Literature Review THE ROLE OF CHURCHES IN IMMIGRANT SETTLEMENT AND INTEGRATION

Transcription

1 Literature Review THE ROLE OF CHURCHES IN IMMIGRANT SETTLEMENT AND INTEGRATION

2 This annotated bibliography was prepared by researchers at the Centre for Community Based Research for the project titled The Role of Churches in Immigrant Settlement and Integration. This two-year project is a national research partnership intended to better equip church groups across Canada to help immigrants and refugees settle and integrate into Canadian society. This project is funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) This project has an interdenominational focus, with founding partners representing academics, denominational leaders, and interdenominational networks. More information about the project can be found at: The information in the table below pertains to the project s 1st research question: What short and mid-term changes in vision, structure and process would best enable church groups to be more effective in supporting immigrants to settle and integrate? entails beliefs, values, and attitudes that provide direction for churches in supporting immigrant settlement. Essentially the vision column gives reasons why churches are engaging with immigrants in the settlement and integration process. The vision column also includes current contextual factors, for example relevant statistics. entails settings, activities, and partnerships that facilitate churches in working with immigrants. Specific examples that were commonly found include rituals, programs, and organizational partnerships. The structure column looks at what churches are currently doing in supporting immigrants to settle and integrate. Process entails actions that prepare and equip churches to meaningfully work with immigrants. The meaningful influence of systems is generally accomplished through leading, planning, training, and reflecting. The process column views how churches are currently engaging with immigrants to facilitate the settlement and integration process. The project`s second research question: How could the role of immigrant church leaders be maximized in order to advance these changes? is embedded within the process column. Throughout this document, the term religious institution (RI) is used. The literature used many different terms to define churches, but this was the most common and inclusive. This term is used across all articles (except in articles referring to specific denominations) to provide consistency. 1 P a g e

3 Akresh (2011) Keung, N. (2014) Allen (2010) Kim (2010) Andrews (2011) Kotin et al. (2011) Appleby (2011) Lewis (1977) Beattie (1998) Lewis&Kashyap (2013) Blatchford (2013) Ley (2008) Borg (2006) Ley&Tse (2013) Bramadat (2005) Loewen&Friesen (2009) Browne (2014) Martell-Otero (2010) Cadge (2006) Martin (2013) Cadge et al. (2013) Massey&Higgins (2011) Chavez (2002) Menjivar (2003) CPJ (n.d.) Menjivar (2006) CPJ (2007) Mooney (2006) CSMW (2010) Mooney (2013) Connor (2009) Mullins (1987) Connor (2010) Odem (2004) Connor (2011) Palomino (2004) Connor & Koenig (2013) Park (2011) Diehl&Koenig (2013) Permoser et al. (2010) Ebaugh&Chaftez (1999) PRC (2012) Ebaugh&Chaftez (2000a) PRI (2009) Ebaugh&Chaftez (2000b) Prill (2009) Eby et al. (2011) Qadeer et al. (2010) Fieguth (2013) Reimer&Wilkinson (2010) Foner (2008) Reitz et al. (2009) FMR (2013) Rose et al. (1998) Friesen (2009) Rusaw (1996) Gozdiak (2002) Schwartz, Warkentin, & Wilkinson (2008) Gunn (2013) Seljak et al. (n.d.) Hackworth&Stein (2012) Shandy&Fennelly (2006) Hagan (2003) Siemiatycki (2005) Hagan (2006) Stobbe (2006) Han (2011a) Sun&Cadge (2013) Han (2011b) Thompson&Bangarth (2008) Handy&Greenspan (2009) Tse (2011) Haugen (2011) Turcotte&Gaudet (2013) Hurh & Kim (1990) Van der Bracht et al. (2013) Hirschman (2004) Van Dijk (2001) IPC (2014) Van Dijk&Botros (2009) IRC (2005) Wenski (1998) Ives&Sinha (2010) Wessink (2013) Jacob&Kalter (2013) Wilkinson (2000) Janzen (2011) WVC (2000) Janzen et al. (2011) Yang (2011) Janzen et al. (2010) Zhang&Zhan (2009) KAIROS (2012) 2 P a g e

