive or specialized knowledge about a subject; an expert. "She was an authority on the stock market" A book or other source able to supply reliable information or evidence, typically to settle a dispute. "The court cited a series of authorities supporting their decision" v Audience: noun: audience; plural noun: audiences Ø 1. Ø 2. The assembled spectators or listeners at a public event, such as a play, movie, concert, or meeting. "The orchestra was given an enthusiastic ovation from the audience" The people who watch or listen to a television or radio program. "The program attracted an audience of almost twenty million" The readership of a book, magazine, or newspaper. "The newspaper has a sophisticated audience" The people giving or likely to give attention to something. "There will always be an audience for romantic literature" A formal interview with a person in authority. "He demanded an audience with the pope" Ø 3. Formal hearing. v Assertion: noun: assertion; plural noun: assertions Ø 1. Abby Carroll 1

2 A confident and forceful statement of fact or belief. "His assertion that his father had deserted the family" The action of stating something or exercising authority confidently and forcefully. "The assertion of his legal rights" v Logical Fallacies Ø Generalization: This fallacy is committed when a person draws a conclusion about a population based on a sample that is not large enough. Ø Begging the question: Assuming the conclusion of an argument a type of circular reasoning. This is an informal fallacy where someone includes the conclusion they are attempting to prove in the initial premise of their argument often in an indirect way that conceals it. Ø Ad hominem: Involves attacking the traits of an opponent as a means to invalidate their arguments. Equating someone's character with the soundness of his or her argument is a logical fallacy. Ø Either-or-reasoning: When an issue is clear-cut, either/or reasoning is fine, but the assertions inappropriately simplify a complex issue or hide other possible solutions to the problem Ø Non-sequitur: An argument in which its conclusion does not follow from its premises. In a non sequitur, the conclusion could be either true or false, but the argument is fallacious because there is a disconnection between the premise and the conclusion. Ø Red herring: An irrelevant topic is presented in order to divert attention from the original issue. The basic idea is to "win" an argument by leading attention away from the argument and to another topic. Ø Post hoc/faulty analogy: An unwarranted assumption that because one event follows another, the first event causes the second Ø False Dilemma: A False Dilemma is a fallacy in which a person uses the following pattern of reasoning: Either claim X is true or claim Y is true (when X and Y could both be false). Claim Y is false. Therefore claim X is true. v The Aristotelian Appeals Ø Logos: Logos is a Greek word meaning logic. Logos is a literary device that can be defined as a statement, sentence or argument used to convince or persuade the targeted audience by employing reason or logic. Logos mostly employs the utilization of inductive and deductive reasoning methods to be effective. Ø Ethos: Abby Carroll 2

3 Ø Pathos: In rhetoric, ethos represents credibility or an ethical appeal that involves persuasion by the character Involved. Pathos is a quality of an experience in life or a work of art that stirs up emotions of pity, sympathy and sorrow. Pathos can be expressed through words, pictures or even with gestures of the body. It is a method of convincing people with an argument drawn out through an emotional response. v Purpose Ø Describe: verb: describe; 3rd person present: describes; past tense: described; past participle: described; gerund or present participle: describing 1. Give an account in words of (someone or something), including all the relevant characteristics, qualities, or events. "The police said the man was described as white, 6 ft. tall, with mousy, cropped hair" 2. Mark out or draw (a geometric figure). "On the diameter of a circle an equilateral triangle is described" Ø Explain: verb: explain; 3rd person present: explains; past tense: explained; past participle: explained; gerund or present participle: explaining 1. Make (an idea, situation, or problem) clear to someone by describing it in more detail or revealing relevant facts or ideas. "They explained that their lives centered on the religious rituals" 2. Account for (an action or event) by giving a reason as excuse or justification. "Callie found it necessary to explain her blackened eye" 3. Be the cause of or motivating factor for. "Her father's violence explains her pacifism" 4. Minimize the significance of an embarrassing fact or action by giving an excuse or justification. "They know stories about me that I can't explain away" Ø Inform: verb: inform; 3rd person present: informs; past tense: informed; past participle: informed; gerund or present participle: informing; verb: inform; 3rd person present: in-forms; past tense: in-formed; past participle: in-formed; gerund or present participle: in-forming 1. Give (someone) facts or information; tell. "He wrote to her, informing her of the situation" 2. Abby Carroll 3

