Copyright by the Endowment of the United States Institute of Peace

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1 Index ABG. See Autonomous Bougainville Government (ABG) activist role, interest in increasing, 81 affinity fraud, 117 Afghanistan, 151, 158 agenda of intervention activities, 3 4 Akoitai, Sam, 35, 171 allowances to Bougainvilleans attending peace meetings, 83 ammunition, from WWII weapon dumps, Arawa, 30, 65, 171 as capital, 13 Arawa Agreement, 67n6 armed roadblocks, 111. See also roadblocks Aropa, 49 AusAID, , 153, 175 advisers, 160 and statebuilding, 159 Australia, 172 administration of Bougainville after WWII, 10 in Bougainville, 168 Department of Defense, 68 Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 143 humanitarian and development assistance, 75 interagency committees, 81 participation preparation for long term, 76 and peace talks, 29 personnel commitment by, 162 responsibility for conflict, 58 senior diplomat roles, 64 suspicion of, 57 58, 79, 154, 163 UN mandate over former German New Guinea, 9 Austronesian languages, 8 Autonomous Bougainville Government (ABG), 90, , 176 authority, 101 communications, 142 Constitution, 147 elections, Ona and, elections delay possibility and weapons disposal, 97 establishing and operating, expectations, 109 funding from PNG, legislature seats for former combatants, 98 local pressure on, 160 MGU partnership with, 140 relations with PNG government, role of, 124 second election results, 126n5 transfer of functions and powers to, UN mission and election delay, 93 Autonomous Region of Bougainville, 7. See also Bougainville autonomy Bougainville Peace Agreement (2001) on, and referendum, 148 Barter, Peter, 171 BCC (Bougainville Constitutional Commission), 99, 174, 175 BCL. See Bougainville Copper Ltd (BCL) betel nut juice, BIG. See Bougainville Interim Government (BIG) bipartisan parliamentary committee, 56 blockade of Bougainville, 22, 25,

2 180 Index Bougainville arrival of first humans, 8, 167 BRA control, 22 Christianity in, 37 chronology, colonial control, 9 culture and identity, demilitarization of, disparate organizations, 60 divisions among residents, geography, history, and culture, 7 10 geopolitical situation, 163 goal of political autonomy, 15 languages, xiii maps, xi, xii, xiv during peace process, , xvi political options for, relations with PNG government, sea and air blockade, 22, 25, 170 state building, 159 terrain, 67 in WWII, 9 10 Bougainville Agreement (1976), 169 Bougainville conflict crisis point, dimensions, 24, history of, 5 localized conflict 2005 to 2008, origins, Bougainville Constituent Assembly, 99, 175 Bougainville Constitutional Commission (BCC), 99, 174, 175 Bougainville Copper Agreement, 116 review process, 117 Bougainville Copper Ltd (BCL), 13, 168 demand for compensation payment from, 19 grievances of employees, 18 local culture and, 136 property destruction, 169 Bougainville Elections Act 2007, 100 Bougainville Electoral Commission, 100 Bougainville Ex-combatants Trust Account, 174 Bougainville Freedom Fighters, attack on Musingku s headquarters, 120, 124 Bougainville Interim Government (BIG), 22, 142, 170 planned ambush on leaders, 46 and UDI, 42 Bougainville Interim Provincial Government (BIPG), 173 and compromise, 52 Bougainville kina (currency), 120 Bougainville Mining Ltd, 168 Bougainville Peace Agreement (2001), 27, 45, ABG established by, 52 on autonomy for Bougainville, chronology, 173 constitutional amendments to implement, 147 demilitarization, 91 embedding implementation incentives, implementation, legitimacy, 40 negotiating teams for, 56 negotiations, 62, 85 police personnel since implementation, 124

