Country Assessment Report for The Commonwealth of Dominica

Transcription

1 Enhancing Gender Visibility in Disaster Risk Management and Climate Change in the Caribbean Country Assessment Report for The Commonwealth of Dominica

2 Prepared for the UNDP by Erika Ellis Copyright United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 2009 All rights reserved Published in Barbados The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the United Nations or UNDP

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4 Acknowledgements This report would not have been completed without the kind assistance and guidance of the following persons: Rosie Brown and staff at the Women s Affairs Bureau, Roseau, Dominica; Josephine Dublin-Prince, the Dominica National Council of Women, Roseau, Dominica; Cecil Shillingford, Director, Office of Disaster Management, Roseau, Dominica. I am especially grateful to Leith Dunn, Senior Lecturer and Head of the Centre for Gender and Development Studies, Mona Unit, University of the West Indies, for providing feedback, guidance and encouragement during the process. Erika Ellis ii.

5 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ii List of tables, plates and figures iv List of acronyms v 1. Introduction Background Study objective and methodology 1 2. Socio-economic overview of Dominica Location Population profile The economy Gender assessment for disaster risk management Recent major natural hazards and disasters in Dominica 8 3. Institutional assessments Profile of the Office of Disaster Management Profile of the Bureau of Gender Affairs Profile of the Dominican National Council of Women Gender and disaster risk configuration in Dominica Conclusions and recommendations Conclusions Recommendations 13 References 15 iii.

6 List of tables, plates and figures Table 1: Staffing of the Office of Disaster Management 10 Plate 1: Dominica s mountainous countryside 2 Plate 2: Photo showing the effects of storm surge from Hurricane Dean in Dominica 9 Figure 1: Map showing areas of specific vulnerability in Dominica 7 iv.

7 List of Acronyms BCPR BGA CARICOM CBO CDERA CDM CRMI CSME CSO DNCW EC ECCB ECCU GSPS MDG NEPO NGO ODM OECS RBLAC REACH SIDS UNDP UNFCC Bureau of Crisis Prevention and Recovery Bureau of Gender Affairs Caribbean Community and Common Market community-based organisation Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency Comprehensive Disaster Management Caribbean Risk Management Initiative CARICOM Single Market and Economy Central Statistical Office Dominica National Council of Women Eastern Caribbean Eastern Caribbean Central Bank Eastern Caribbean Currency Union Growth and Social Protection Strategy Millennium Development Goals National Emergency Planning Organisation non-governmental organisation Office of Disaster Management Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States Regional Bureau for Latin America and the Caribbean Reaching Elderly Abandoned Citizens Housebound Small Island Developing States United Nations Development Programme United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change v.

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9 1. Introduction 1.1. Background A gender perspective should be integrated into all disaster risk management policies, plans and decision-making processes, including those related to risk assessment, early warning, information management, and education and training. 1 United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction (2005) This country assessment on gender, climate change and disaster risk management in Dominica provides insight on the extent to which governance mechanisms for risk management effectively incorporate gender considerations. The study contributes to the achievement of gender equality in risk management in Dominica which is fundamental for the survival and well-being of the country s men and women. It also supports the development of better public policies for risk management in Dominica that can help key stakeholders to anticipate and prevent the differentiated impact of hazards on each sex. Dominica, like many other small island developing states (SIDS), is particularly vulnerable to the effects of natural hazards such as hurricanes, floods, landslides, earthquakes and volcanoes. However, the disasters have not only impacted on the physical environment. They have also exposed Dominica s economic vulnerability, as they disrupted the country s economic growth and domestic economy, particularly in the major economic sectors of agriculture and tourism. In April 2006, the Prime Minister of Dominica announced a Three-Year Medium-Term Growth and Social Protection Strategy (GSPS) which defined the country s economic goals for the period. The achievement of these goals is at risk because of the vulnerability of the country s social and economic activities to natural disasters. It should also be noted that the impact of disasters is greatest among the poor, the majority of whom are women. The results showed that women s lack of resources increase their vulnerability to disasters and limit their capacity to recover from disasters Study objective and methodology This country assessment included a literature review of previous assessments on the impact of natural hazards and climate change in Dominica, and a review of statistical data and information on the country s vulnerability to the impact of disasters. Research also included data on Dominica s recent history of natural hazards. Using the survey instrument designed by the Caribbean Risk Management Initiative (CRMI) interviews were conducted with representatives of the following agencies: The Disaster Management Office The Women s Bureau The National Council of Women 1 1

