C L I P. Ethnic entrepreneurship. Case study: Dublin, Ireland. Network. Cities for Local Integration Policy. Click for contents

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1 Ethic etrepreeurship Case study: Dubli, Irelad Click for cotets Network C L I P Cities for Local Itegratio Policy Wyattville Road, Loughlistow, Dubli 18, Irelad. - Tel: (+353 1) Fax: / postmaster@eurofoud.europa.eu - website:

2 Cotets About CLIP 1. Itroductio 2. Profile of Dubli 3. The urba ecoomy i geeral 4. Profiles of ethic etrepreeurship 5. Policies, rules ad regulatios 6. Key challeges ad lessos for CLIP Refereces Iterview parters

3 About CLIP I 2006, the Cogress of Local ad Regioal Authorities of the Coucil of Europe, the city of Stuttgart ad the Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios (Eurofoud) formed the Europea etwork of cities for local itegratio policies, heceforth kow as CLIP. 1 This etwork comprises a steerig committee, a group of expert Europea research cetres ad a umber of Europea cities. I the followig two years, the cities of Viea ad Amsterdam joied the CLIP Steerig Committee. The etwork is also supported by the Committee of the Regios (CoR) ad the Coucil of Europea Muicipalities ad Regios (CEMR) ad has formed a partership with the Europea Network Agaist Racism (ENAR). Through the medium of separate city reports (case studies) ad workshops, the etwork eables local authorities to lear from each other ad to deliver a more effective itegratio policy. The uique character of the CLIP etwork is that it orgaises a shared learig process betwee the participatig cities ad betwee the cities ad a group of expert Europea research cetres as well as betwee policymakers at local ad Europea level. The CLIP etwork curretly brigs together more tha 30 large ad medium-sized cities from all regios of Europe: Amsterdam (NL), Atwerp (BE), Arsberg (DE), Athes (EL), Barceloa (ES), Bologa (IT), Breda (NL), Budapest (HU), Copehage (DK), Dubli (IE), Frakfurt (DE), Helsiki (FI), Istabul (TR), İzmir (TR), Kirklees (UK), Liège (BE), Lisbo (PT), Luxembourg (LU), L Hospitalet (ES), Malmö (SE), Mataró (ES), Newport (UK), Prague (CZ), Strasbourg (FR), Stuttgart (DE), Sudsvall (SE), Talli (EE), Terrassa (ES), Turi (IT), Turku (FI), Valecia (ES), Viea (AT), Wolverhampto (UK), Wrocław (PL), Zagreb (HR), Zeytiburu (TR) ad Zürich (CH). The cities i the etwork are supported i their shared learig by a group of expert Europea research cetres i: Bamberg, Germay (Europea Forum for Migratio Studies, EFMS); Viea (Istitute for Urba ad Regioal Research, ISR); Amsterdam (Istitute for Migratio ad Ethic Studies, IMES); Turi (Iteratioal ad Europea Forum o Migratio Research, FIERI); Wrocław (Istitute of Iteratioal Studies); Swasea, Wales (Cetre for Migratio Policy Research, CMPR). There are four research modules i total. The first module was o housig segregatio, access to, quality ad affordability for migrats which has bee idetified as a major issue impactig o migrats itegratio ito their host society. The secod module examied equality ad diversity policies i relatio to employmet withi city admiistratios ad i the provisio of services. The focus of the third module was itercultural policies ad itergroup relatios. This fial module looks at ethic etrepreeurship. 1 See also Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios,

4 Ethic etrepreeurship Ackowledgemets Researchers from the Forum for Iteratioal ad Europea Studies o Immigratio (FIERI) of Turi are resposible for this report o Dubli. Together with the cotact perso from the Muicipality of Dubli, Gerry Fola (Office for Itegratio, Commuity ad Eterprise Dubli City Coucil), a eormous effort has bee udertake to fid all the ecessary data o ethic etrepreeurship i this city. May officials ad other parties ivolved with immigrat etrepreeurs have bee iterviewed, as the list at the ed of the report shows. 2 They have provided the author with reports, statistics ad commets o the cocept versio of this report. The author is particularly grateful to all those who have cooperated i givig iformatio, ad i particular to Gerry Fola for coordiatig the field visit ad for carefully fillig out the Commo Reportig Scheme, which is the mai documet that is the basis of this report. The author is completely resposible for the cotet of this report ad for ay mistakes it may cotai. 2 Iterviews were carried out durig a four-day field visit by the author. 2 Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios, 2012

5 Itroductio 1 This module of CLIP deals with ethic etrepreeurship. It explores the developmet of ethic etrepreeurship ad reviews the role of policy itervetios i that process. It is motivated by the desire of muicipal, atioal ad Europea govermets ad third sector istitutios to create a eviromet coducive to settig up ad developig small ad medium-sized eterprises i geeral ad ethic busiesses i particular. Various compoets of the urba ecoomy iteract to produce a complex but also dyamic ecological system, dramatically affectig the political ecoomy of cities ad, i so doig, etrepreeurial opportuities. Followig the ethic etrepreeurship cocept paper lyig behid this fourth module (Rath, 2009), this report focuses o the emergece of ethic etrepreeurs i the city of Dubli ad the role of govermetal ad o-govermetal regulatio i it. The basic research questios are: A. What are the characteristics of the urba ecoomy ad which opeigs have emerged i the city sice 1980? How has the political ecoomy of Dubli evolved? More specifically, what has bee the developmet of the SME sector i geeral i terms of umbers of busiesses, volume of workforce, value of sales, variety of products ad market segmetatio, ad what has bee a) the spatial distributio, b) the distributio over the various sectors of the urba ecoomy ad c) the ethic, geder ad age compositio? B. What kid of profiles of ethic etrepreeurship ca be idetified? How does the emergece of ethic etrepreeurship fit ito the specific dyamics of the wider urba ecoomy? Which geeral ad specific barriers do ethic etrepreeurs ecouter ad what are their competitive advatages? What are the structural determiats of the observed treds? What are the employmet effects of ethic busiess? How may ad what quality of job have bee geerated o the local labour market? C. What state ad o-state rules ad regulatios gover the SME sector i geeral ad the ethic SME sector i particular at the atioal ad local level ad how have they shaped ethic miorities self-employmet trajectories? How have policy debates ad itervetios o (ethic) etrepreeurship iflueced the emergece of etrepreeurial opportuities real or discursive ad further developmet of ethic busiesses? What policies ca be foud supportig the access to employmet for migrats i ethic busiesses? This report provides a accout of the state of affairs of the pheomeo of ethic etrepreeurship i the city of Dubli. The followig sectio provides a brief overview of characteristics of the immigrat populatio i this city of recet immigratio. The third sectio deals with Dubli s urba ecoomy i geeral, givig details o its historical developmet, mai idustries ad services, size ad characteristics of the workforce ad processes of developmet of small ad medium-sized busiess, their spatial locatio ad distributio. Sectio 4 focuses more o the profiles of ethic etrepreeurship i Dubli ad describes the developmet, i quatitative terms, of ethic etrepreeurs as well as presetig some statistics about busiess closures ad so o. We will discuss problems ad barriers that ethic etrepreeurs ecouter i Dubli with regard to fiacial situatio, geeral maagemet, marketig, rules ad regulatios ad bureaucracy. Sectio 5, which costitutes the bulk of the study, cocers the muicipality s approach ad policies towards ethic etrepreeurship. O the basis of the commo reportig scheme ad of the data collected durig the field visit, we will provide iformatio o the istitutioal framework of SME policies i geeral ad for ethic etrepreeurship i particular as well as o the mai actors ivolved i this policy field at a atioal ad local level. Some relevat policies ad best practice examples will be also reported. Fially, Sectio 6 provides some cocludig remarks for this case study. Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios,