3 Index 181 protecting agreements from unilateral change, 92 referendum on independence, and weapons disposal, 107 Bougainville People s Congress (BPC), 45, 60, 172 negotiating position, 86 Bougainville Provincial Council of Women, 99 Bougainville Reconciliation Government, 44, 172 Bougainville Resistance Forces (BRF), 24, 170 disbanding, 91, 98 opposition to independence, 42 Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA), 20 21, 142, 169 company areas, , xv control of Bougainville, 22 disbanding, 98 goals for disbanding, 91 in local conflicts, 23 as loosely linked groups, 23 mercenaries for defeating, 33 planned ambush on leaders, 46 tension between MDF and, 111 and UDI, 42 weapons held by, 97 Bougainville Transitional Government (BTG), 31 opposition to independence, 42 Bougainville Transitional Team (BTT), 71, 174, 175 British Commonwealth, PNG in, 29n2 British Solomon Islands Protectorate (BSIP), 167, 168 Buin, 9, 124 intra-bra conflict, 122 localized conflict in, 121 Buin Town, 65 Buka, 8, 167 Buka Island, local government, 50 Buka Town, 13, 31, 65 PNGDF forced landing, 23 Burnham, New Zealand, 41, 64 Burnham Declaration of July 18, 1997, 42, 72 Burnham Truce, 43, 57, 84 Cairns talks, 29, 32, 57, 64 Cambodia, 149 Canberra talks, 64 Catholic missionaries, 9 cease-fire, 30 31, 44 in March 1990, monitoring reports, 61 ceremonies to mark conflict end, payments to facilitate, 83 Chan, Julius, 33, 54, 171 replacement, chief negotiator, 68 chief secretaries, 60 chiefs, in conflict resolution, Christianity, in Bougainville, 37 chronology for Bougainville, church leaders, in conflict resolution, civilian officials cooperation with military, 155 personal relationships, 164 roles in TMG and PMG, 68 shared responsibility with military, 151 clan-based family group, 11 coalitions conflicts with loose, patience for developing, 141 cocoa production, 122

4 182 Index combatant groups inclusion in political structure, 60 peace agreement on disbanding, 98 Commonwealth Secretariat, 29n2 communications, 142 environment for improving, 82 community support for Ona, compensation, in local reconciliation process, 36 compromise pressure for, 52 on referendum, 89 conflict, 137 conflict resolution international community role in, 150 women s roles, 139 consensus decision-making, 12 achieving, 37 developing, 36 Constitution for Autonomous Region of Bougainville, 138, 147 constitution-making, contribution to peace process, context, 149, 152 culture as part, importance of, Conzinc Riotinto Australia Ltd (CRA), 13, 58, 168 copper mines, 13 credibility, of Ona, 113 culture of Bougainville, as part of context, of reconciliation, currency, from Musingku, 120 customs, as status of law, 11 death, of Ona, 49 deaths, in armed conflict, 26 decision-making, by consensus, 12 demilitarization of Bougainville, Peace Agreement provision for, 91 democratic political systems of western Europe, 137 dependence, on international intervention, 165 development assistance, disarmament of Bougainvilleans, 91. See also weapons divisions among pro-integration dissidents, among pro-secessionists, taking account of, 53 donor funding arrangements, unintended consequences, Downer, Alexander, 88 89, 173, 174 East Timor, 90, 151 economic change, from mining, 14 economic development, 75, 158 in south Bougainville, 122 elections for ABG, 100 in July 1997, 35 employment, need for preferential treatment, 19 Endeavour Accord, 170 Enhanced Cooperation Program, 158 environmental impact of mining, 18 Europe democratic political systems, 137 humanitarian and development assistance, 75 European explorers, first arrival in Bougainville, 8, 167 exit date, debate in Australian bureaucracy, 70 exit strategies, 2

5 Index 183 feeder roads, 76 Fiji, 80, 172 security force from, 30, 66, 119 Fiji mercenaries, pressure for armed action against, 131 foreign-owned plantations, 10 fragility, sources and signs of, France, 149 Fukuyama, Francis, 159 funding for ABG from PNG, allocation for local initiatives, 153 from Australia and New Zealand, 64 for infrastructure development, 76 international availability, 83 managing impacts, for UN-DPA monitoring, 73 unintended negative consequences, 157 gas, request for function transfer to ABG, 103 generational split in leadership, 19 German New Guinea, 8, 9, 167, 168 gold, Ona s purchase of, 112 gold mines, 13 governance, pattern of, 12 Government and Implementation Fund (GIF), 105 Great Britain, 167 Guadalcanal, 9, 168 Hallett, David, 82 Hayes, John, 30, 42 health care, 68 homemade weapons, 25 Hong Kong, 150 Honiara Declaration, 170 humanitarian assistance, identity, formation, identity of Bougainville, mining and politicization of, independence of Bougainville Ona efforts for, opposition to, 42 Peace Agreement provision for referendum, referendum, 87 unilateral declaration (UDI), 15, 22, 169, 170 Indonesia, Papua provinces, 7 informal peace process, infrastructure development, funding for, 76 institutional framework, for peace process decisions, 61 integration of Bougainville with Papua New Guinea, 86 international activism, factors moderating, International Committee of the Red Cross, 34, 75 international community humanitarian and development assistance, 75 interest in context, 149 involvement, 63 local groups tolerance of roles, vs. local ownership, 144 most important service provided, 82 in peace initiatives, 30 policymakers and representatives assumptions, 2 3 and referendum, 90 role, 2 role after PMG and UN departures, role in conflict resolution, 150 international intervention