4 Give incriminating information about someone to the police or other authority. "People called a confidential hotline to inform on friends, neighbors, and family member 3. Give an essential or formative principle or quality to. "The relationship of the citizen to the state is informed by the democratic ideal" Ø Persuade: verb: persuade; 3rd person present: persuades; past tense: persuaded; past participle: persuaded; gerund or present participle: persuading 1. Cause (someone) to do something through reasoning or argument. "It wasn't easy, but I persuaded him to do the right thing" 2. Cause (someone) to believe something, especially after a sustained effort; convince. "They must often be persuaded of the potential severity of their drinking problems" 3. (Of a situation or event) provide a sound reason for (someone) to do something. "The cost of the manor's restoration persuaded them to take in guests" Ø Entertain: verb: entertain; 3rd person present: entertains; past tense: entertained; past participle: entertained; gerund or present participle: entertaining 1. Provide (someone) with amusement or enjoyment. "A tremendous game that thoroughly entertained the crowd" 2. Receive (someone) as a guest and provide them with food and drink. "A private dining room where members could entertain groups of friends" 3. Give attention or consideration to (an idea, suggestion, or feeling). "Washington entertained little hope of an early improvement in relations" v Tone Ø Didactic: adjective: didactic 1. Intended to teach, particularly in having moral instruction as an ulterior motive. "A didactic novel that set out to expose social injustice" Abby Carroll 4

5 2. In the manner of a teacher, particularly so as to treat someone in a patronizing way. "Slow-paced, didactic lecturing" Ø Nostalgic: adjective: nostalgic noun: nostalgic; plural noun: nostalgias 1. Characterized by or exhibiting feelings of nostalgia. 2. A nostalgic person. "To see classmates' addresses, nostalgias pay $36 a year" Nostalgia: noun: nostalgia; plural noun: nostalgias 1. A sentimental longing or wistful affection for the past, typically for a period or place with happy personal associations. Ø "I was overcome with acute nostalgia for my days in college" 2. Something done or presented in order to evoke feelings of nostalgia. Ø "An evening of TV nostalgia" Ø Pedantic: adjective 1. Ostentatious in one's learning. 2. Overly concerned with minute details or formalisms, Especially in teaching. Ø Trite: adjective 1. Lacking in freshness or effectiveness because of constant use or excessive repetition; hackneyed; stale: The trite phrases in his letter. 2. Characterized by hackneyed expressions, ideas, etc. The commencement address was trite and endlessly long 3. Archaic. Rubbed or worn by use. Ø Contemptuous: adjective Showing or expressing contempt or disdain; scornful; disrespectful. Ø Sardonic: adjective Characterized by bitter or scornful derision; mocking; cynical; sneering A sardonic grin Ø Benevolent: adjective 1. Characterized by or expressing goodwill or kindly feelings: Abby Carroll 5

6 A benevolent attitude; her benevolent smile. 2. Desiring to help others; charitable: Gifts from several benevolent alumni. 3. Intended for benefits rather than profit: A benevolent institution. Ø Effusive: adjective 1. Unduly demonstrative; lacking reserve: Effusive greetings; an effusive person. 2. Pouring out; overflowing. 3. Geology, extrusive Ø Compassionate: adjective/verb 1. The act of showing compassion Compassion: noun Ø A feeling of deep sympathy and sorrow for another who is str icken by misfortune, accompanied by a strong desire to alleviate the s uffering. Ø Urbane: adjective 1. Having the polish and suavity regarded as characteristic of sophisticated social life in major cities: An urbane manner. 2. Reflecting elegance, sophistication, etc., especially in expression He maintained an urbane tone in his letters. v Diction Ø Denotation: noun 1. The explicit or direct meaning or set of meanings of a word or expression, as distinguished from the ideas or meanings Associated with it of suggested by it the association or set of associations that a word usually elicits for most speakers of a language as distinguished from those elicited or any individual speaker because of personal experience 2. A word that names or signifies something specific: Wind is the denotation for air in natural motion. Poodle is the denotation for a certain breed of dog. 3. Abby Carroll 6