6 Profile of Dubli 2 Immigratio is a relatively recet ecoomic ad social pheomeo for Irelad, which ow plays host to migrats from across the world. This role reversal from a coutry syoymous with emigratio to a maget for ecoomic migrats has opeed up a wide-ragig debate o the ecoomic ad social implicatios of Irelad s migratio-iduced demographic trasformatio. I this sectio we will provide backgroud iformatio to the city but also to the coutry, as a lot of the iformatio relates to the atioal level. I fact, most data sources i Dubli city are related to the atioal level. Because of the small size of the Irish atio ad the cocetratio of immigrats i the Dubli city area, the data provided at the atioal level are also useful for the local level. Data available from the Cetral Statistics Office of Irelad (CSO, December 2007) charts the reversal i migratio flows experieced by Irelad over the last 10 to 15 years. I 1996 a modest et populatio gai from migratio iflows of 8,000 persos was recorded. This tred of positive et migratio gathered mometum throughout the later half of the 1990s, with the year 2000 experiecig a et migratio iflow of 26,000 persos. Cotiuig o from this, the four-year period from 2000 to 2004 witessed a steady rise i et migratio iflow, reachig over 32,000 i Icluded amog the growig umber of immigrats were returig members of the Irish diaspora who, havig previously left Irelad due to lack of employmet opportuities, started to retur to take advatage of the more propitious ecoomic circumstaces. I 2002, returig members of the Irish diaspora costituted approximately 40% of the total umber of immigrats received by Irelad. The year 2004 represets a watershed i Irelad s experiece of immigratio. Together with Swede ad the UK, Irelad allowed urestricted access to its labour market to persos from the 10 ewly acceded EU states, which attracted i particular a cosiderable umber of Polish, Lithuaia ad Latvia citizes. By 2005, the total migrat iflow to Irelad stood at almost 85,000. This rose to over 107,000 i 2006 ad 109,000 i It is estimated that half of all migrats to Irelad i 2006 ad 2007 origiated i the ewly acceded EU states. Moreover, persos from these same states accouted for approximately 50% of labour force growth i Irelad as of 2008 (QNHS, Jue 2008). I additio to the migratio of labour from cetral ad easter Europe to Irelad, there is a discerible rise i migrats eterig Irelad from coutries outside the EU. A doublig i the umber of both persos from the Asia cotiet ad persos from the Africa cotiet is observable over the itercesal period 2001 to This ecompasses persos eterig the Irish state o work visas ad studet visas as well as those who were grated leave to remai i the state for humaitaria ad political asylum reasos. I the most recet cesus figures available, collected i 2006, 11% of the populatio of Irelad are categorised as o-irish atioals (see Table 1). This traslates ito 419,733 of the total populatio of Irelad of 4,172,013. However, 26.8% of the total are UK atioals, followed by aother 10.2% who are EU15 atioals. 3 Table 1 shows the top 10 foreig citize atioalities ad the mai immigratio coutries to Irelad i UK atioals are ot icluded i 10.2% of EU15 atioals. Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios,

7 Ethic etrepreeurship Table 1: Top 10 atioalities ad the mai immigratio coutries of foreig citizes i Irelad, 2006 Natioalities Number % of total foreig populatio Polad 63, Lithuaia 24, Nigeria 16, Latvia 13, Chia 11, Philippies 9, Idia 8, Slovakia 8, Romaia 7, Pakista 4, Total foreig populatio 419, Source: Cetral Statistics Office (2007a) Usurprisigly, as Irelad s capital city, Dubli acted as a maget for EU ad o-eu immigrats. Some immigrat groups, particularly from the cetral ad easter Europea states dispersed throughout Irelad, eded up i the most ulikely ad rural of Irish places. For Africas ad Asias there is a strog tedecy to cluster i Dubli ad i some major urba cetres outside Dubli. For example, approximately 60% of all Asias i Irelad are residet i Dubli city ad couty, as recorded i Cesus Irelad, 2006 (Cetral Statistics Office, 2006). Hece, i both breadth ad depth, Dubli is the epicetre of multiracial Irelad. From a admiistrative poit of view, Dubli City Coucil (DCC) is oe of four Dubli local authority areas of the Greater Dubli Area (GDA), which also icludes the mid-east authorities of Wicklow, Meath ad Kildare. The Greater Dubli Area is the uit that defies the city regio. The admiistrative area of DCC has a populatio of 506,211 residets. Table 2 provides a breakdow of the city s ad regio s ethic make-up as recorded i the 2006 cesus. Table 2: Ethicity i Irelad ad i Dubli, 2006 Source: Cetral Statistics Office (2007a) White Ay other white backgroud Other icludig mixed backgroud Irish Black or Asia or Irish traveller black Irish Asia Irish Not stated Irelad (%) Dubli city (%) GDA (%) Prior to the 2006 cesus, limited statistical iformatio was available to aalyse migrat populatios i Dubli. The 2006 cesus was the first to ask detailed questios o atioality ad ethicity. 4 Table 2 poits out the proportio of the mai 4 This was also the mai data source for the Dubli report of the third module of the CLIP project (see Crawly ad Crimes, 2009). The ext cesus was carried out i Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios, 2012

8 Case study: Dubli, Irelad foreig atioalities residet i Dubli city ad i the GDA at the time of the cesus. There were almost 74,000 o- Irish atioals livig i the Dubli city admiistrative area i This represets about 15% of the total populatio of the city (Cetral Statistics Office, 2007). Table 3: Foreig residets by atioality, 2006 Rest of Total o-irish Area UK Polish Lithuaia Other EU25 world Not stated populatio GDA (%) Dubli city (%) Irelad (%) Source: Cetral Statistics Office 2006 cesus The Dubli city area is divided ito five admiistrative areas: Dubli Cetral, Dubli South East, Dubli South Cetral, Dubli North Cetral ad Dubli North West. The cesus returs from 2006 demostrate a wide variatio i the populatio of o-irish atioals livig i differet areas of the city (see also Crawly ad Crimes, 2009). Withi the areas of Dubli Cetral ad Dubli South East, the proportio of o-irish atioals is over 20% of the total populatio (Table 4). Table 4: No-Irish residets i the DCC area, 2006 DCC admiistrative areas Total o-irish % of total area populatio Dubli Cetral 24, Dubli South East 20, Dubli South Cetral 14, Dubli North Cetral 10, Dubli North West 3, Total DCC 73, Source: Cetral Statistics Office (2007a) Some iterestig differeces are immediately observable i the age profile of Irish atioals compared to o-irish atioals. I all, o-irish atioals are youger tha their idigeous couterparts. The extet of this age differetial varies across the o-irish atioal groups. I the case of UK atioals there is little observable differece from Irish atioals. However, a youg age profile is particularly proouced i the case of EU10 atioals. Regardig geder, we ca state that the geder split amog o-irish atioals residet i the state i 2006 is slightly skewed towards males. I 2006 there were 223,717 o-irish atioal males preset i the state, compared to the slightly lower figure of 196,016 females. Therefore, there are approximately 27,000 more o-irish atioal males i Irelad tha o-irish atioal females. This geder gap amog o-irish atioals ca be cotrasted with 2002 cesus records which show that the ratio of o-irish atioal males to o-irish females was almost idetical, at 112,593 males ad 111,668 females. The educatioal levels of immigrats acts as a gauge of the potetial roles that immigrats ca perform i host ecoomies ad, as such, their likely cotributio to atioal ecoomic developmet. The educatioal profile of o-irish atioals ordiarily residet i Irelad i 2006 reveals a cohort of the populatio that has, o average, progressed to higher levels of educatio tha the Irish populatio as a whole. I iterpretig this result it is importat to remember that the youg age profile of immigrats ivariably meas that they will have higher levels of educatioal attaimet relative to the Irish adult populatio as a whole. Whe comparisos are made betwee immigrat educatioal attaimet ad Irish persos i the 15 to 44 age bracket, the differece i levels of educatioal attaimet are margial. Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios,