6 184 Index activities necessary to establish and maintain, agenda of, 3 4 and BRA and BRF, 123 dependence on, 131, 165 dividing responsibilities, inclusion of all parties, 152 integration with local management of peace process, 84 internal aspect of planning and managing, leadership for, legitimacy and sustainability, 145 request by local personnel, 162 shortcomings, wariness by parties of, Iraq, 158 Japan, 168 Joint Supervisory Body (JSB), 94, 101, 104, 176 Kabui, Joseph, 47 50, 115, 125, 176 death, 176 Ona reassertion against, 55 Kanak separatists, 149 Kaputin, John, 169 Kauona, Sam, 21, 25 Kieta, 9 Konnou, BRA element from, 122 land disputes, 121 landowners arrangements in mine-lease area, mining impact, 14 languages in Bougainville, xiii in Papua New Guinea, 7 leadership divisions among, heredity element, 12 for international intervention, opportunities to support moderate, 143 of peacebuilding exercises, 158 Leitana Council of Elders, 50 light footprint intervention, 2, downside to, 131 and flexibility, Lincoln Agreement of 1998, 44 45, 84, 172 PMG requested in annex, 67 Lincoln talks, 64 local capacity, for developing original solutions to problems, local control, 2 local dynamics, local knowledge, personnel with, 152 local leaders, inclusion in peace talks, 56 local peace process, intervention designed to support, local population, role in reform, 159 local processes, supporting, localized conflict 2005 to 2008 in Bougainville, efforts for reconciliation , 125 likelihood after UN mission departure, in South Bougainville, , 165 Loloho, 67 Mackinnon, Don, 42 Maori population, in New Zealand, 77

7 Index 185 maps Bougainville, xi, xii Papua New Guinea, xii Solomon Islands, xii marginalization of women, 139 matrilineal groups, 11 McKinnon, Don, 78 mediation, by unarmed peacekeepers, 156 Me ekamui Defense Force (MDF), 48, 70 disbanding, 91 and Ona, in Siwai local conflicts, 124 tension between BRA and, 111 and weapons disposal, 95 96, 129 weapons held by, 123 Me ekamui Government of Unity (MGU), 115 partnership with ABG, 140 Me ekamui/mdf support areas, 48 Me ekamui Republic, 48, 107, 110, 140, 172 announcement of, 55 factions in peace process, transformation into Royal Kingdom, 113 Melanesia, 11 Australia vs. New Zealand sphere of influence in, culture, 7, mercenaries PNG government use of, 32 33, 171 problems from using, 47 Methodist church, 9 micronationalist movements, in PNG, 59n33 military personnel. See also individual groups cooperation with civilians, 155 shared responsibility with civilians, 151 from Tonga, Fiji, Vanuatu, 30 mine-lease landowners association, 19 internal disputes, 18 mining closure, 20 earnings from, 14 and politicization of Bougainville identity, property destruction, 20 request for function transfer to ABG, 103 Miriung, Theodore, 31, 171 assassination, 32 relationship to Akoitai, 35 mission creep, 151 Miyamura, Hiroko, 31 moderation, 164 Momis, John, 50, 51, 126, 172, 177 Morauta, Mekere, 89, 173, 174 Morgan Junction, 49, , 115 multiparty conflict, 1 Musingku, Noah, , 114, 117, 142 chronology, 172, 173, 174, 176, 177 current role, 120 discussion of possible pardon, 126 evasion of arrest, 118 pressure for armed action against, 131 security for, 119 as threat to peace and security, 120 Namaliu, Rabbie, 169, 170 Namibia, 149 National Executive Council, 60 nationalism, 59 negotiations inclusive teams,