4 The Literature Role of Churches Review in Immigrant Settlement and Integration Akresh, I. (2011). Immigrants religious participation in the United States. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 34(4), p This academic article uses the New Immigrant Survey 2003 data to examine immigrants religious participation across the United States. This data examines religious participation quantitatively across origin groups. The findings show a positive association with time in the United States and religious involvement, indicating that religion continues to be an important factor to facilitate immigrants adjustment. -Migration is an event that typically disrupts religious participation. Connecting with a religious institution can soothe the trauma of migration and provide continuity to newcomers (p. 645, 647) -Religious institutions serve an important role in providing information about jobs, housing and survival to newcomers (p. 647) -Religious activity can function as either a bridge (connecting new arrivals to the wider community) or a buffer (limiting immigrants exposure primarily to co-ethnics and reducing their incentives to adapt). These functions are not necessarily mutually exclusive (p. 647) -Religion has a role in the maintenance of social capital in immigrants lives (p. 657) Allen, R. (2010). The bonding and bridging roles of religious institutions for refugees in a non-gateway context. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(6), This academic article focuses on Somali and Sudanese immigrants in Portland, Maine. The researchers conducted 42 semi-structured interviews and also utilized participant observation methods. Results indicated that Catholic refugees used their church for both bonding and bridging functions whereas Muslim refugees used their mosque for bonding. -The interaction between the specific context, socio-economic status, and religious affiliation determines the role of religious institutions in immigrants lives (p. 1064) -Historically religion has been believed to be one factor that impedes immigrant assimilation (p. 1049) -Overall, immigrants are shown to become more religious after immigrating to the USA (p. 1051) -Religious institutions can play a significant role in how refugees rebuild their social networks. Religious institutions are incubators of social capital as they help diversify and strengthen social networks (p. 1051, 1052) -RIs help immigrants transition from thinking as a national group to a hyphenated-american group (conceptual bridge) and also use their resources to connect immigrants to American culture and tradition (material bridge)(p. 1052) -RIs can use their resources to improve the socio-economic status of immigrants, address cultural gaps between parents and children, provide job training, and provide elderly support (p. 1059) Andrews, R. (2011). Rural communities, immigration, and social cohesion in rural areas: Evidence from England. Rural Sociology, 76(4), This academic article uses quantitative data from all rural areas in England collected by local governments in the General User Survey. The authors compare immigrant experiences between regions that are strong in mainline and/or Evangelical congregations and the self-reported cohesion of those areas. Findings suggest that the social integration of immigrants is more likely where Catholic and mainline Protestant communities are strong, but are unaffected by the strength of Evangelical communities. -In rural areas, civil society and in particular religious institutions bear great responsibility in addressing integration. The church of England has more human -The historic moral communities thesis suggests that religious institutions build social cohesion by fostering community integration and enhancing informal social control, but 3 P a g e

5 and material resources than most other recent scholars believe the effect is more non-state organizations, despite an overall nuanced (p. 536) decline. Religious institutions are the vital -The bridging (increase interconnectedness touchstone as they contribute to with the wider community) and bonding community vibrancy, although less so than (increase group insularity and social in the past (p. 536, 539) fragmentation) roles of the church has -Christian religious denominations vary significant implications for social cohesion in greatly in doctrine so there are divergent rural areas. Typically, adherence to mainline attitudes towards the community beyond Christianity produces a bridging function the congregation, specifically immigrants. whereas Evangelicalism produces a bonding In general, Evangelical churches tend to function (p. 535, 537) take less interest in non-member groups -Mainline churches have a formal (immigrants), but missionary zeal may organizational structure and typically promote mean that they reach out to them as social responsibility above duties of church potential converts, stressing the membership. Indeed, data from the USA has importance of a religious foundation for shown that mainline Christians are more likely social activism. The strength of to participate in social programs or public Evangelicals (illiberal) conviction make it service delivery than Evangelicals (p. 536, difficult to develop links with out-group 538, 540) members (p. 536, 538, 540) -Social capital is, social networks and the -Mainline churches are well placed to norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that assist with integration because immigrants arise from them. In areas of mainline are often already affiliated with these churches, immigrants found integration churches in their home country (p. 538) possible because of social support. These -Anglican and Roman Catholic churches areas may also be resilient to social problems had moderating effects on the negative because of the large stock of human and relationship between social cohesion and material resources for integration immigration, whereas Methodist and (p. 537, 541) Evangelicals had no effect (p. 552) -Mainline churches have the institutional strength to provide platforms for collective -Population movements of immigrants to engagement. They coordinate opportunities rural communities pose serious challenges between existing residents and newcomers, to the cohesiveness of these communities. evoke political responses to the needs of Religious institutions have had to adapt to immigrants, fund support services, and run changing political, economic, and social community awareness raising events and circumstances (p. 535, 539) workshops (p. 538) - Beyond problems associated with poverty, socioeconomic disadvantage, and social heterogeneity, the arrival of new immigrant groups within rural areas may disturb long held norms of social interaction within an areas as residents are confronted with newcomers who may look different and bring dissimilar social and cultural practices (p. 535) Appleby, J. (2011). The role of the Catholic church in immigrant integration. The Review of Faith and International Affairs, 9(1), This academic article defends the historic and current role of the US Catholic church in advocating for immigrants. Within the general public there is some criticism that the Catholic church has taken an interest in immigrants for self-serving purposes, but the author provides alternative explanations for Catholic churches long-term investment. -Immigrants learn to become American in -RIs can provide services such as English 4 P a g e