10 2. Socio-economic overview of Dominica 2.1. Location Dominica is a mountainous island of volcanic origin located in the centre of the Eastern Caribbean chain of islands, between the French Islands of Guadeloupe (to the north) and Martinique (to the south). An unbroken chain of young volcanic mountainous centres forms the backbone of the island. Dominica s physical features include high volcanic peaks with Morne Diablotin at 1,730 m (4,747 ft), and Morne Trois Pitons at 1,424 m (4,670 ft). The volcanic terrain has created several waterfalls, boiling and freshwater lakes, and numerous rivers on its steep and mountainous terrain. Plate 1: Dominica s mountainous countryside Source: Author Dominica s mountainous topography and lush vegetation contribute to the island s dramatic beauty. Its natural resources have been generally well preserved so that it can boast of being described as the Nature Isle of the Caribbean. Dominica s climate is characterised by little seasonal variation with strong and steady trade winds. Temperatures average around C in coastal areas, decreasing to around C at higher altitudes. However, the mountainous terrain also contributes to flooding and soil erosion, leaving communities in these areas more vulnerable to natural hazards, particularly hurricanes. 2

11 2.2. Population profile Dominica s population of approximately 70,000 2 inhabitants occupy the country s square miles, with an estimated 11 percent of persons residing in three major settlements: Roseau (the capital), Portsmouth and Marigot. The ethnic, racial and cultural composition of the population is overwhelmingly African (86.8 percent), with influences from the indigenous Kalinago population, as well as from both the British and French as part of its colonial heritage. The country gained Independence from Britain on November 3, 1978 and the languages spoken are English and French Patois. Dominica is the only island in the eastern Caribbean to have retained a significant pre-columbian population of Kalinagos who represent 2.9 percent of the population. Most Kalinagos live on a 3,700 acre territory on Dominica s east coast that was set aside as a reserve for them in Dominica s Central Statistical Office (CSO) publication, Statistics at a Glance 2005 notes that the 2001 census reported a population of 69,625 persons, comprising 35,073 males and 34,552 females. The age structure of the population (2003) was as follows: 0-19 years (38.7 percent); years (47.6 percent) and 60 and over (12.2 percent). The total fertility rate was 2.1 children born per woman (2008 est.). Dominica has one of the largest populations of older persons in the world and, as is to be expected, there are significantly more older women than men. Life expectancy at birth averages years (Males: years; Females: years). In 2002, Dominica s ageing population (65 years and older) accounted for 11 percent of the total population. As of March 2007, there were 22 centenarians in Dominica, which is three times the average incidence of centenarians in developed countries. The elderly are particularly vulnerable in disasters. Non-government organisations (NGOs) such as Reaching Elderly Abandoned Citizens Housebound (REACH), offer emotional and spiritual care to the elderly and seek to relieve some of the intense suffering of the aged. Poverty is a major factor of vulnerability, and Dominica has relatively high levels of poverty which makes its population more vulnerable to disasters. Currently, approximately 29 percent of households and 39 percent of the population are classified as poor; and 10 percent of households as indigent or extremely poor. There is a higher incidence of poverty in rural communities. Labour force participation also has a severe impact on the economic status of families, and according to the 1999 Labour Force Survey, Dominica faces the challenges of a high overall unemployment rate of 15.7 percent, with an even higher rate for women (19.4 percent). Household headship is also a factor for vulnerability to natural hazards. The 2003 Country Poverty Assessment commissioned by the Caribbean Development Bank estimated that 37 percent of households were headed by women. The average size of these female-headed households was between five and six persons. This was larger than the number in male-headed households. Female heads of these households 2 3