7 The act or fact of denoting; indication. 4. Something that denotes; mark; symbol. 5. Logic. The class of particulars to which a term is applicable. That which is represented by a sign. Ø Connotation: noun 1. The associated or secondary meaning of a word or expression in addition to its explicit or primary meaning: a possible connotation Of home is a place of warmth, comfort, and affection. The act of connoting; the suggesting of an additional meaning for a word or expression, apart from its explicit meaning. 2. Something suggested or implied by a word or thing, rather than bei ng explicitly named or described Religion has always had a negative connotation for me. 3. Logic. The set of attributes constituting the meaning of a term and thus determining the range of the objects to which that term may be applied; comprehension; intension Ø Colloquial: adjective 1. Characteristic of or appropriate to ordinary or familiar conversation rather than formal speech or writing; informal. 2. Involving or using conversation. Ø Formal: adjective 1. Being in accordance with the usual requirements, customs, etc.; conventional: To pay one's formal respects. 2. Marked by form or ceremony: A formal occasion. 3. Designed for wear or use at occasions or events marked by elaborate ceremony or prescribed social observance: The formal attire included tuxedos and full-length gowns. 4. Requiring a type of dress suitable for such occasions: A formal dance. 5. Abby Carroll 7

8 Observant of conventional requirements of behavior, procedure, etc., as persons; ceremonious. 6. Excessively ceremonious: A manner that was formal and austere. 7. Being a matter of form only; perfunctory: We expected more than just formal courtesy. Ø Informal: adjective 1. Without formality or ceremony; casual: An informal visit. 2. Not according to the prescribed, official, or customary way or mann er; irregular; unofficial: Informal proceedings. 3. Suitable to or characteristic of casual and familiar, but educated, speech or writing. 4. Grammar. Characterizing the second singular pronominal or verbal form, or its use, in certain languages: Ø Metonymy: noun A figure of speech that consists of the use of the name of one objector concept for that of another to which it is related, or of which it is apart, as scepter for sovereignty, or the bottle for strong drink, or count heads for count people Ø Synecdoche: noun A figure of speech in which a part is used for the whole or the whole for a part the special for the general of the general for the special Ø Concrete: adjective 1. Constituting an actual thing or instance; real: A concrete proof of his sincerity. 2. Pertaining to or concerned with realities or actual instances rather than abstractions; particular (opposed to general): Concrete ideas. 3. Representing or applied to an actual substance or thing, as opposed to an abstract quality: The words cat, water, and teacher are concrete, whereas the words truth excellence and adulthood are abstract Abby Carroll 8

9 4. Made of concrete: A concrete pavement. 5. Formed by coalescence of separate particles into a mass; united in a coagulated, condensed, or solid mass or state. Ø Abstract: verb/noun 1. Thought of apart from concrete realities, specific objects, or actual instances: An abstract idea. 2. Expressing a quality or characteristic apart from any specific object or instance, as justice, poverty, and speed. 3. Theoretical; not applied or practical: Abstract science. 4. Difficult to understand; abstruse Abstract speculations. 5. A summary of a text, scientific article, document, speech, etc.; epitome. 6. Something that concentrates in itself the essential qualities of anything more extensive or more general, or of several things; essence. 7. An idea or term considered apart from some material basis or object. 8. To draw or take away; remove. 9. To consider as a general quality or characteristic apart from specific objects or instances: To abstract the notions of time, space, and matter. Ø Ambiguous: adjective 1. Open to or having several possible meanings or interpretations; equivocal: An ambiguous answer. 2. Linguistics. (Of an expression) exhibiting constructional homonymy; having two or more structural descriptions 3. Abby Carroll 9

