Table of Contents. Part I. Naturalisation and the Labour Market Outcomes of Immigrants: An Overview

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1 TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 Table of Contents Main findings of the joint EC/OECD seminar on Naturalisation and the Socio-economic Integration of Immigrants and their Children by Thomas Liebig Part I. Naturalisation and the Labour Market Outcomes of Immigrants: An Overview Chapter 1. Citizenship and the Socio-economic Integration of Immigrants and their Children: An Overview across EU and OECD Countries by Thomas Liebig and Friederike Von Haaren Introduction Citizenship take-up among immigrants The labour market outcomes of naturalised and non-naturalised immigrants Labour market outcomes of children of immigrants and the association with host-country nationality The impact of naturalisation on immigrants labour market outcomes Conclusions Notes References Annex 1.A1. Methodology Annex 1.A2. Supplementary tables Chapter 2. The Current Status of Nationality Law by Nicole Guimezanes Introduction Dual nationality Acquisition of nationality at birth Acquisition of nationality by naturalisation Other ways of acquiring nationality Loss of nationality Conclusions Notes References Annex 2.A1. The main laws on nationality Annex 2.A2. Supplementary tables Part II. The Impact of Naturalisation on Immigrants Labour Market Integration: Experiences from EU and OECD Countries Chapter 3. The Impact of Naturalisation on Labour Market Outcomes in Sweden by Mattias Engdahl Introduction General framework on benefits and costs of acquiring Swedish citizenship Data, sample restrictions and empirical specification Labour market outcomes

2 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS 3.4. Conclusions Notes References Annex 3.A1. Variable definitions Annex 3.A2. Tables Chapter 4. How Acquring French Citizenship Affects Immigrant Employment by Denis Fougère and Mirna Safi Introduction The acquisition of citizenship and labour market integration in France Measuring the association between naturalisation and immigrants access to employment Conclusions Notes References Chapter 5. The Impact of Naturalisation on Immigrant Labour Market Integration in Germany and Switzerland by Max Friedrich Steinhardt Introduction Germany Switzerland Notes References Chapter 6. Citizenship Acquisition in Canada and the United States: Determinants and Economic Benefit by Garnett Picot and Feng Hou Introduction Becoming a citizen of Canada or the United States Does citizenship acquisition improve economic outcomes? The determinants of naturalisation The rise of a naturalisation rate gap between Canada and the United States Conclusions Notes References Chapter 7. The Labour Market Outcomes of Naturalised Citizens in Norway by Bernt Bratsberg and Oddbjørn Raaum Introduction Potential gains and losses from host-country citizenship Data Empirical analysis Discussion Conclusions Notes References

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS 9 Part III. Naturalisation and Social Cohesion Chapter 8. Social Cohesion and Host Country Nationality among Immigrants in Western Europe by Christel Kesler and Neli Demireva Introduction Social capital, social cohesion, diversity and citizenship acquisition Data source and variables Empirical results Conclusions Note References Annex 8.A1. Number of immigrants in the sample Annex 8.A2. Additional coefficients Chapter 9. Naturalisation and Social Inclusion by Pieter Bevelander Introduction Social inclusion Consequences of naturalisation Migrant voting: earlier studies Citizenship and voting Conclusions Note References Annex 9.A1. Regression results on voting for Swedish residents Chapter 10. Integration and Access to Nationality in EU Member Countries by Yves Pascouau and Philippe De Bruycker Introduction Quantitative approach Knowledge of the language Knowledge of the host society National diversity and European co-ordination Notes Chapter 11. Naturalisation and the Promotion of the Social Integration of Immigrants in Quebec by Yvan Turcotte Introduction Immigration policies aimed at permanent settlement The right of permanent residence and citizenship Access to citizenship: an indicator of integration? Social participation Conclusion: a paradox References

4 10 TABLE OF CONTENTS Part IV. The Interactions between Naturalisation Policy and Other Elements of the National Integration Policy Mix Chapter 12. Policy Interactions in Belgium by Mélanie Knott and Altay Manço Introduction Obtaining Belgian nationality through naturalisation: changing conditions Integration and the various indicators for measuring it Conclusion: is naturalisation a means of integration? Notes References Chapter 13. The Legal Framework on Economic Migration and Naturalisation in the United Kingdom by Chris Hedges Introduction Legislative summary Legal provisions in relation to grants of British citizenship Definitions Statistical summary Basis of grant Renunciation of British citizenship Reasons for refusal Notes Annex 13.A1. Brief summary of the relevant provisions Chapter 14. Citizenship in Australia by David Smith, Sanuki Jayarajah, Taya Fabjianic and Janice Wykes Introduction History of Australian migration, integration and citizenship policies (1900 to present) Citizenship conferrals Characteristics of citizens Variation by birthplace Variation by years since arrival Variation by birthplace and years since arrival The relationship between citizenship and labour market outcomes Do their jobs differ? Impact of the length of stay on the labour market performance Conclusions Notes References Chapter 15. From Assisting to Requiring Integration: Selective Citizenship Policies in the Netherlands by Kees Groenendijk Introduction Policy on immigrant integration: twice a new paradigm Acquisition of nationality by naturalisation: restriction, liberalisation, restriction Effects of new rules and tests: numbers and selection The recent close relation between integration and naturalisation policy Effects of naturalisation and integration policy on immigrant integration Notes References