9 Ethic etrepreeurship Relative to the Irish populatio, all o-irish atioal groups have a higher completio rate of lower secodary ad upper secodary educatio. Just over 78% of Irish atioals have reached at least the level of lower secodary educatio. Looked at from aother agle, 22% of Irish persos have a primary educatio oly or o formal educatio at all. For all o-irish atioal groups, the correspodig percetage i terms of lower secodary completio is over 90% i each case. At upper secodary level, 57% of Irish atioals have attaied this stadard at a miimum. Two-thirds of UK atioals have reached at least the level of upper secodary, while i other o-irish atioal groups the figure rages betwee 80% ad 90% (Cooey ad Fly, 2008, p. 19). 8 Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios, 2012

10 The urba ecoomy i geeral 3 Historical developmet of the urba ecoomy: mai idustries ad services The ecoomic ladscape of Dubli has chaged fast i the last few decades. The curret global ecoomic recessio otwithstadig, Irelad has trasformed itself from its ueviable former status as the poor ma of Europe to oe of the richest atios of the OECD (as measured by GDP per capita). This ecoomic trasformatio is embodied i the ecoomic, social, cultural ad multiatioal character of Dubli. May areas that were derelict i the 1980s have bee refashioed ito ecoomic ad cultural hubs. Dubli s premier cultural quarter Temple Bar is oe of the obvious maifestatios of this. Equally, the Docklads area of the city has bee refashioed ito the fiacial district of Dubli city as well as offerig premier accommodatio, a rage of cultural ameities ad a ladmark ifrastructure. Dubli has bee at the heart of Irelad s ecoomic trasformatio. Ideed, may would argue that there has bee a overcocetratio of ecoomic growth i Dubli at the expese of the other regios of Irelad. Ulike Dubli ad its suburba surrouds, the border, midlads ad wester regios (BMW) of Irelad have ot developed to the same extet as Dubli. This is reflected i the fact that the BMW regio attracts fudig from various EU regioal developmet schemes o accout of the lack of idustry ad its retarded ecoomic developmet relative to Dubli ad the souther regio of Irelad. The ecoomic domiace of Dubli has had profoud social implicatios for Irelad. Ivariably, active members of the labour force have gravitated towards the city i search of gaiful employmet. This is particularly proouced i the case of third-level graduates, with Dubli havig a retetio rate of 84% for employed graduates as well as employig more graduates tha it produces (HEA, 2007). Huma capital i Irelad, therefore, is disproportioately cocetrated i Dubli. The fact that the two largest Irish uiversities, Triity College ad Uiversity College Dubli, are situated i the city cetre, together with a third uiversity (Dubli City Uiversity) ad four istitutes of techology, compouds the clusterig of skilled youg labour force members i Dubli. Multiatioal corporate ivestmet was itegral to the ecoomic trasformatio of Irelad i geeral ad Dubli i particular. It is widely ackowledged by leadig ecoomists i Irelad that multiatioal corporatios (MNCs) were a key driver of the Celtic Tiger era (1994 to 2000). MNCs ivolved i the IT sectors were especially crucial, accoutig for the vast majority of Irish exports durig this period. MNCs like Microsoft, Ericsso, Itel ad Dell made a eormous cotributio to Irish ecoomic growth i the Celtic Tiger era. What is of importace for this study is that the prepoderace of MNCs i the high-growth ad high-value-added sectors of the global ecoomy are located i ad aroud Dubli city ad couty. Udoubtedly, Dubli received a disproportioate share of foreig direct ivestmet durig the years i which Irelad experieced rapid ecoomic growth. That Dubli received the lio s share has sigificat implicatios for the growth of its urba ecoomy. While MNCs iitially viewed Irelad as a lower-cost locatio i which to access the commo Europea market, the type of activity ad ivestmet evolved to more value-added fuctios. A youg, Eglish-speakig, relatively well-educated workforce was a much-heard refrai from US-based MNCs i justifyig their decisio to establish their operatios i Irelad. As Irish ecoomic growth cotiued at breakeck speed throughout the 1990s ad operatig costs rose sharply, the traditioal maufacturig operatios that may of the older MNCs udertook i their Irish operatios became less ad less viable. However, foreig direct ivestmet was supplated by more hi-tech MNC activity that utilised the skills of a ready supply of Irish third-level graduates. As traditioal maufacturig steadily declied, ew idustries with high levels of iovatio software developmet, biotechology, iteratioally traded services, pharmaceuticals bega to make their presece felt i ad aroud the Dubli regio. The presece of MNC behemoths such as Wyeth (biopharma), Google (software) ad Alliaz (fiacial services) i the Dubli catchmet area, to ame but a few, is idicative of the structural chage that has occurred i the Irish ecoomy i the last 15 years. Nowhere is ecoomic structural chage away from traditioal maufacturig ad towards high-value-added service sectors more proouced tha i Dubli city ad couty. Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios,