6 RIs as religion helps forge an American instruction, food provision, housing support, identity for immigrants who cling to their and cultural orientation. RIs can also provide a faith upon arrival (p. 67, 68) community meeting place to meet and share -The connection with churches allows for a experiences. RIs ease the way for newcomers slow merging with general citizenry as through the provision of services, education, immigrants integrate into American advocacy, and solidarity (p. 67, 68, 70) religious practices. In RIs, immigrants -RIs should influence public policy by national and ethnic origins are respected advocating for immigration reform (especially while at the same time an American for undocumented immigrants). Immigration identity is developed (p. 68) reform is the ultimate integration program (p. -RIs can contribute to integration by 68) softening public opinion and creating more -Most relationships between churches and welcoming communities. Faith government are de facto, but there is a need communities should promote the for a formal relationship between government perspective that immigrants are and RIs in order to fashion national policy (p. contributors to the country, not threats (p. 68) 69, 70) -The historic connection to immigrants comes from concerned Catholics who had themselves arrived as immigrants and knew firsthand the hardships of adjusting (p. 68) Beattie, L. (1998). The ethnic church and immigrant integration: Social services, cultural preservation, and the re-definition of cultural identity. M.A. Thesis. University of British Columbia: Canada. This Master s thesis provides a historical and contemporary perspective of a neighbourhood in Vancouver that was originally settled by German immigrants. In present day the majority of the original German immigrants have left the neighbourhood and new waves of immigrants have settled. The initial role and subsequent adaptation of the churches in the neighbourhood is outlined. -RIs provide stability in an unfamiliar country through the creation of a sense of community, a sense of place, and a sense of support as if the church is immigrants extended family (p. i) -Denominations have a big role in influencing and dictating the direction that the churches will take in cultural preservation (p. 131) -RIs function as critical access routes to the host society. They can also function as protective cultural communities (p. i) -RIs should be a central venue for social services. Formally they should provide language programs, participatory programs, settlement houses, library services, refugee assistance and sponsorship. Informally they should be a hub of relationship and a community centre. The formal roles should be secondary to spiritual and social roles (p. 87, 90, 92) - Moberg (1962) church as a social institution theory says that the church is a place of socialization, status provision, social fellowship, social solidarity, social stability, social control, welfare provision, and philanthropic provision (p. 81) -Min (1992) social roles of the ethnic church as: 1) a source of fellowship, comfort and a sense of belonging; 2) a social service provider; 3) an institution to maintain ethnic identity and subculture; 4) an institution to 5 P a g e

7 designate social status (p. 86) -The partnership between national organizations in conjunction with RIs was instrumental for integration of German ethnic immigrants. This partnership gained the trust of both Canadian authorities and the German- Canadian public (p. 17) Blatchford, A. (2013, August 20). Quebec ponders turban, kippa, hijab restrictions. Huffington Post. Retrieved from This newspaper article outlines the current issue of Quebec adopting the Charter of Quebec Values and some of the ramifications the bill will have on religious integration. The Charter of Quebec Values (originally the Charter of Secularism) will prohibit public employees to don Sikh, Jewish, or Muslim headwear or visible crucifixes. This will affect daycare, school, and hospital employees, although some organizations can apply for an exemption. This policy change is part of a secularism plan that is polled to be widely supported in the province of Quebec. The majority of the population in Quebec view headwear as a cultural threat, but it is important to note that only a miniscule sliver really care about this issue enough to cast their vote. Opponents of the charter say this policy change would result in systemic exclusion, and in the isolation of Quebec as a province. Borg, M. (2006). Engaging diversity s underbelly: A story from an immigrant parish community. American Journal of Community Psychology, 37(3/4), This academic article reflects on an intervention staged in New York, New York by the researchers and a Jesuit priest. Together they aimed to engage issues of unity and diversity among subgroups of a Chinese congregation. One important observation from the researchers was that their own biases about how healthy, functioning communities greatly influenced their perspectives and disallowed immigrants to represent themselves. -As immigrants begin to flourish, there is a process of psychological and physical separation from RIs and immigrant identity (p. 193) -Many RIs have economic relationships embedded within them, especially in immigrant RIs. As such, established immigrants will employ newer immigrants, which isn t conducive to a community rooted in equality and brings forward issues of power and authority (p. 193, 194) -As immigrants begin to flourish there is a process of psychological and physical separation from both the parish and immigrant identity (p. 193). -Within the church there were significant power dynamics between the subgroups of the church. More specifically there was an economic relationship where older, more established immigrants employed newer immigrants, and exploit them through the evasion of labour laws. As such, the two 6 P a g e