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS 11 Figures Figure 1.1. Share of foreign-born who have been resident for at least ten years and who have the host-country nationality, selected OECD countries, by gender, around Figure 1.2. Employment rates for immigrants by citizenship status, around Figure 1.3. Public sector share of total employment, naturalised and non-naturalised immigrants, as a proportion of the public sector share for native-born persons, around Figure 1.4. Percentage of native-born children of immigrants from lower-income countries who have the host-country nationality, aged and not in education, around Figure 4.1. The effect of professional category on the probability of naturalisation between two censuses Figure 4.2. The effect of educational level on the probability of naturalisation between two censuses Figure 7.1. Immigrant inflows, , and naturalisations, Figure 7.2. Naturalisation rate and per-capita GDP by source country Figure 7.3. Share of immigrants that are naturalised by years since arrival, major source regions Figure 7.4a. Employment profiles by naturalisation status, men Figure 7.4b. Employment profiles by naturalisation status, women Figure 7.5a. Log earnings profiles by naturalisation status, men Figure 7.5b. Log earnings profiles by naturalisation status, women Figure 7.6a. Self-sufficiency by naturalisation status, men Figure 7.6b. Self-sufficiency by naturalisation status, women Figure 8.1. Nationality and experiences of discrimination Figure 8.2. Nationality and satisfaction with country Figure 8.3. Nationality and political interest Figure 9.1. Influence of country of birth and citizenship on voter participation: results from instrumented regression controlling for demographic and social-economic characteristics Figure 9.2. Impact of citizenship on voter participation: results from nine separate instrumented regressions (by geographical area) Figure Integration testing for naturalisation in EU countries Figure Percentage of naturalised Canadian citizens among immigrants residing in Canada in 2006 by country of birth (15 main countries) Figure Percentage of naturalised Canadian citizens among immigrants residing in Quebec in 2006 by country of birth (15 main countries) Figure Rate of social participation of the population in various types of organisations by generation Figure Rate of social participation of the population by generation and length of residence Figure Rate of voter participation of naturalised immigrants by length of residence Figure Feeling of having been discriminated against or treated unfairly during the previous five years for total population and non-visible and visible minorities Figure Rate of participation of immigrants and of the total population in certain protest activities in Canada Figure Rate of participation of the total population and immigrants in certain protest activities by length of residence and estimated degree of repression in the country of origin Figure Number of naturalisation applications and of naturalisations granted in Belgium between 1998 and Figure Data on the naturalisation of Turkish-born people living in Belgium, several years Figure Percentage of naturalised persons among Turkish-born Belgians, several years