12 also tended to be older than their male counterparts. 3 The study also showed that approximately 40 percent of the poor households were multi-generational (three generations living together) or had extended family relationships including in-laws and/or siblings. This meant that female heads of households had considerable responsibility for a large number of persons in their households. Migration patterns also have implications for vulnerability. As in other Caribbean countries, parents have migrated either to another part of the country or overseas, for housing or for employment. They often leave children in the care of the elderly or relatively young and inexperienced persons, which increases the vulnerability of these households during disasters. The existence of substantial numbers of these young households also has implications for the guidance and protection that can be afforded by responsible adults The economy Dominica is a member of the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME), and the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS). As a member of the OECS, the country uses the Eastern Caribbean Dollar (EC$), which is the regional currency used by members of the Eastern Caribbean Currency Union (ECCU). The EC dollar is issued by the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB) which also manages monetary policy, and regulates and supervises commercial banking activities in its member countries. The ECCB has kept the rate of exchange of the EC$ at EC $2.70=US $1. Until 1992, Dominica s economy was based on the production and export of bananas to the United Kingdom. Since 1992 changes in the global trade environment and the loss of Dominica s preferential access for bananas to the United Kingdom market resulted in a sharp decline in banana export earnings. In recent years the country continues to be adversely affected by a shrinking agricultural sector. In 2005 and 2006, the economy grew by 3.5 and 4.0 percent respectively following a decade of poor performance. 4 Dominica has shifted from banana exports to investment in the tourism and services sector to drive its economic development. The 2000 Census estimated that employment in agriculture was 40 percent, in industry 32 percent, and in services 28 percent (2000 est.). So, despite the shift from bananas to tourism, 40 percent of the country s labour force is still engaged in agriculture, and farming is the main economic activity of both men and women in rural communities. However, the decline in the agricultural sector, and especially in the banana industry, has resulted in farmers either ceasing production or undertaking other economic activities which may be less profitable. People living in the major towns are employed in the public sector as civil servants, as self-employed owners of bars and shops, and as art and craft vendors in the tourism sector, all of which provide a wide variety of tourism and other services. People from small, rural villages often travel daily to urban centres such as Roseau for employment since there are few employment opportunities in rural areas. It therefore means that when there are floods and other natural hazards that block roadways, the livelihoods of these persons are severely affected

13 Poverty reduction is one of the goals of Dominica s GSPS proposed by the Prime Minister in This is in keeping with the United Nations Millennium Development Goal (MDG) #1 to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger by In general, poverty rates are higher for women, and among the poorest there is a high incidence of female headed households. The level of poverty in the rural areas and especially among the indigenous Kalinagos is also a major concern. Most men and women in the Kalinago community are involved in subsistence farming and fishing as their primary occupation. Others use their traditional skills to survive by producing baskets, calabash carvings and building canoes Gender assessment for disaster risk management Pre-disaster vulnerability The findings from interviews conducted with representatives from the Office of Disaster Management (ODM) and the Women s Bureau show that Dominica has a formal Disaster Management Policy and Mission Statement. However, the policies do not take into account the differential social and economic statuses of men and women. These realities are reflected in the greater representation of women among the unemployed and the poor, and the larger size of female headed households. Together, these factors increase women s risk and vulnerability to the effects of disasters. Disaster preparation and management is primarily the responsibility of the ODM which operates under the direction of the Prime Minister. The ODM issues bulletins before, during and after a disaster and tries to ensure that this information is quickly disseminated to the public. The Office also seeks to be proactive in its approach by mobilising the necessary resources to reduce risks and loss of life, including making arrangements for shelter and evacuation for the general population. Interviews with the ODM revealed that in the event of a disaster evacuation, efforts are first concentrated on people who are most vulnerable because they live in flood prone areas. Priority is also given to efforts that will result in prompt recovery to reduce the impact on the economy of the country, particularly in the agricultural and tourism sectors. The assessment showed that the ODM does not prioritise groups that may be vulnerable because of sex, age or disability. The agency s approach is therefore considered gender blind as the assumption is made that the realities faced by men and women are the same. This approach may leave poor women, the indigenous population and the elderly more vulnerable, as the most able-bodied and assertive persons are more likely to access resources and assistance. Nevertheless, information from other agencies confirmed that there is awareness among some of these agencies that women are often more severely affected than men by disasters. Data from the other interviews showed that when there is notice of an impending natural hazard, the preparations made by women usually include the storing of water, stocking up on non-perishable food items and 5 5