8 groups had difficulty relating to each other as equals (p. 193) -The divisions within the church made it difficult for the status quo to be challenged to promote discussion between the subgroups. The distance between subgroups was hypothesized to either be an emotion distance (to protect the established Chinese from re-experiencing/remembering the painful reality of immigration) or a cultural nuance (the reluctance of members to talk about personal issues with a non-relative) (p. 194) -Centralized approach to leadership, which created a sustained hierarchy where newcomers gave many hours to receive recognition from a strong leader and receive prestige among the community members (p. 196). -When the pastor had to step down, he had not considered how the lay parishioners could be empowered to take up substantive leadership roles. To survive the pastor stepping down, the parish would need to develop a lateral structure, a capacity for trust and collaboration outside of the traditional church hierarchy that he himself had sustained (p. 196) -Power dynamics of colonialization, where missionaries or Western outsiders tried to control the Asian communities that they serve were at play as all engagement was on the agenda of the helper or the pastor (p. 197) -The intervention/project itself assigned the author/pastor s vision of what constitutes healthy functioning disallowing immigrants to represent themselves (p. 197). Bramadat, P. (2005). Religion, social capital, and the day that changed the world. Journal of International Migration & Integration, 6(2), This article looks at Canadian and international events to attempt to determine the relationship between religion and social capital. The article discusses the negative aspects of bonding social capital and how that interacts with discrimination and racism. -Religion should be put back in public discourse because in leaving it out few people are able to understand religion "thickly". As well, religion is only dealt with episodically and in crises, which typically means it is dealt with poorly. The acceptance of religious pluralism allows a better use of the constructive and creative -Social capital is "the web of cooperative relationships between citizens that facilitates the resolution of collective action problems and those features of social structure, such as levels of interpersonal trust, norms of reciprocity, and mutual aid, that act as resources for such collective action" (203) -Putnam (1995, 2000) defines two types of 7 P a g e

9 social capital generated by certain forms of social capital: bonding (functions to actively religion (207, 214) look out for your interests) and bridging (functions to improve your latitude in life) (203) -Religious traditions have survived -Bonding social capital can emerge from a thousands of years, "to assume that these creative, positive interaction of people oriented traditions have nothing to contribute to toward the peaceful goals of their own religious contemporary public discussions about groups. It makes them feel at home and major social and even political problems ultimately makes them more confident about represents a denial of historically powerful engaging with members from the outside sources of wisdom, insight, and social world. A second form of bonding social capital capital". (209) can emerge from consumption with personal survival, often understood in apocalyptic terms. Members view themselves as a embattled minority that needs to continually be prepared for conflict, living in a dichotomized world (203, 204) Browne, R. (2014, January 24). Toronto Catholic group has shepherded thousands of refugees to a new life in Canada. National Post. Retrieved from: This newspaper article features the Toronto Catholic Archdiocese Office for Refugees and outlines their ministry of refugee sponsorship. Overall it paints this ministry in a positive light, but does raise concern that some refugees are not accepted because of their Muslim background. In Toronto there is a network of 160 Catholic parishes that have a program that emphasizes the integration of refugees (specifically through employment). The Toronto Catholic Archdiocese Office for Refugees has sponsored more than 2000 refugees to Canada, sponsoring around 250 in This program has a staff member hand-select refugees that are, most likely to adapt to life in Canada, favouring those who are not pushy or vocal. Some parishes display a strong preference for Christian refugees, but this is not the case for all parishes as many refugees are accepted regardless of religious affiliation. Cadge, W. (2006). Religious service attendance among immigrants: Evidence from the New Immigrant Survey Pilot. American Behavioral Scientist, 49(11), This academic article uses data from the pilot of the New Immigrant Survey to outline religious service attendance of immigrants. There is some evidence that immigrants who are less integrated into the broader society attend more church, but other demographic and environmental factors are also explored. -Immigrants show a desire for religious and spiritual support, which they find in RIs. Ethnic RIs provide an opportunity for immigrants to spend time with their ethnic -RIs provide housing, food, and other necessities for (illegal) immigrants. RIs provide English language classes, classes to facilitate the naturalization process, informal 8 P a g e