6 12 TABLE OF CONTENTS Figure Citizenship conferrals and permanent additions, to Figure Citizenship rates by years since arrival Figure Citizenship rates by years since arrival: selected census years Figure Citizenship rates by years since arrival (selected birthplaces) Figure Participation rates of citizens and non-citizens by year of arrival Figure Full-time employment rates of citizens and non-citizens by year of arrival Figure Unemployment rates of citizens and non-citizens by year of arrival Figure Applications for naturalisation, Tables Table 1.1. Naturalisation rates by region of origin, around Table 1.2. Percentage of foreign-born who have the nationality of the host country, 1999/2000 and 2007/08, by region of origin, selected European OECD countries Table 1.3. Share of low- and high-educated immigrants by citizenship status and origin, around Table 1.4. Estimated higher probability to be in employment associated with naturalisation, around Table 1.5. Share of employed immigrants who are in high-skilled occupations, by gender and citizenship status, around Table 1.6. Estimated higher probability of employment in a high-skilled occupation associated with naturalisation, around Table 1.7. Estimated higher wage associated with naturalisation, by origin, selected OECD countries, around Table 1.8. Estimated probability to be employed in the public sector associated with naturalisation, around Table 1.9a. Share of native- and foreign-born who participated in on-the-job training, by citizenship status, around Table 1.9b. Estimated higher probability associated with naturalisation to have participated in on-the-job-training, by origin, around Table Higher (+) or lower (-) probability for key labour market outcomes for naturalised compared with non-naturalised, children of immigrants aged and not in education, around Table 1.A2.1. Citizenship acquisition by foreigners in OECD countries since Table 1.A2.2. Employment rates of foreign-born men by citizenship status and origin, around Table 1.A2.3. Employment rates of foreign-born women by citizenship status and origin, around Table 1.A2.4. The association between naturalisation and the probability to be self-employed, selected OECD countries, around Table 1.A2.5. Longitudinal studies on the impact of naturalisation on the labour market outcomes of immigrants Table 2.A2.1. Nationality of origin (by birth) Table 2.A2.2. Simplified naturalisation Table 2.A2.3. Acquisition of nationality by naturalisation Table 2.A2.4. Acquisition of nationality other than by naturalisation or marriage Table 2.A2.5. Naturalisation by marriage Table 2.A2.6. Loss of nationality Table 3.A2.1. Incidence of citizenship by years since immigration and birth region Table 3.A2.2. Citizenship by immigration cohort ten years after immigration

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS 13 Table 3.A2.3. Means and standard deviations of variables, full sample five and ten years after immigration Table 3.A2.4. Correlation between naturalisations and earnings, men Table 3.A2.5. Correlation between naturalisations and earnings, women Table 3.A2.6. Correlation between naturalisations and employment status, men Table 3.A2.7. Correlation between naturalisations and employment status, women Table 3.A2.8. Impact of naturalisations on log earnings, men Table 3.A2.9. Impact of naturalisations on earnings, women Table 3.A2.10. Impact of naturalisations on employment, men Table 3.A2.11. Impact of naturalisations on employment, women Table 3.A2.12. Impact of naturalisations on earnings, leads and lags, men Table 3.A2.13. Impact of naturalisations on earnings, leads and lags, women Table 3.A2.14. Impact of naturalisations on employment, leads and lags, men Table 3.A2.15. Impact of naturalisations on employment, leads and lags, women Table 4.1. Coefficients associated with the interaction effect between naturalisation and country of origin in the employment equation of a bivariate probit model Table 6.1. Labour market outcomes by citizenship among immigrants, Canada Table 6.2. The advantage in labour market outcomes associated with citizenship among immigrants, Canada Table 6.3. Labour market outcomes by citizenship among immigrants, United States Table 6.4. The advantage in labour market outcomes associated with citizenship among immigrants, United States Table 6.5. Citizenship rates among immigrants aged 25 or over, United States and Canada Table 6.6. Changes in the characteristics of immigrants aged 25 and over in the United States and Canada Table 6.7. Citizenship rates among immigrants aged 25 or over by cohort and period of immigration Table 6.8. Changes in citizenship rates among immigrants aged 25 or over for selected source regions and countries, Canada Table 6.9. Changes in citizenship rates among immigrants aged 25 or over for selected source regions and countries, United States Table Decomposition of changes in citizenship rates, , Canada and the United States Table Decomposition of changes in citizenship rates, , Canada and the United States excluding Central/South American immigrants Table 7.1. Immigrant cohorts subject to analysis Table 7.2. Descriptive statistics of analysis samples Table 7.3. Estimated impact of naturalisation on employment Table 7.4. Estimated impact of naturalisation on log earnings Table 7.5. Estimated impact of naturalisation on self-sufficiency Table 7.6. Employment change before and after naturalisation Table 7.7. Log earnings growth before and after naturalisation Table 7.8. Naturalisation and the probability of moving abroad Table 8.1. Gross differences between naturalised and non-naturalised immigrants on measures of social cohesion Table 8.2. Models predicting social cohesion outcomes, pooled sample Table 8.3. Models predicting social cohesion outcomes, pooled sample with country interaction effects Table 8.A1.1. Number of immigrants in the sample by country of residence and naturalisation status

8 14 TABLE OF CONTENTS Table 8.A2.1. Additional coefficients for models in Table Table 8.A2.2. Additional coefficients for models in Table Table Acquisition of Belgian nationality by country of previous nationality Table Unemployment rate by nationality and place of birth Table Citizenship conferrals by nationality Table Citizenship numbers and take-up rates of overseas-born by selected characteristics Table Employment outcomes overseas-born citizens and non-citizens aged Table Employment characteristics of foreign-born citizens and non-citizens aged Table Number of persons naturalised and naturalisation rate,