8 186 Index institutional architecture of, 27 pressure for, representation at, war weariness and, 34 Nepal, 149 Nesbitt, Rex James, 175 neutrality, of New Zealand, 78 New Caledonia, 149 New Panguna Landowners Association, 169 New Zealand, 30, 58, 172 and Australian involvement, financial and logistical burdens of TMG, 78 humanitarian and development assistance, 75 interagency committees, 81 Lincoln University, 44 in peace initiatives, personnel commitment by, 162 role as facilitator, 79 security force from, 66 senior diplomat roles, 64 New Zealand Aid, 104 and statebuilding, 159 New Zealand-Australia Resource Group, representatives, no-go-zone AusAID personnel barred from, 143 basic services restored, 115, 177 lack of basic services, 112 Musingku relocation to, 118 road into, 111 of TMG and PMG, 49 weapons in, 96 North Solomons Provincial Government (NSPG), 169 Northern Ireland, 148 Noumea Accord of 1998, 149 NSPG (North Solomons Provincial Government), 169 Office of Bougainville Affairs, 60 oil, request for function transfer to ABG, 103 Ona, Francis as BRA political leader, 21, 34 chronology, 169, 172, 174, 175 community support for, credibility of, 113 death, 49, 114, 115, 176 efforts for independence, exclusion and resentment, 153 expectation of peace process failure, 46 independence declaration, 22 as leader of landowners association, 19 negotiations with, 29 and peace process, 70, 110 reassertion against Kabui, 55 support for Musingku, 118 support from armed groups, 20 and unarmed TMC, 68 Orami Village, 20 order, maintaining, 12 Organic Law on Peace-Building in Bougainville, 92 Organic Law on Provincial Government, 169 ownership, local, Panguna, 13 district office creation, 115 mine, 33, 58, 134 Panguna Communiqué, 115, 140, 143, 176 Panguna Landowners Association, 169 Panguna mining agreements, 116

9 Index 187 Papala, Kingdom of, 113, 114, Papua New Guinea (PNG), 1 Bougainville integration, 9 Bougainville parties compromise with government, 86 Bougainville relations with government, concerns over sovereignty and secession, 59 constitution, 52 control over Bougainville, 24 government as coalition, 140 government leadership changes, 35 importance to Australian security, 76 languages, 7 maps, xii micronationalist movements, 59n33 National Constitution amendments, 92, 94 peace initiatives, 169 planned ambush on BRA/BIG leaders, 46 relations with ABG government, and UN mission, 73 withdrawal of security forces, 95 Papua New Guinea Defense Force (PNGDF), 21, 171 forced landing in Buka Town, 23 in initiation of mid-1997 dialogue, 32 patience, 141 patrilineal societies, in Papua New Guinea, 11 Patupatuai, weapon dumps, 25 peace, commitment to, 123 peace conference, plans for 1994, 30 peace dividend, 75, 82 83, 157 peace initiatives foundation for peace process, 32 success or failure assessment, Peace Melanesia, 39 Peace Monitoring Group (PMG), 44, 65 Bougainville opposition to departure plans, 165 cessation of operations, 70 limited local knowledge of military commanders, 151 official responsibility, 67 operation under Protocol, 65n2 presence in Bougainville, 82 tensions between UN mission and, 74 women in monitoring teams, 69 peace process basic components needed, Bougainville during, xvi constitution-making contribution to, context of, 134 engaging all groups, formal steps, fragility, framework for managing, informal, key aspects of internal dynamics, management, opposition to, 28 origins, progress 2001 to 2005, 109 significance, 1 spoilers, Peace Process Consultative Committee (PPCC), 61 UN office as chair, 72 Peace Process Steering Committee (PPSC), 62, 80

10 188 Index peacebuilding leadership of, 158 local reconciliation and, 53 unarmed personnel in, 156 Pipiro, Moses, 113 plantation laborers, 1950s and later, 10 plantations, foreign-owned, 10 police brutal behavior of mobile squads, 20 delegation of control to provincial government, 102 as service vs. force, 138 political negotiations, Ponzi scheme, , 117, 172, 173 Port Moresby, 7 New Zealand and Australian resource group in, 43 PPCC (Peace Process Consultative Committee), 61, 72 PPSC (Peace Process Steering Committee), 62, 80 precedents, importance of, precolonial social structures, reliance on, 39 preferential employment treatment, Bougainville rights to, 18 presence, importance of, pro-integration dissidents divisions among, public sector reform, 159 reciprocity, 12 reconciliation, 121 Christian-influenced processes, 136 culture of, efforts in Bougainville, 28 local, and peacebuilding, 53 ongoing efforts, reconciliation ceremonies, 36 payments to facilitate, 83 reconciliation government for Bougainville, 44 divisions over method of creating, 50 legislative blocking of establishment, Red Cross, 34, 75 red-skins, 13, 20 referendum on integration vs. independence, 87 and autonomy, 148 compromise, 89 reform, local population role in, 159 refugee camps, 26 Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands, 158 relationships, restoration, 36 Restoration and Development Grant, 127 Richards, Jeffrey, 175 road projects, 75 76, 105 roadblocks, 49, 111 AusAID-funded contractors movement through, 116 by MDF elements, 124 Roreinang, meeting at, 55 Sandline International, 32 33, 171 problems from, 47 secessionists, 20, 86 divisions among, PNG concerns about, 59, 127 tensions from, 109 unsustainable position, 34 separatist conflict, 1 Seventh-Day Adventist church, 9 Sinclair, Noel, 74, 88, 164, 174, 175 Siwai, 124 localized conflict in, 121