10 and language groups (p. 1575) job networks, and housing supports (p. 1575) -The findings show that less integrated -RIs can be either a bridge (that facilitate immigrants and women are more likely to immigrant assimilation and mobility) or a attend RIs more frequently (p. 1576, 1581) buffer (that slow the process of assimilation) (p. 1576) Cadge, W., Levitt., P., Jaworsky, B., Clevenger, C. (2013). Religious dimensions of contexts of reception: Comparing two New England cities. International Migration, 51(3), p This academic article examines how municipal, civic, and religious organizations shape the context of reception for immigrants in Portland, Maine and Danbury, Connecticut. For these non-traditional contexts of immigrant migration, collaboration is commonplace, although in Portland religious status is viewed as a barrier to collaboration. -RIs that are founded and attended by ethnics help create strong ethnic communities and ease isolation. In places where immigrants have not historically migrated, welcoming immigrants is challenging without established groups of co-ethnics to assist (p. 86, 87) - Mosques, synagogues, temples what they have done for people is something no agency can do a sense of community, safety, and self-sufficiency (p. 91) - National and regional attitudes towards religion, and its role in the public sphere, strongly shape if and how religion influences immigrant incorporation (p. 86) -Religious beliefs are central to working with immigrants, but there is a wide range of responses. Some RIs choose to house undocumented immigrants whereas others stay away. Some RIs use explicit religious talk whereas others move between religious and secular expectations (p. 87) -Immigrants find strength in religious beliefs to battle life s difficulties, develop strong identities, and positive mental health (p. 85, 91) -RIs in the USA have stepped in when the government has been uninvolved (p. 89) -Immigrants seek out RIs because they often come from countries that don t have a strongly developed social service system and the church is where they are used to getting services (p. 91) -An immigrant s religious background influences the types of services one has access to (p. 85) -RIs help to bridge immigrants to general society by fostering political and civic coalitions and facilitate job training and opportunities (p. 87) -Collaboration between RIs and organizations vary between contexts, but most acknowledge the important aspect of religion. Collaboration among organizations is the norm in small cities in order to get things done. Organizations will trade clients in order to prevent overlap services are not isolated from one another. RIs have a unique role and as such, some organizations are hesitant to work with RIs, especially those RIs that do not act or look like a secular charity. RIs view themselves as capable to provide services more quickly and flexibly and being aware of this strength, they tried to use it to encourage collaboration with municipal services (p. 86, 87, 89) - Collaborating with these more explicitly religious groups felt too much like crossing the invisible line between church and state (p. 90) Chavez, G. (2002). Guide for religious professionals addressing immigrant culture conflict adjustment situations. Journal of Religious and Theological Information, 5(2), This article looks at the theories of cultural relativism and cultural universalism in an attempt to determine which is the best approach for churches in the United States when interacting with immigrants with diverse cultural values. 9 P a g e

11 -Some Christians might work within the theory of cultural relativism where all cultural practices are viewed as equal and therefore should be equally tolerated. Alternatively Christians could use antirelativistic or cultural universalism paradigm which argues that universal human standards and criteria should be used to evaluate cultural practices. This article argues that for Christians the universalism paradigm should be taken because the well-being of humans should take precedence over certain cultural practices (p. 15, 29) -Self-determination, tolerance for diversity, cultural absolutism, moral or ethical relativism, and anti-ethnocentrism are arguments typically given for adopting cultural relativism (p. 24). -The diversity of new immigrants is challenging the religious clergy to provide services on top of the religious services that they typically provide in order to allow immigrants to move into and participate in mainstream US society (p. 14) -RIs are experiencing a "special type of metamorphosis" as they become more ethnically and racially diverse, which includes changes in language and customs (p. 17) Citizens for Public Justice. (n.d.). Faith groups urge head tax to be dropped. Citizens for Public Justice. Retrieved from: This blog post outlines the media release from faith groups to encourage the Canadian government to drop the head tax that was a substantial financial burden for new immigrants. Canadian faith leaders joined to call for the elimination of the $975 per person tax, which is officially known as the Right of Landing fee. The tax affects those who are most vulnerable mostly women and children, which proponents of its abolition state are contrary to the best traditions of Canada. The government is aware of the concerns, but have no plans to eliminate the tax. Citizens for Public Justice. (n.d.). The story of the Getting Landed Project. Citizens for Public Justice. Retrieved from: This blog post tells the beginnings of the Getting Landed Project, which has been instrumental in advocating for change to the Canadian immigration landscape since The Getting Landed Project was launched in 1999 in response to undue delays 10 P a g e

12 refugees were facing in obtaining landed immigrant status. A partnership between the Southern Ontario Sanctuary Coalition, the Coalition Against the Head Tax, and the Coalition for a Just Immigration and Refugee Policy address the most pertinent barriers for refugees. Advocacy campaigns include: 1) in 2000 the Canadian government lifted the Right of Landing fee ($975) for refugees; 2) in 2002 statutory declarations were created as a means of establishing identity for refugees when proper identification documents weren t available; 3) in 2003 the government deemed refugees eligible for student loans. Although these are small victories, the partnership continues to advocate as in recent policy changes, Canada has chosen to take the route of fear in closing its boarder to refugees who enter through other seemingly safe countries, such as the United States. A proposed solution to refugee hold-ups would be to enact automatic landing after an initial rigorous examination to promote integration, employment, and education. Citizens for Public Justice. (2007, May 28). Singh to Suresh: Non-citizens, the Canadian courts, and human rights obligations. Retrieved from: This blog post reviews the book Singh to Suresh, which is a systematic look at case law as it applies to non-citizens living in Canada. The reviews indicates that the book s author Tom Clark has one basic question, Do Canada s courts, in applying our Charter of Rights and Freedoms, dispense justice to non-citizens living in this country according to commitments we made in signing key UN Covenants and the Inter- American Declaration of the Rights of Man? The book shows, In the late 80s we did that rather well. Through the 90s, less so. In the early 2000s, distinctly less so. Overall this book finds a gap between the position of the Canadian court and international human rights case law positions and that, this gap reflects an inadequacy, both in substance and in procedure, in recent Supreme Court decisions on human rights. This book review reveals that over time the Canadian court has begun to avoid the language of rights, instead using terms like values 11 P a g e