11 Ethic etrepreeurship I lie with most developed atios, Irelad has witessed a structural chage i its ecoomy through the declie of traditioal maufacturig ad the icreasig domiace of the service sector. A whole rage of service-based ecoomic activity emerged oto the ecoomic playig field of Dubli. Much of this service activity was ot of the same ecoomic worth or magitude of the fiacially traded service sector but still played a critical supportig role i the ecoomy oetheless. The proliferatio of hotels, pubs, restaurats, cafés, sadwich bars, retail outlets, sports ad fitess cetres, persoal groomig outlets ad other service busiesses epitomised the cofidece ad vibracy of Dubli from the mid- 1990s up to the recet ecoomic recessio. Ufortuately, cheap credit ad cosumerism led to the creatio of a property bubble. The effects of the burstig of the property bubble ad the layig bare of the weakesses withi the Irish ecoomy are ow beig felt i the public fiaces, uemploymet statistics ad cosumer cofidece. Sice the autum of 2008, Dubli s ecoomy is cotedig with far more challegig tradig coditios. Oe fial distiguishig feature of the Dubli ecoomy over the last umber of years that must be metioed is the Dubli skylie. Over the last decade, the Dubli skylie was dotted with craes. These craes symbolised the fact that a buildig boom was i full swig. The Irish baks fuded this buildig boom uder the misapprehesio that property prices would cotiue to rise. This proved to be a very costly miscalculatio. The iteratioal fiacial system fell ito disarray, credit dried up, property prices collapsed ad the craes started to disappear from the Dubli skylie. The collapse of the property sector has dealt a blow to the ecoomy of Dubli, give the thousads of labour force members directly or idirectly employed i the costructio sector. The sharp cotractio i the costructio sector is sigificat for aother reaso: it was i costructio that a sigificat umber of immigrats, particularly from the EU accessio states i 2004, iitially obtaied employmet. Like Irish me who immigrated to Britai or the US several decades previously, it was the buildig sites that absorbed thousads of Polish, Lithuaia, Latvia, Czech ad Russia me. The supply of labour that the EU10 accessio states made available to the Irish costructio sector was idispesab1e to the uprecedeted rate of house completios ad ifrastructural projects udertake. Some of these immigrat labourers have retured home. I the last few years, cocerted efforts have bee made by policymakers, the busiess commuity, academics ad aspirig etrepreeurs to stimulate greater levels of iovative busiess start-ups. Recetly, Triity College Dubli ad Uiversity College Dubli joied forces i a attempt to sychroise their research edeavours ad geerate sigificatly more idigeous high-value-added start-ups i key growth sectors. The previous iteratioal success of campus-based spi-offs (e.g. Crème Software Ltd, Eblaa Photoics Ltd) is evidece of the fact that such breakthroughs are possible. What is more, the stated aim of raisig the stadard of Irish start-ups ad evisioig their success o the iteratioal stage is further evidece of a widely held desire ad will to positio Dubli i the upper tier of urba ecoomies reowed for their dyamic ad iovative ecoomic base. Amog the most recet ideas proffered i developig Dubli as a smart ecoomy is to lik its iteratioally acclaimed arts ad cultural heritage to the wider ecoomy. This is bore of the idea that the creativity that uderpis Dubli s artistic ad cultural milieu ca be fuelled ito ecoomically rewardig ad advatageous pursuits. Oe of Irelad s leadig iteratioal busiessme ad fiaciers, Dermot Desmod, oly recetly mooted the cocept of a global uiversity for culture ad the arts that would exploit Irelad s rich heritage. Furthermore, there is scope to meld moder techologies with the cultural ad artistic resources of Dubli city. Of relevace here could be the utilisatio of digital techologies i the visual arts ad the establishmet of Dubli as a iteratioal cetre of excellece i the provisio of Eglish laguage istructio ad Eglish literature educatio. Networks of small to medium-sized eterprises (SME) i the creative sectors of the ecoomy are already established i Dubli, with CreativeD, a Dubli City Eterprise Board-supported etwork for the creative idustries, of particular ote. 10 Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios, 2012

12 Case study: Dubli, Irelad Size ad characteristics of the workforce The latest employmet data available from the Cetral Statistics Office (Quarterly Natioal Household Survey, Quarter 2, 2009) are detailed i Table 5. From April 2007 to Jue 2009, Dubli experieced a sharp cotractio i employmet. From havig 616,000 employed persos i Dubli as of April 2007, the umbers i employmet fell to 561,700 as recorded i Jue Thus, Dubli has approximately 54,300 fewer employed persos ow tha it did i April This is reflected i the substatial rise i the total umber of persos registered as uemployed i the Dubli regio, which wet from 31,000 i April 2007 to 64,600 i Jue The correspodig uemploymet rates for Dubli for these two time periods are 4.8% ad 10.3% respectively. The total labour force of Dubli was 626,300 as at Jue This represets a drop of just over 20,000 persos at the same date i 2007, whe the Dubli labour force stood at 647,000. The labour force participatio rate of Dubli also evices a slight decrease betwee April 2007 ad Jue 2009, droppig from 65.4% to 64.1%. Overall, these figures for the Dubli labour force certaily do ot make for positive readig. The deterioratig situatio at both atioal ad iteratioal ecoomic levels has take its toll o the health of the Dubli labour market. The gatherig mometum of the ecoomic recessio that has eveloped Irelad is all too clear i the fallig umbers i employmet ad the rapidly risig rate of uemploymet, which more tha doubled i the 2007 to 2009 period. It is aticipated that uemploymet will cotiue to rise i the future, albeit at a slower rate. Hece, the labour market of Dubli ca be expected to suffer further loss of employmet ad legtheig social welfare queues for the foreseeable future. More recet data released by the Cetral Statistics Office shows that the stadardised uemploymet rate i November 2009 stood at 12.5% (Cetral Statistics Office, December 2009). The Irish govermet has also coceded that a haemorrhagig of jobs will cotiue ito Put simply, thigs are set to get worse i employmet terms for Dubli ad the other regios of Irelad before they will start to get better. However, Dubli has fared better tha all other Irish regios i respect of the percetage rate of uemployed persos i the labour force. The 10.3% rate of uemploymet i Dubli is below the Irish state average of 12%. While ot havig the highest labour force participatio rate (this hoour belogs to the mid-east regio with 65.9%), Dubli is oetheless above the state labour force participatio rate average of 62.5% as at Jue Table 5: Persos aged 15 years ad over classified by ILO ecoomic status Dubli Source: CSO Uemployemet Labour force Employed Uemployed Total labour force rate participatio rate Apr Ju ,000 31, , % 65.4% Ja Mar ,600 30, , % 65.4% Apr Ja ,900 32, ,700 5% 65.6% Jul Sept ,600 43, , % 66.5% Oct Dec ,400 43, , % 64.7% Ja Mar ,800 55, , % 64.1% Apr Ju ,700 64, , % 64.1% Source: Cooey ad Fly (2008) Approximately 30% of the Dubli populatio has a third-level qualificatio, with a far greater umber of degree holders tha o-degree holders amog third-level qualificatio holders. This is higher tha the atioal average for Irelad. Aother 17.5% of the Dubli populatio have yet to complete their full-time educatio, with the majority of these persos classified as attedig a school or uiversity. I total, the Dubli populatio aged 15 ad over as recorded i the 2006 cesus is relatively well educated. Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios,