14 essential medical supplies, as well as securing their houses and property. In households where there are male partners, men are actively involved in the disaster preparations. However, in female-headed households, single women, their children and the elderly are more vulnerable since they have to rely on assistance from their immediate community to undertake the urgent preparations. Vulnerability during disaster Although Dominica does not have a formal policy which advocates that special assistance should be provided to especially vulnerable groups during a disaster, efforts are made to ensure that everyone, regardless of sex, age or ability, is kept safe in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. Both Government and private sector groups are involved in activities to cope with the disaster and support the recovery efforts in the shortest possible time. During the disaster, efforts are generally aimed at reducing mortality and mitigating human, physical, environmental and economic losses. The reports from the persons consulted show that during a disaster, activities are also concentrated on ensuring the safety of everyone, without reference to the needs of highly vulnerable groups. In this regard, the approach to coping with disasters is gender-blind. Post-disaster vulnerability In the aftermath of a disaster, priority is given to restoring access to water, food supplies, sanitation, and roads. Despite the specific vulnerabilities of the respective groups outlined earlier, the main agency responsible for disaster risk management did not have any strategies that focus on disaster management recovery efforts, which take account of the special needs of women, children, the elderly or the disabled in Dominica. The representative from the National Council of Women indicated that in the post-disaster phase, there were several complex tasks to be undertaken which focused on matters related to life and property. Among these were: search and rescue for missing and marooned persons; repairing and rebuilding homes and buildings; and the filing of insurance claims. The Women s Bureau and the Council of Women also revealed that after a disaster there is a high demand from women for assistance in completing application forms to access aid such as food, building materials and medical supplies. All of these require specific skills and resources which place a heavy demand on the agencies, and is an additional pressure on their already limited resources. 6 The limited number of shelters and other forms of temporary housing for persons whose houses were extensively damaged or lost also emerged as a factor of vulnerability in Dominica. Findings from the interviews also revealed that within these temporary shelters, there is no separation of women and girls from men and boys. Generally, such a situation increases the risk of sexual violence, as women and girls are more vulnerable to sexual violence and abuse than men and boys. The assessment also revealed that Dominica does not have policies or practices for collecting sex-disaggregated data. Although data are collected on persons affected, and on damage to buildings and property, this is not disaggregated by sex or age and severely limits the quality of the information available to guide and plan interventions to help individuals rebuild their lives. 6 Dominica National Council of Women 6

15 Figure 1: Map showing areas of specific vulnerability in Dominica Source: Disaster Risk Management Working Paper Series No. 2 7

16 2.5. Recent major natural hazards and disasters in Dominica Earthquakes Earthquakes have proven to be a significant hazard for Dominica. In November 2004, an earthquake measuring 6.0 on the Richter Scale occurred, which caused widespread damage to buildings in the north of the island. There were no deaths, but 19,527 persons were affected. Damage to the Dominican economy was estimated by the OECS as EC$90 million. 7 In February 2005, another earthquake measuring 5.5 on the Richter Scale occurred. In November 2007, just months after Hurricane Dean caused damage to the island Dominica experienced the effects of yet another earthquake measuring 7.3 on the Richter scale, which was centred off the coast of Martinique. On both occasions, there were no reports of injury, but there was some property damage. Volcanoes Dominica has nine volcanoes but these are essentially dormant, with the last minor activity being reported in the Valley of Desolation in Floods and landslides On 18 November 1997, a landslide and flooding episode began which forced the Government to take several emergency measures. A relatively large landslide developed in the watershed of a tributary of the Matthieu River, which itself is a tributary of the Layou River, Dominica s largest river. The debris moved down slopes through Matthieu Tributary Valley, then through the narrow Matthieu Gorge prior to entering the Layou River. The landslide debris completely blocked the Layou River and formed a landslide dam. The subsequent flooding and landslides caused damage to buildings, agriculture, roads, bridges and the surrounding environment. Hurricanes Dominica has experienced several major hurricanes in the last two decades. The most severe have been: Hurricanes Dean (August 2007), Lenny (1999), Marilyn (1995) and David (1979). The most recent system to affect the country was Hurricane Omar in October 2008 which, even though it did not directly hit the island, resulted in storm surge. During each hurricane, the west coast of the island was severely battered, and there was widespread damage from storm surges to infrastructure such as roads, sea defenses, ports and utilities. In the case of Hurricane Dean in August 2007, damage to the physical infrastructure of the country was primarily to utilities, roadways and bridges which are essential for the country s economic development, and in particular, for the agricultural and tourism sectors