13 or factors. The reviewer was concerned that the court is using what shocks the conscience of Canadians (a fickle and self-reversing category ) as a criterion in shaping legal decisions. Committee to Study the Migration of Workers. (2010). Synodical Migration Report. Christian Reformed Church. This synodical report is the work of the Committee to Study the Migration of Workers whose term was from The committee utilized interviews, focus groups, and community consultations to study how the migration of workers was related to ministries of the Christian Reformed Church and ways to advocate for those workers. -RIs should see people on the margins of society and then enfold them and give them the opportunity to flourish (p. 6) -RIs should recognize that there is no significant difference between God s wishes for Israel and for the aliens that lived among the Israelites. God told the Israelites that they needed to make special provisions for aliens (p. 15) -Immigrants in Canada on the Temporary Foreign Worker Program fear someone else taking their job when they leave so will stay in the country without documents, leaving them vulnerable to exploitation from employers (p. 6) -Permanent Resident is an immigrant through the economic, family, or refugee class (p. 7) -Refugee decisions are made by one person and there is no opportunity to appeal (p. 7) -Statistics Canada indicates that 20% of the Canadian population is a racial minority and 25% are foreign born (p. 10) -Undocumented immigrants live in extreme poverty and economic hardship (p. 11) -The immigration system does not recognize human value, but only contribution to the Canadian GDP (p. 11) -RIs provide English language classes, Bible studies, practical help, and legal assistance for immigration and work status (p. 2) -RIs should advocate for injustices to be righted (p. 6) Connor, P. (2009). Immigrant religiosity in Canada: Multiple trajectories. International Migration & Integration, 10, This academic article uses the 4-year Longitudinal survey of immigrants to evaluate the religious adaptation of immigrants in Canada. The findings show that over time immigrants decline in their religious participation, but those that remain involved in religious activities are much more likely to be actively involved in their congregation. - Stats Canada says, "immigrants remain faithful to their religion, and even increase their devotion, because it eases their transition to Canada, offers them comfort and provides a support group", but the data indicates that religious participation -For those that affirm their involvement with a RI, there is rise in religious volunteerism over time (2.5x more likely after 2 years and more than 4x after 4 years) (p. 165) -There was a rise in religious salience as evidenced by the increase in volunteerism, but 12 P a g e

14 on the aggregate declines for religious a decrease in habitual religious activity (p. 171) groups after migration. In Quebec there is -The study indicates that less than 5% of a continuous decline in religious respondents claim to have received help or participation for 3 years after settlement (p. information regarding housing, health care, 160, 162) employment, or educational opportunities from -In Canada, religion does not necessarily a RI. The study concluded then, "Therefore operate as the same vehicle of immigrant within Canada, government assistance to incorporation as in the US (p. 162) immigrants through religious organizations may not be the most viable route of delivery, -Canada's confederacy began with the bireligious identity of British Protestantism LSIC sample claims membership in a religious especially given that approximately 15% of the and French Catholicism, eventually group". (p. 172) leading to a more pluralized version of accepted mainstream, mostly Christian religious groups by the 1900s (p. 161) -Recently Canada has experienced a decline in religious activity at the individual level with greater proportion of the population claiming no religious affiliation as well as a decline in religious participation among those who do claim an affiliation (p. 161) -Canada is an example of an industrialized country that has undergone substantial religious change via immigration as representation of the world's religions - Muslims, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jews, Hindus, and also those affiliated with no religion - increases. (p. 161, 162) Connor, P. (2010). A theory of immigrant religious adaptation: Disruption, assimilation, and facilitation. A Ph.D. Dissertation. Princeton University, United States of America. This dissertation uses multiple data sources from Canada, United States, Australia, and Western Europe to look at assimilation and facilitation within a variety of receiving societies. Overall, the article finds that similar disruptions and assimilations are found across contexts, regardless of religious affiliation or national context. Immigrants do not typically assimilate to their new context s religion, but do assimilate in terms of participation frequency. Religious participation is found to assist in the incorporation process and improve immigrants mental health. Connor, P. (2011). Religion as resource: Religion and immigrant economic incorporation. Social Science Research, 40, This article examines the common theory that religion is a resource by specifically looking at its relationship with economic prosperity. This article uses data from the New Immigrant Survey in the United States in Most findings suggest that there is a null relationship between religion and economic prosperity. The article suggests that the economic benefit is greatest for those immigrants who are non- Protestant and who participate in religious services regularly. -Previous studies have found that foreignborn non-christians suffer an employment penalty when compared with native-born Canadians (p. 1352) -A sizeable portion of the religious affiliation and religious participation effects were not significant. That being said, nonparticipating immigrants representing minority religious groups (including Catholics) are at an employment 13 P a g e