13 Ethic etrepreeurship Developmet of SMEs Due to the small size of the Irish atio ad the domiace of Dubli i the ecoomic activity of the coutry, the atioal data ca be read with a certai degree of cofidece that it broadly reflects the ecoomic developmet of Dubli city ad couty from 1995 to Betwee 1995 ad 2005 it is estimated that the umber of small firms i Irelad jumped from 160,000 to 250,000. Slightly over half of the private sector o-agricultural workforce is employed i small firms. The 250,000 small firms recorded at 2005 represet 98% of all busiess etities i Irelad, with approximately 30% of all small firms based i Dubli city ad couty. Accordig to the Small Firms Associatio presidet, iterviewed durig the field visit, the umber of small idustrial firms remaied static betwee 2000 ad I cotrast, the umber of small costructio firms more tha doubled. However, the property crash of 2008 has caused the closure of thousads of small costructio firms sice this data was compiled. The umber of small wholesale ad retail firms showed little chage over 1995 to This could be due to cosolidatio i the wholesale/retail sector. Perhaps what is most remarkable is the expasio of the service sector betwee 1995 ad The umber of small fiacial services firms rose from 1,000 to 5,000. Likewise, the umber of busiess services firms wet from 20,000 i 1995 to 34,000 i Other services icreased from 15,000 firms i 1995 to 24,000 i Employmet i small idustrial firms showed a sigificat icrease betwee 1995 ad However, betwee 2000 ad 2005, employmet levels remaied static at 108,000 persos. To be expected, total employmet for small costructio firms icreased by a multiple of 2.5 (from 86,000 i 1995 to 213,000 i 2005). Busiess services is also oticeable due to the steep rise i the umber of persos it employed over the 1995 to 2005 period, from 43,000 to 92,000 (Cooey ad Fly, 2008, p. 30). Sectoral ad spatial distributio of SMEs Table 6 shows a estimatio of the percetage umber of small eterprises by sector, i the period As clearly emerges, the costructio, trasport ad commuicatio, busiess services ad fiacial services are sectors have developed more i the last decades. Table 6: Number of SMEs i Dubli, , per sector (%) Sector Idustry Costructio Wholesale ad retail Trasport ad commuicatio Fiacial services Busiess services Educatio Health Other services Total Source: Cetral Statistics Office, 2006 cesus 12 Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios, 2012

14 Case study: Dubli, Irelad Maufacturig i Dubli is cocetrated i the city cetre, but pockets of maufacturig also lie o the periphery of the city. I Figure 1, the red shadig represets the clusterig or cocetratio of maufacturig firms (the brighter the shade of red, the heavier the cocetratio). Desigated idustrial parks/zoes are to foud throughout the city, helpig to explai the clusterig of maufacturig. The docklads area also cotais a cocetratio of maufacturig etities. Its proximity to Dubli Port has meat that this area (visible o the map as the two bright red zoes split by a sigle black lie juttig ito the sea) was the traditioal heavy idustry ad maufacturig zoe for Dubli city. Figure 1: Spatial distributio of the maufacturig sector i Dubli, 2006 Source: Cooey ad Fly (2008) The wholesale ad retail trade is dispersed throughout the city, but with a expected clusterig i the city cetre. I Figure 2 this is represeted by the brighter shade of blue. The dispersed ature of the wholesale ad retail trade is symbolic of the populatio growth of Dubli, particularly west Dubli. Commerce is clearly followig the emergece of ew ad/or expadig populatio districts i Dubli ad retail busiesses are icreasigly foud o the outskirts of the city as urba sprawl cotiues uabated. It should be oted that Dubli city is best described as built o a huma scale, which has the effect of lowerig its populatio desity relative to other Europea capitals where high-rise livig is the orm. Figure 2: Spatial distributio of the wholesale ad retail sector i Dubli, 2006 Source: Cooey ad Fly (2008) Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios,

15 Ethic etrepreeurship Firms operatig i the bakig ad fiacial services sector, idicated by the dark gree colour i Figure 3, are to be foud almost exclusively i the city cetre, with the Irish Fiacial Services Cetre (IFSC) playig host to a great umber of them. The IFSC was created by the Irish govermet i the 1980s, upo the advice of successful Irish fiaciers, as a meas of creatig a lucrative fiacial services sector for Dubli. This policy was a udoubted success, with the IFSC havig goe from stregth to stregth over the last two decades. The bakig ad fiacial services sector cotais subsidiaries of the titas of bakig, ivestmet ad fiacial maagemet, such as Bak of America ad HSBC, the headquarters of multiatioal corporatios ad their fiace divisios as well as smaller, idigeous firms ivolved i iche areas of wealth maagemet, pesio fud admiistratio ad stock tradig. Figure 3: Spatial distributio of the bakig ad fiacial sector i Dubli, 2006 Source: Cooey ad Fly (2008) Recet chages The impact of the curret ecoomic crisis is clear if we look at uemploymet rates i the Dubli city area. This rate icreased from about 4% i 2007 to 13% i Jauary 2010 ad about 20% of registered uemployed are o-atioal. 5 Geerally speakig, the impact is particularly acute for small Irish busiesses. Sice 2009, small firms have witessed market demad dry up ad credit lies previously made available from their fiacial istitutio withdraw or sigificatly curtailed. What is more, the Irish ecoomy i geeral has bee exposed as ucompetitive i compariso to may of its competitor tradig atios. Operatig costs (rets, eergy, isurace, waste disposal) soared from 2000 owards, which gradually eroded the competitiveess of small Irish firms aimig to compete i iteratioal markets. Labour costs rose sharply too, with Irelad havig oe of the highest miimum wage rates i the eurozoe. A depreciatig sterlig currecy has ot helped Irish firms exportig ito the British market. Moreover, the favourable euro sterlig exchage rate has set thousads of Irish shoppers ito Norther Irelad to avail of markedly cheaper food, beverage ad electrical goods. Added to this is the fact that after years of splurgig, Irish cosumers are ow assumig a more parsimoious attitude whe it comes to purchasig behaviour. 5 Iterview with Gerry Fola, Itegratio Office Eterprise ad Commuicatio Dubli City Coucil, carried out by the author o 22 March Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios, 2012

16 Case study: Dubli, Irelad Collectively, these factors have placed a severe strai o thousads of small idigeous firms, whether domestically or iteratioally focused. The Irish commercial courts have ever bee busier, with applicatios for compaies to be placed i receivership ad liquidatio growig at a alarmig rate. Gia Qui, presidet of Dubli City Chamber of Commerce, declared durig a iterview that the umber of bakruptcies is growig faster. She does t have data o the umber of o-atioal bakruptcies, but it s possible to estimate that the rate is the same for Irish ad o-irish etrepreeurs who are closig their activities. 6 Small costructio firms have felt the full force of the burstig of the property bubble. However, it ca be argued that what is happeig i the costructio sector is a ecessary correctio to the Irish ecoomy, which had become dagerously depedet o the cyclical costructio sector. Through o fault of their ow, small firms i other sectors of the ecoomy with soud busiess models are also begiig to suffer, ufortuately. It is a cocer for the Irish state that a rapid reversal i its ecoomic fortues sice 2008 moths will cotiue to starve small firms of the oxyge fiace, healthy cosumer demad ad stable ecoomic coditios that they eed to survive. 6 Iterview with Gia Qui, Dubli Chamber of Commerce, carried out by the author o 23 March Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios,