10 Of doubtful or uncertain nature; difficult to comprehend, distinguish, or classify: A rock of ambiguous character. 4. Lacking clearness or definiteness; obscure; indistinct: An ambiguous shape; an ambiguous future. v Figurative Language Ø Allusion: noun 1. A passing or casual reference; an incidental mention of something, either directly or by implication: The novel's title is an allusion to Shakespeare. 2. The act of alluding; the making of a casual or indirect reference to something: The Bible is a fertile source of allusion in art. 3. Obsolete. A metaphor or parable. Ø Simile: noun 1. A figure of speech in which two unlike things are explicitly compared, as in she is like a rose. 2. An instance of such a figure of speech or a use of words exemplifying it. Ø Metaphor: noun 1. A figure of speech in which a term or phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally applicable in order to suggest a resemblance 2. Something used, or regarded as being used, to represent something else; emblem; symbol. Ø Personification: noun 1. The attribution of human nature or character to animals, inanimate objects, or abstract notions, especially as a rhetorical figure. 2. The representation of a thing or abstraction in the form of a person, as in art. 3. The person or thing embodying a quality or the like; an embodiment or incarnation: He is the personification of tact. 4. Abby Carroll 10

11 An imaginary person or creature conceived or figured to represent a thing or abstraction. 5. The act of personifying; the attributing of human qualities to an animal, object, or abstraction: The author's personification of the farm animals made for an enchanting children's book. 6. A character portrayal or representation in a dramatic or literary work. Ø Hyperbole: noun 1. Obvious and intentional exaggeration. 2. An extravagant statement or figure of speech not intended to betaken literally, as to wait an eternity. Ø Understatement: noun The act or an instance of understating, or representing in a weak or restrained way that is not borne out by the facts: The journalist wrote that the earthquake had caused some damage. This turned out to be a massive understatement of the devastation. Understating To state or represent less strongly or strikingly than the facts would bear out; set forth in restrained, moderate, or weak terms: The casualty lists understate the extent of the disaster. Ø Paradox: noun 1. A statement or proposition that seems self-contradictory or absurd but in reality expresses a possible truth. 2. A self-contradictory and false proposition. 3. Any person, thing, or situation exhibiting an apparently contradictor ynature. 4. An opinion or statement contrary to commonly accepted opinion. Ø Dramatic irony: noun Irony that is inherent in speeches or a situation of a drama and is understood by the audience but not grasped by the characters in the play. Ø Verbal Irony: noun Irony in which a person says or writes one thing and means another, or uses words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of the literal meaning. Abby Carroll 11

12 Ø Analogy: noun 1. A similarity between like features of two things, on which a comparison may be based: The analogy between the heart and a pump. 2. Similarity or comparability I see no analogy between your problem and mine. 3. Linguistics. The process by which words or phrases are created or reformed 4. Logic. A form of reasoning in which one thing is inferred to be Similar to another thing in a certain respect on the basis of the known similarity between the things in the other respects Ø Anecdote: noun 1. A short account of a particular incident or event, especially of an interesting or amusing nature. 2. A short, obscure historical or biographical account. Ø Allegory: noun A representation of an abstract or spiritual meaning through concrete or material forms; figurative treatment of one subject under the guise of another. Ø Imagery: 1. The formation of mental images, figures, or likenesses of things, or of such images collectively: The dim imagery of a dream. 2. Pictorial images, as in works of art. 3. The use of rhetorical images. 4. Figurative description or illustration; rhetorical images collectively. 5. Psychology. Mental images collectively, especially those produced by the action of imagination. v Organization Ø Deductive: adjective Based on deduction from accepted premises, as in deductive argument; deductive reasoning. Abby Carroll 12

13 Ø Inductive: adjective Logic. Any form of reasoning in which the conclusion, though supported by the premises, does not follow from them necessarily The process of estimating the validity of observations of part of a class of facts as evidence for a proposition about the whole class. A conclusion reached by this process. Ø Idea: noun Any conception existing in the mind as a result of mental understanding, awareness, or activity. Ø Example: noun 1. A precedent; parallel case: 2. One of a number of things, or a part of something, taken to show the character of the whole: Ø Cause: noun A person or thing that acts, happens, or exists in such a way that some specific thing happens as a result; the producer of an effect: You have been the cause of much anxiety. What was the cause of the accident? Ø Effect: noun Something that is produced by an agency or cause; result; consequence: Exposure to the sun had the effect of toughening his skin. Ø Description: noun A statement, picture in words, or account that describes; descriptive representation. Ø Process analysis: noun An operation is composed of processes designed to add value by transforming inputs into useful outputs. Inputs may be materials, labor, energy, and capital equipment. Outputs may be a physical product (possibly used as an input to another process) or a service. Ø Narration: noun 1. Something narrated; an account, story, or narrative. 2. The act or process of narrating. 3. A recital of events, especially in chronological order, as the story narrated in a poem or the exposition in a drama. 4. Rhetoric. (In classical speech) the third part, the exposition of the question. Ø Comparison: noun 1. Abby Carroll 13