15 disadvantage (p. 1358) -Previous findings of religion as a resource could be systematically emphasizing the independent variable, as the vast majority of studies focus on immigrant congregations (p. 1359) Connor, P. & Koenig, M. (2013). Bridges and barriers: Religion and immigrant occupational attainment across integration contexts. International Migration Review, 47(1), This article uses data from the US General Social Survey, the Canadian Ethnic Diversity Survey, and the European Social Survey to analyze indirect and direct effects of religious affiliation and participation on occupational attainment among first and second generation immigrants. The article attempts to answer the questions, What precisely are the effects of religious affiliation and attendance, respectively on immigrant integration outcomes, net of other relevant factors? and How do these effects differ across contexts? Integration is defined as an open-ended process comprising cognitive, structural, social, and identificational dimensions (p. 7) -In the 1970s Canada adopted its multiculturalism policy, which supports immigrants in their cultural identities; this policy is also supported by Quebec, although more hesitantly (p. 14) -Religious participation is higher for 1 st generation immigrants, whereas in the 2 nd generation it approaches or meets natives (p. 22) -Most previous article have either emphasized the resources available through participating in religious organizations (bridge) or the boundaries constituted by differences in religious belonging (barrier) and typically religion has been seen as a bridge in the United States and a barrier in Europe, but the authors argue the reality is much more nuanced (p. 4, 5) -In redefining the common barrier metaphor, the authors view it as a mechanism of social closure in which religion forms part of salient boundary configurations, as the authors believe that it is only immigrants belonging to specific minority religions that are subject to ethnoreligious exclusion (p. 8, 9) -2 nd generation immigrants perform at the same level, or even better, than their native counterparts in occupational attainment, but when religious variables are added it persists at nearly the same level as in 1 st generation (p. 22, 23) -Canada contains both bridges and barriers simultaneously similar to Europe there is negative relationship between religious attendance and occupational attainment for the 1 st generation immigrants, but also similar to the USA for 2 nd generation Protestant and Catholic immigrants religious attendance is positively associated with occupational attainment (p. 30) Diehl, C. & Koenig, M. (2013). God can wait New migrants in Germany between early adaptation and religious reorganization. International Migration, 51(3), This academic article uses data from the Socio-Cultural Integration Process of New Immigrants in Europe to analyze the experiences of Catholic Poles and Muslim Turks in their immigration to Germany. Both groups show a decrease in religious participation immediately after immigration, but the decline is more pronounced and long-term for Turks. 14 P a g e

16 -Historically it was believed that immigrant religiosity increases after immigration and there are 2 theories: 1) migration is a traumatic event that is conducive to increased religiosity; 2) migration is a theologizing event in which the geographical uprooting is interpreted in religious vocabularies. Neither theory has support in the empirical research almost all research has found that religiosity decreases after immigration (p. 10) -The decrease is hypothesized to be because of decreased opportunities for religious participation. The disruption of religiosity is described as the first episode in acculturation (p. 10) -Behaviour after immigration is described as an investment in either ethnic or the receiving country s options. Oftentimes involvement with RI is viewed as an investment in ethnic options as they maintain ethnic networks and buffer against discrimination (p. 10, 11) Ebaugh, H.R & Chafetz, J.S. (1999). Agents for cultural reproduction and structural change: The ironic role of women in immigrant religious institutions. Social Forces, 78(2); The article uses comparative ethnographic studies of 13 immigrant RIs in Houston, Texas to discuss the changes in the roles of women in RIs. s Process Women reproduce the traditional culture of immigrants in three distinctive ways: They prepare and serve native foods at religious places and at their homes. Food is an important role in reproducing religious identity and community (p. 78). Women also are take leading roles in organizing domestic religious practices and they play the role of teachers for children in congregation-based ethno- religious classes, and leaders in youth groups. Women s place in immigrant congregations has evolved over time. They now positions of leadership and influence churches, which can be attributed to the considerable increase such positions and improved resources on the part of women due to employment and education. These empower them to seek changes in their status and roles within their congregations. However, the changes may also reflects men s lack of interest in such positions could turn reflect the erosion of men s social status as a result of the migration process. Ebaugh, H. & Chafetz, J. (2000a). Dilemmas of language in immigrant congregations: The tie that binds or the tower of Babel? Review of Religious Research, 41(4), This academic article uses focus group and case study data from the Religion, Ethnicity, New Immigrants Research based in Houston to outline the dilemma of utilizing native language in religious services. The authors also outline several models of immigrant congregations. -Immigrants are willing to give up language, nationality, and ways of life to assimilate into society, but often hold onto - RIs physical structures provide social capital by providing space to build social networks, learn civic skills, and enjoy company 15 P a g e