17 Profiles of ethic etrepreeurship 4 Defiitio of ethic etrepreeurship Ethic etrepreeurship is the term used to describe busiess creatio ad the pursuit of busiess opportuities by foreig atioals i Dubli or elsewhere i Irelad. I idetifyig the actual busiess etity of the ethic etrepreeur, the term ethic busiess (as opposed to ethic eterprise) is the geerally accepted form. It is these terms that have most frequetly featured i public discourse o the pheomeo uder scrutiy. I certai istaces the terms miority etrepreeurs or ethic miority etrepreeurs have bee employed. However, the utilisatio of miority as a adjective i describig the pheomea is somewhat problematic. Juxtaposig miority with etrepreeur itroduces demographic categories icludig but ot exclusive of foreig atioal groups i Irelad. For example, miority etrepreeurs could possibly coote physically disabled etrepreeurs, homosexual etrepreeurs, female etrepreeurs, socially disadvataged Irish etrepreeurs, geriatric etrepreeurs, etc. Hece, miority etrepreeurs as a descriptive epithet would muddy the waters, so to speak. As stated above, it is ethic etrepreeurs egaged i ethic etrepreeurial activity as a meas of creatig ethic busiesses that captures Irish discourse o the pheomeo i questio. It is iterestig to compare ad cotrast termiology used i relatio to members of o-irish commuities egaged i busiess activity with the termiology used i relatio to idigeous Irish me or wome pursuig busiess opportuities. Ordiarily, the etrepreeur label is reserved for those Irish persos who are egaged i a particularly iovative ad ovel busiess idea that ivolves a high level of risk. Etrepreeur as applied to Irish busiess actors cootes busiess professioalism, busiess success, high growth ad to a lesser extet, iteratioally orieted busiess activities. Those Irish persos whose busiess ideas or activities do ot fall ito this category, which is the majority of the aspirig busiess class, are geerally referred to as small busiess owers or compay owers. O this basis we ca offer a partial ratioalisatio of why the idigeous miority are more geerous i extedig the laudable characterisatio of etrepreeur to foreigers tha to members of the domiat ethic group. This is particularly apposite i the case of Dubli/Irelad give the relative ewess of sigificat immigratio flows i compariso to other Europea couterparts for whom immigratio is ow a well-established social ad demographic process. It should ot be forgotte that Irelad is dealig with its first geeratio of immigrats, most of whom have oly bee there less tha six years. Some o-irish atioal groups would ot be perceived as fallig withi the ethic etrepreeur category. This situatio occurs because certai groups of foreig atioals residet i Irelad are similar to the Irish populatio as a whole i social ad cultural terms as well as havig Eglish as their mother togue. Hece, Eglish atioals, who comprised the largest o-irish atioal group i the 2006 cesus alog with America, Caadia, Australia atioals ad other persos who have their origis i the Aglosphere (of which Irelad is most certaily a part), ted ot to be labelled as ethic etrepreeurs or eve as ethics i a more overarchig sese. Moreover, persos from coutries with a comparable GDP/capita to Irelad, which icludes most of the 15 pre-2004 EU states, are ot perceived as ethic etrepreeurs i the same way as persos from the 2004 EU accessio states or persos from Asia, Africa or the Middle East. The comparable state of their ecoomies ad democratic societies to Irelad meas that they are ot faced with aythig fudametally ufamiliar as regards egagig i busiess activity ad egotiatig Irish society i a more geeral sese. This leads us to suggest that the epithet of ethic etrepreeur cootes a certai level of disadvatage experieced by the aspirig busiessperso i egotiatig the busiess ladscape i Dubli ad Irelad i the form of poor Eglish laguage skills, cultural barriers, socio-ecoomic status ad possible racial prejudice that are ot experieced by all o-irish busiess actors. Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios,

18 Ethic etrepreeurship Developmet of ethic etrepreeurship Immigratio is a relatively recet pheomeo i Irish history; it is oly i recet years that Irelad has tured from a emigratio coutry to a immigratio destiatio. At first it was the returig Irish diaspora who left durig the 1980s ad early 1990s that swelled the immigratio raks. However, at the dawig of the ew milleium it was icreasigly o-irish people who were becomig the domiat immigrat cohort. Thereafter, Irelad rapidly absorbed hudreds of thousads of immigrats from both withi ad outside of the EU. The elargemet of the EU marks a watershed i the directio of Irish society isofar as it precipitated uprecedeted iflows of work-hugry migrats ito Irelad. As evidece of this process, the Itegratio Office of Dubli City Coucil was created i Its establishmet, ad missio to properly respod to demographic, cultural ad ecoomic trasformatio, occurred oly after the icreased immigratio flows. Ulike the other EU states, Irelad s system of ethic etrepreeurs is still i its adolescece; academic research i the domai is oly begiig to attract attetio. Studies that have bee coducted o ethic etrepreeurial activity ad its distictive character i Irelad reveal the first isights ito the ethic busiess milieu i Dubli. Firstly, the percetage of foreig atioals that are categorised as a employer/ow accout worker ca be gleaed from the 2006 cesus. I the academic sphere, work by Cooey ad Fly (2008) ad Pikowski (2009) are amog the oly attempts at scholarly egagemet with ethic etrepreeurship i Dubli/Irelad, its iteractio with the wider busiess, ecoomic, social ad istitutioal eviromet ad its likely trajectory i the years ahead. Cesus Irelad 2006 ca be used as the first poit of departure i assessig the extet of ethic etrepreeurship i Irelad. It shows that 7.8% of foreig atioals livig i Irelad as at 2006 ca be categorised as employer/ow accout worker. 7 The correspodig percetage for the Irish populatio is 17.5%. Amog the o-irish populatio cohort, sigificat variatio is evidet across the various ethic groups i respect of persos classified as employer/ow accout worker. Natioals from the UK are represeted to a degree comparable with the idigeous populatio. Coversely, amog atioals from old Europe, ew Europe ad outside Europe, the percetage of persos categorised as employer/ow accout worker is substatially lower. Subsequet to the publicatio of this cesus data, Cooey ad Fly (2008) foud i their study o the ecoomic activity of foreig atioals i Irelad that approximately 12.6% fall ito the category of employer/ow accout worker. The discrepacy betwee the two fidigs might be explaied by the two-year time gap betwee the completio of the atioal Irish cesus ad Cooey ad Fly s study. Betwee 2006 ad 2008, Irelad cotiued to experiece uprecedeted migratio iflows. Furthermore, immigrats who arrived previous to 2006 had more time i which to embark o the path of etrepreeurship at the time of the latter study beig udertake. Cooey ad Fly s (2008) study sheds light o the character of ethic etrepreeurship i Irelad. Although the research base for this study was Dubli ad the ethic etrepreeurs used for the focus group were all residet i Dubli, the survey elemet was coducted o a atiowide basis. This aside, the survey fidigs are idicative of the extet ad ature of ethic etrepreeurship i Dubli. These fidigs will ow be subject to aalysis i throwig light o the character of ethic etrepreeurship i a Dubli city cotext. Take together, 49% of ethic etrepreeurs i Irelad are from cetral or easter Europe. Africas make up 28% of this figure, Asias 18%, with the remaiig 5% from Other atios. Ethic busiess owers i Irelad are predomiatly male, relatively youg ad have a relatively high level of educatioal attaimet. The social scieces, busiess ad law have the highest percetages of ethic etrepreeurs who have secured a third-level qualificatio. The age profile of 7 This data icludes UK atioals livig i Irelad. 18 Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios, 2012