11 Index 189 Skate, Bill, 35, 42, 171, 173 social impact of mining, 18 social structures, resilience of, 36 Solomon Islands, 7, 8, 80, 151, 167 maps, xii senior diplomat roles, 64 talks in, 30 South Bougainville, localized conflict in, , 165 South Pacific Peace Keeping Force (SPPKF), 30 sovereignty, PNG concerns about, 59 Sri Lanka, 149 state inherent difficulties in building, struggles for control, 146 state authority, absence of, 39 Stenbock, Thor, 74, 175 Storey, Sarah, 89 Strongim Gavman Program, 158 suspicion, 60 of Australian intent, 57 58, 79, 154, 163 Tanis, James, 176 election as president, telecommunications, 67 tensions conditions with potential to increase, 109 factors reducing in 2009, 126 terrain of Bougainville, 67 Timor Leste, 149 Tonga, military personnel from, 30 Tonu, 65, 111 roadblock, 119 Torokina, 168 U.S. Marines landing, 10 weapon dumps, 25, 96, 97 98, , 130 Townsville talks, 64 traditions, importance of restoring, 39 transportation needs, 68 truce, monitoring reports, 61 Truce Monitoring Group (TMG), 43, 65 limited local knowledge of military commanders, 151 New Zealand s limited resourcing of, 77 official responsibility, 67 significance of presence, 46 as unarmed body, 68, 148 women in monitoring teams, 69 trust, environment for building, 82 twin kingdoms agreement, 118, 175 Uganda Constitution of 1995, 150 Ugubakobu, 111 Uma, Chris, 113, 115, 116 unarmed personnel, in peacekeeping mechanisms, 156 UNDP/Australian Agency for International Development project, 75 unification, ongoing efforts, Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) of Bougainville, 15, 22, 169, 170 United Nations BRA/BIG proposal for role, 73 importance of involvement, 154 involvement in Cairns talks, 57 original official mandate, 72 United Nations Department of Political Affairs, 31 United Nations Development Program (UNDP), 75 office in Bougainville, and statebuilding, 159

12 190 Index and weapons disposal, 128 United Nations monitoring mission, 71 United Nations Observer Mission Bougainville (UNOMB), 2, and ABG elections, 93 arrangements for involvement, 81 chronology, 172 departure, 28 level of proactivity, 68 as pressure on Me ekamui government, 124 suspected bias, 153 verification of second stage of weapon disposal, United Nations Political Office in Bougainville (UNPOB), 172 United Nations Trust Territory of New Guinea, 10 United States Marines, landing at Torokina, 10 United States State Department, role in weapons recovery and destruction, , 177 U-Vistract Ponzi scheme, , 117, 172, 173 Vanuatu, 7, 80, 172 security force from, 30, 66 Vendrell, Francisc, 31, 73 villagers, in BRA-controlled areas, 34 violence factors reducing in 2009, 126 impact on consensus building, 38 and positive impacts, Wakunai, 65 war weariness, and negotiations, 34 Warner, Nick, 89 weapons assumptions in implementing disposal process, availability to monitoring teams, 70 disposal, 91, 95, , , 174, 177 linking decommissioning with electoral steps, 148 MDF use of, official completion of disposal process, 109 pressure to dispose of, 93 sources of, in south Bougainville, theft of, 111 UN mission role in containment and destruction, 72 U.S. role in recovery and destruction, Wingti, Paias, 170, 171 women in Bougainville, 11 in BCC, 99 group leaders in conflict resolution, 39 inclusion in TMG and PMG monitoring teams, 69 peacemaking roles, 40, 41, World War II, 168 conflict in Bougainville, 9 10 weapons from, 25, 96, 97 98, , 123