17 their old religion using it as an identity of people like themselves (p. 432) marker for them and their children. -Reasons for native language use include: 1) Religion is an immigrant s comfort zone to ensure the laity understand religious (p. 432, 447) spirituals and doctrine; 2) to make the laity -Construction of RIs is one of the first comfortable and therefore more committed. endeavours of immigrants in the USA, Adopting English in an ethnic congregation is a found both in the earlier and later streams strategic choice to maintain the second of immigration. The motivation to found generation and attract newcomers. English RIs is to practice faith within a group of also promotes unity as it focuses the attention members who share customs, can on the common religion (p. 437, 438, 442) communicate with ease, and feel -Religion provides cultural capital for comfortable (p. 432, 437) reproduction of an ethnic identity though the -Some non-immigrant RIs find that when use of symbols, stories, traditional music, immigrants join, Anglo members feel cultural rituals, and often native language (p. displaced from their church and express 432) their impatience for immigrants to -3 stage model for ethnic RIs: 1) strong assimilate and end non-english services leadership from 1 st generation with cultural and (p. 446) linguistic distinctiveness providing immigrants with motivation to start RI; 2) bilingual religious leaders conduct service in English and native language to provide a bridge between the first and second generations; 3) ethnic RIs morph into multi-ethnic RIs as structural assimilation occurs and services are in English only (p. 433) -6 stage model for ethnic RIs: 1) parents and children speak the native tongue; 2/3) children demand Sunday School and services in English; 4) 2 nd generation young adults (English speaking) develop leadership skills; 5) 2 parallel congregations with equal power and influence are developed; 6) 1 st generation withdraws and the RI becomes a primarily English speaking entity with a foreign language department (p. 434) Ebaugh, H. & Chafetz, J. (2000b). Structural adaptations in immigrant congregations. Sociology of Religion, 61(2), This academic article uses data from the Religion, Ethnicity, New Immigrants Research based in Houston to outline two dimensions of a congregation: structural characteristics and the development of community centres. The authors find that often immigrant congregations takes on functions similar to a community centre, looking to be a place that can meet immigrants religious and social needs. -Some RIs believe providing secular services detract from the central spiritual mission of the church. Responses vary substantially, but most ethnic RIs adopt some elements of a community centre because most immigrants have common needs that can be readily met in RIs (p. 146, 149) -Unlike RIs in immigrants home countries, in the USA RIs became community centres where immigrants can socialize, reproduce values, customs, learn civic skills, and find assistance with material needs. Immigrants are attracted to ethnic RIs because they seek to develop social networks with others who share language, customs, experiences, and problems (p. 135, 149) -RIs recognize the importance of and provide support for socializing among members, 16 P a g e

18 thereby bonding them more closely to one another and to the congregation (p. 149) -In offering services, RIs become more attractive to members and non-members, which fosters commitment and attracts new members. RIs facilitate communal celebration of secular holidays, secular classes (ie: GED, ESL, citizenship), mundane services (financial planning, job listings, health services, emergency financial, food, housing aid, addiction counselling, self-help groups, immigrant status help and information, recreational facilitation, and a space for social activities (p. 145, 150) -Services are primarily or exclusively for members of the church (p. 150) -Type of services is determined by the socioeconomic status (SES) of members (ie: low SES more emergency services; high SES more emphasis on financial planning, insurance, acquiring ethnic foods) (p. 150) Eby, J., Iverson, E., Smyers, J., & Kekic, E. (2011). The faith community s role in refugee resettlement in the United States. Journal of Refugee Studies, 24(3), This academic article uses the case of Church World Service to highlight the historic significance of the church in refugee resettlement in the USA. The article outlines the uniqueness of the churches contributions and ways in which the church has adapted to the changing climate of refugee resettlement. - The main benefit and contribution in refugee resettlement is that [the church is] able to provide community to those who left community behind. (p. 586) -Individuals are motivated by a strong moral imperative to fulfill the mandate for service found in religious traditions, being called to help those less fortunate, who are in trouble, who needs assistance. One individual indicated, you can t be honest to the Scriptures and sit and ignore suffering in the world (p. 594) -A desire to serve immigrants that stems from one s faith can be better understood cross-culturally because it is present across all main religious traditions. Secular motivations may be perceived as financial or an extension of a given foreign governments foreign policy (p. 595) -A shared commitment to faith, even a different faith, can become ground for shared understanding. This can build basic human relationships across cultures, languages, and faiths to overcome the concept of the other (p. 595) -The value added role that RIs bring to refugee resettlement is a long-term community presence, established local networks, capacity for advocacy, strong motivation for service based on core religious beliefs and values. As well, individuals from RIs are a friend and guide more than a caseworker could be, giving the refugee a sense of security and thus assisting in the integration process (p. 587, 593) -RIs support enhances social connections that positively impacts other aspects of integration, like employment (p. 587) -RIs help with finances, kids homework, community outings, acquainting with the community, and job leads material and intangible resources (p. 593) -RIs have an advantage because they can be flexible, responsive, and creatively resourceful whereas federally funded programs have mandated requirements, eligibility, and benefits (p. 602) -The public-private partnerships on the scale they are today in the USA without RIs (p. 587) -Working with RIs at the local level is a 17 P a g e