19 Case study: Dubli, Irelad ethically owed busiesses demostrates that the majority have oly established themselves i the last few years. Exactly 75% of the ethic busiess respodets have bee i operatio for o more tha two years, 16% are recorded as beig i operatio for three to four years, while oly 9% have bee i operatio for five years or more. This typifies the quite ascet state of Irelad as a heterogeeous, multiracial society (Cooey ad Fly, 2008). Sectoral ad spatial distributio of ethic eterprises Ethic busiesses are recorded as operatig across a broad rage of sectors. Durig the field visit it was ot possible to collect official data about the sectoral ad spatial distributio of ethic etrepreeurs because a official register does t exist. From iterviewig Gia Qui from the Dubli Chamber of Commerce, it emerged that the mai sectors i which ethic etrepreeurs operate are maufacturig ad services. May of them are importat actors i the Dubli Chamber; for example, a leadig Pakistai etrepreeur is a active member of the Dubli Chamber Coucil. 8 Nevertheless, it is possible to cosider some iterestig poits lookig agai at the Cooey ad Fly (2008) study o Irish ethic etrepreeurship, which shows that the ICT sector cotais the highest umber of ethic busiesses (about 17.5% of the sample they cosidered). The restaurat/food ad wholesale/retail sectors feature promietly, accoutig for 15% ad 16% of the sample respectively. Cosultacy busiesses accout for a sigificat umber of ethic busiesses (13.5%), as do trasport service providers (10%). The remaider comprises busiesses i the fiacial sector (7.5%), persoal services (6%), maufacturig (6%), costructio (5%), security (1%) ad miscellaeous busiesses (2.5%). Ethic etrepreeurs are dispersed throughout Irelad, with Dubli usurprisigly accoutig for approximately 45% of ethic busiesses. The geographic distributio of ethic etrepreeurship is recorded i Figure 4. Figure 4: Geographic distributio of ethic etrepreeurship i Irelad Source: Cooey ad Fly (2008) Dubli Cork Louth Galway Mayo Kildare Kilkey Cava Clare Leitrim Meath Moaga Waterford There is o specific area of Dubli where ethic busiesses are located, but Moore Street or Capel Street i the city cetre are where it is possible to observe the greatest umber of ethic shops. I Moore Street, for example, there are a umber of Africa shops, Chiese shops ad a covered market owed by a Polish etrepreeur i which oly ethic etrepreeurs have settled their busiesses. Although ret prices have icreased a lot i recet years, this is the mai area 8 Iterview with Gia Qui, Dubli Chamber of Commerce, coducted by the author o 23 March Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios,

20 Ethic etrepreeurship where ethic commerce is evidet. Accordig to Regiald Okoflek Iya, member of the New Commuities Partership, a NGO for ethic etrepreeurs, startig a busiess i Moore Street is becomig harder ad harder. Most Africas who have opeed their ow shops i that area geerally close i three moths because ret is higher tha earigs. 9 Thus, it is likely that most ethic busiesses will move o to other areas, away from Dubli city cetre. Owership of ethic busiesses Little data are available o busiesses owership because o public offices i the local admiistratio are tasked with registerig or collectig them. However, we ca refer to some iterviews carried out durig the field visit. Amog the small group of ethic etrepreeurs iterviewed (maily shop owers), most declared themselves to be idividual etrepreeurs. The umber of parterships is higher i the costructio sector ad sometimes i the food ad restaurat sector. The relatioships betwee two or more owers are ofte family relatioships: two brothers or a father ad so are geerally the most commo types of partership observed. The umber of frachise busiesses owed by ethic etrepreeurs seems to be quite low. It is likely that the high startup fiacial requiremets are perceived as a barrier by the majority of ethic etrepreeurs. I additio, we ca also cosider Cooey ad Fly s (2008) research. Accordig to them, slightly over half of surveyed ethic busiesses (52%) operate i sole owership mode. Almost oe i three busiesses (31%) is registered as a limited compay, with the remaiig 17% takig the form of a partership busiess arragemet. Reasos for a etrepreeurship career There are may reasos for ethic miorities to embark o the path to busiess owership. Some immigrats decide to start a busiess as a cosequece of limited opportuities for progressio i the ope labour market, ad accordig to Carter et al (2003), for example, it is possible to idetify six categories of motivatio that idividuals have for startig a busiess. The first category, iovatio, ivolves reasos that describe a idividual s itetio to accomplish somethig ew. The secod category, idepedece, describes a etrepreeur s desire for freedom, cotrol ad flexibility i the use of their time. Recogitio describes a perso s itetio to obtai status, approval ad recogitio from family, frieds ad from those i the commuity, while roles describes a idividual s desire to follow family traditios or emulate the example of others. Fiacial success ivolves reasos that describe a itetio to ear more moey ad achieve fiacial security, ad fially, self-realisatio describes reasos ivolved with pursuig selfdirected goals. By becomig self-employed, immigrats acquire roles quite differet from those of immigrats who became workers ad also differet from those of other maistream etrepreeurs. By startig their ow busiesses, immigrat etrepreeurs create their ow jobs. This eables them to circumvet some of the barriers they may ecouter i lookig for a job (Kloosterma ad Rath, 2003). I a Irish cotext, it appears that the idetificatio of a promisig busiess opportuity is the primary causal factor i ethic etrepreeurship. Difficulties i securig suitable employmet ad dissatisfactio with their employmet situatio are other reasos give i Cooey ad Fly s research. It ca thus be asserted that for the most part, ethic etrepreeurs are attracted to busiess owership for positive as opposed to egative reasos. 9 Iterview with Regiald Okoflek Iya, New Commuities Partership, coducted by the author o 24 March Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios, 2012

21 Case study: Dubli, Irelad The opportuity to apply skills ad talets is perceived to be the mai motivatig factor for ethic etrepreeurs i establishig their ow busiess. Iterestigly, this reaso exceeds the umber of those who cited the possibility of makig more moey as the most attractive feature of busiess owership. Gettig to be my ow boss emerges i the two Irish research studies as the third highest advatageous aspect to busiess owership. I aalysig the factors that impel ethic persos dow the path to establishig their ow busiess, two more poits are of iterest. Firstly, the majority of ethic etrepreeurs i Irelad were employees before istigatig their ow busiess veture. Oly a few had always owed a busiess from the outset. Accordig to Cooey ad Fly (2008), 38% of ethic etrepreeurs cosidered i their sample owed a busiess i their coutry of origi prior to comig to Irelad. This meas that the remaiig 62% of ethic etrepreeurs were busiess ovices. Market ad competitio The markets that ethic etrepreeurs geerally cater for deped o the sector the busiess is i. It is ot feasible to cosider all the possibilities for ethic busiesses i relatio to the cosumers ad customers of their products. But i the costructio sector, for example, it is clear that customers of a Polish costructio eterprise will be both Irish ad o-atioals ad geerally speakig, most ethic eterprises i the service sectors have a mix of Irish ad o-atioal markets. However, there are some differeces amog ethic groups. For example, durig the field visit i Dubli we observed a umber of differet ethic eterprises. Africa food shops i the Moore Street area that sell food but also provide some services (phoe, hair extesios, ewspapers) are quite strogly orieted to a co-ethic market. Other kids of eterprises, like those i the commuicatio sector or trasport (taxi compaies), have a more mixed market. A similar reflectio ca be poited out for fruit ad vegetable shops. I the Dubli city cetre market of Moore Street, immigrats are geerally the customers of immigrat-owed shops i the covered market, while Irish people usually buy fruit ad vegetable i the ope-air market, which is strogly owed by Irish people, especially Irish wome. I cotrast, a Slovakia woma opeed a cake ad pastries shop some years ago i the city cetre. Her busiess is developig faster ad she has a strog mix Irish ad o-atioal markets. I aalysig the primary market focus of ethic busiesses i Irelad, the followig was revealed i Cooey ad Fly s (2008) survey: the local market is the predomiat focus for ethic busiesses (33%), followed by the atioal market (26%), iteratioal markets (25%) ad regioal markets withi Irelad (16%). Workforce, employmet coditios ad labour relatios The Cesus Irelad 2006 data does ot provide ay isight ito the relatioship betwee atioality ad occupatio i each Irish regio ad couty; it provides data for this relatioship for the coutry as a whole. From the atioal data, it is evertheless possible to extract iformatio about the relatioships betwee atioality ad occupatio i the Dubli urba ecoomy (see Table 7). Sigificat differeces are evidet across the defied ethic groups relative to the Irish populatio. I the case of atioals from the UK, Americas ad Australia/New Zealad, the occupatioal profile is geerally i keepig with the occupatioal profile of the Irish populatio. For persos from the pre-2004 EU coutries, there is a strog presece i the clerical/maagemet/govermet ad professioal/techical/health occupatioal groups. The reverse is true for the 2004 EU accessio state atioals ad, to a lesser extet, persos from the rest of Europe category. Their occupatioal profile is defiable by its cocetratio i the maufacturig ad costructio sectors. Almost oe-third of Asias i the Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios,