14 The considering of two things with regard to some characteristic that is common to both, as the likening of a hero to a lion in courage. 2. A likening; illustration by similitude; comparative estimate or statement. Ø Contrast: noun To compare in order to show unlikeness or differences; note the opposite natures, purposes, etc., of: Ø Exposition: Writing or speech primarily intended to convey information or to explain; a detailed statement or explanation; explanatory treatise: The students prepared expositions on familiar essay topics. Ø Persuasion: noun 1. The act of persuading or being persuaded 2. The state or fact of being persuaded or convinced. Ø Repetition: noun The act of repeating, or doing, saying, or writing something again; repeated action, performance, production, or presentation. Ø Syllogism: noun An argument the conclusion of which is supported by two premises, of which one (major premise) contains the term (major term) that is the predicate of the conclusion, and the other (minor premise) contains the term (minor term) that is the subject of the conclusion; common to both premises is a term (middle term) that is excluded from the conclusion. A typical form is All A is C; all B is A; therefore all B is C. v Point of view Ø First person: noun The grammatical person used by a speaker in statements referring to himself or herself or to a group including himself or herself, as I and we in English. Ø Second person: noun The person used by a speaker in referring to the one or ones to whom he or she is speaking: in English you is a second person pronoun. Ø Third person: noun The person that is used by the speaker of an utterance in referring to anything or to anyone other than the speaker or the one or ones being addressed. Ø Subjective: noun 1. Pertaining to the subject or substance in which attributes in here; essential. 2. Abby Carroll 14

15 Existing in the mind; belonging to the thinking subject rather than to the object of thought Ø Objective: noun The writer tells what happens without stating more than can be inferred from the story's action and dialogue. The narrator never discloses anything about what the characters think or feel, remaining a detached observer. v Syntax Ø Anaphora: noun Repetition of a word or words at the beginning of thee two or more successive verses, clauses, or sentences. Ø Antithesis: noun The placing of a sentence or one of its parts against another to which it is opposed to form a balanced contrast of ideas, as in Give me liberty or give me death. The second sentence or part thus set in opposition, as or give me death. Ø Asyndeton: noun The omission of conjunctions, as in He has provided the poor with jobs, with opportunity, with self-respect. Ø Polysyndeton: noun The use of a number of conjunctions in close succession. Ø Parallel sentence: noun Using the same pattern of words to show that two or more words or ideas are of equal importance and to help the reader comprehend what is being written. It is grammatically correct to ensure that phrases, clauses and items on a list after a colon use the correct parallel structure. Ø Loose sentence: noun Also called a cumulative sentence begins with a main clause that is followed by phrases and/or clauses that modify the main clause. These phrases or clauses add information to the main or independent clause. Ø Periodic sentence: noun Has the main clause or predicate at the end. This is used for emphasis and can be persuasive by putting reasons for something at the beginning before the final point is made. It can also create suspense or interest for the reader. Ø Rhetorical question: noun A question that you ask without expecting an answer. The question might be one that does not have an answer. It might also be one that has an obvious answer but you have asked the question to make a point, to persuade or for literary effect. Ø Inversion: noun Refers to the practice of changing the conventional placement of words. It is a literary practice typical of the older classical poetry genre. In present day literature it is usually used for the purpose of laying Abby Carroll 15

16 emphasis this literary device is more prevalent in poetry than prose because it helps to arrange the poem in a manner that catches the attention of the reader not only with its content but also with its physical appearance; a result of the peculiar structuring. Abby Carroll 16