22 Ethic etrepreeurship labour force are i the professioal/techical/health occupatioal group. This is almost double the correspodig percetage for Irish atioals ad for other foreig atioal groups. Africas are represeted i the professioal/techical/health ad services groups to the same extet as Irish atioals but are uderrepreseted i the other occupatioal groups relative to both Irish ad other o-irish populatio groups. Applyig the above to the Dubli workforce, we would expect to fid pre-2004 EU atioals characterised by their presece i the clerical/maagemet/govermet ad professioal/techical/health groups; we would expect to fid 2004 EU accessio state atioals with a strog showig i the maufacturig, costructio ad service sectors of Dubli; we would likely fid a high percetage of Asias i the professioal/techical/health occupatioal group ad i the services group ad a disproportioately low percetage i most of the other sectors (i.e. costructio, maufacturig, trasport); ad we would aticipate Africas beig dispersed across a rage of idustries, with a disproportioately high umber lookig for first-time employmet. The fact that such a cocetratio of 2004 EU accessio state atioals is cocetrated i maufacturig, costructio ad services is worthy of further commet. The costructio sector i Dubli, as elsewhere i Irelad, has come to a shudderig halt. Hece, it would appear that me from these coutries are most adversely affected by the ecoomic dowtur. Both immigratio statistics ad uemploymet statistics are icreasigly bearig this out. Table 7: Occupatioal profile for Irish ad o-irish atioals 3. EU pre Rest of Occupatioal group 1. Irish 2. UK (excl. Irelad ad UK) 4. EU10 Europe Farmig/Fishig/Forestry 82, % % % 2, % % Maufacturig 205, % 6,111 10% 1, % 19, % 2, % Costructio 147, % 5,554 9% 1, % 18, % 1, % Clerical/Maagemet/Govt 329, % 10, % 7, % 4, % 1, % Commuicatio/Trasport 100, % 3, % 955 3% 5, % % Sales/Commerce 248,094 14% 8, % 4, % 9, % 1, % Professioal/Techical/Health 294, % 11, % 6, % 3, % 1, % Services 178,161 10% 7, % 4, % 15, % 2, % Other 167, % 6, % 3, % 17, % 3, % Lookig for first regular job 17,233 1% 597 1% % 4, % % Total i Labour force 1,770, % 61, % 31, % 102, % 15, % 6. Africa 7. Asia 8.Americas 9. Australia/NZ Farmig/Fishig/Forestry 62.3% 156.6% % % Maufacturig 1, % 1,359 5% 1, % % Costructio % % % 298 7% Clerical/Maagemet/Govt 1, % 1, % 1, % % Commuicatio/Trasport % % % % Sales/Commerce 1, % 2, % 1, % % Professioal/Techical/Health 2, % 8, % 2, % 1, % Services 2, % 7, % 1,058 10% % Other 5,399 29% 4, % 1, % % Lookig for first regular job 2, % % 20.5% Total i Labour force 18, % 27, % 10, % 4, % Source: Irish Cesus Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios, 2012

23 Case study: Dubli, Irelad It s quite hard give a complete descriptio of employmet coditios ad labour relatios i ethic eterprises. No data are available ad ot may actors ivolved i the field visit could help us to describe this issue. However, labour coditios are quite differet i all sectors ad a large diffusio of udeclared work ca be supposed. This ca happe i small eterprises like shops i particular despite public cotrols. Sometimes there are problems i family eterprises where the employees are part of the ower s family. Sisters, brothers, sos ad daughters (sometimes very youg) could be employed with udefied labour coditios. Aother big problem aroud this issue is represeted by immigrat workers low rate of uioisatio. Problems ad barriers Geeral maagemet I other CLIP cities, geeral maagemet problems facig ethic etrepreeurs ca be related to experieces of discrimiatio. However, i a Irish cotext, discrimiatio does ot appear to be a debilitatig challege cofrotig ethic etrepreeurs. Ethic etrepreeurs iterviewed durig the field visit had ot experieced discrimiatio i the course of ruig their busiess. Other challeges cited by ethic etrepreeurs cetre o securig fiace, gaiig the trust of Irish busiess actors ad a geeral lack of familiarity with the workigs of the Irish busiess eviromet. Cooey ad Fly s study (2008) states that approximately 44% of the sample cosidered i their research have a formal qualificatio i busiess maagemet. This leaves a majority with o formal qualificatio i busiess maagemet. I respect of their level of maagerial experiece, 73% of ethic etrepreeurs had experiece i a maagerial role prior to establishig their ow busiess (see Figure 5). Figure 5: Busiess qualificatios ad previous maagerial experiece Qualificatio i Busiess Maagemet Prior Maagerial Experiece No 56% Yes 44% No 27% Yes 73% Source: Cooey ad Fly (2008) Ethic etrepreeurs assessmet of their busiess skills limitatios or deficiecies is also illumiatig. I the case of busiess plaig ad orgaisatio, fiacial maagemet, cost cotrol ad marketig, a majority are of the opiio that they eed to ehace their skill sets i each of these areas. I the case of other skills areas (customer relatios, maagemet of employees ad iformatio techology), a (slight) majority are of the opiio that their existig skills ad kowledge are adequate. Fiacial maagemet Access to fiace is the most pressig challege for ethic etrepreeurs i Irelad. This is cosistet with iteratioal experiece. I fact, i speakig with etrepreeurs durig the field visit about the barriers i startig a busiess, it became apparet that access to fiace ad the availability of moey is perhaps the biggest problem i every sector ad for all ethic groups. This problem is commo to all etrepreeurs, both Irish ad o-atioal. Europea Foudatio for the Improvemet of Livig ad Workig Coditios,