17 Plate 2: Photo showing the effects of a storm surge from Hurricane Dean in Dominica Photo by Lee Wilbur, Source: Impact of disasters These disasters provided vivid examples of the island s vulnerability to natural hazards. In addition to the loss of lives and property, the disasters devastated the agricultural sector and damaged infrastructure and utilities. Loss of revenue from agriculture as a result of a natural disaster has a ripple effect on the country s population. There is the loss of income for farmers, for workers in related sectors, as well as loss of revenue from exports. Disasters highlight Dominica s vulnerability, as it relates to the island s relatively small size and heavy dependence on agriculture and eco-tourism; and the potential of these disasters to hamper the country s development. Some of the major challenges to implementing the GSPS included not only Dominica s vulnerability to factors in the global and domestic economy but also to natural hazards. Events such as hurricanes or volcanic eruptions have the potential to disrupt the country s growth and can contribute to increases in poverty over many years. The specific and differential impacts of these disasters on men, women, and vulnerable groups in the country must be considered to ensure that the goals of these development plans can be met, and the strategies implemented. 9

18 3. Institutional assessments 3.1. Profile of the Office of Disaster Management Dominica s National Emergency Planning Organisation (NEPO), is the state agency established to plan and coordinate the management of disasters in the country. The Office of Disaster Management (ODM) is the implementation arm of NEPO and reports to NEPO. ODM was established in 1983 and organises counter-disaster activities. ODM falls under the Ministry of Public Utilities and the Director reports directly to the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Public Utilities. ODM has a small staff of four persons to oversee disaster prevention and management activities for the entire country. Table 1 indicates that the leadership and technical staff are male, while the single support staff member is female. Table 1: Staffing of the Office of Disaster Management STAFF Women (#) Women (%) Men (#) Men (%) Director 1 100% Management Technical 1 100% Support 1 100% Volunteers 1 100% Dominica s national programme of disaster planning and management is guided by policy and a mission statement. The Policy states that: National Disaster Management is to be given the highest level of authority, and it is to be adequately resourced to ensure the protection and safety of the people and assets of the country, the sustainability of our social and economic progress, and our future survival as an independent nation. The Mission Statement indicates that: The Office of Disaster Management is committed to taking proactive and timely measures to prevent or reduce the impact of disasters on the Dominican people and economy through its efficient staff and collaborative efforts with national, regional, and international agencies. 8 The programme of ODM focuses on prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery

19 3.2. Profile of the Bureau of Gender Affairs The Bureau of Gender Affairs (BGA) is the government agency responsible for women s and gender affairs in Dominica. It was first established as a Women s Desk in 1979 and attained Bureau status in The agency currently operates within the Ministry of Community Development, Culture, Gender Affairs and Information and has a staff complement of three women. According to the Director, the official mandate is to promote the rights and concerns of the women in Dominica and to integrate gender into government policies. The Mission Statement of BGA is as follows: The Bureau of Gender Affairs seeks to promote and advance the concerns of women and gender issues and assisting women and men in realizing their full potential through the attainment of gender equity and equality Profile of the Dominican National Council of Women The Dominica National Council of Women (DNCW) is a non-governmental organisation (NGO) that was first established in The mandate of DNCW is to promote the rights of Dominican women. The agency has a staff of three persons, all of whom are women. They undertake day-to-day activities and report to a Board of Directors. The National Council focuses on addressing issues related to domestic violence but, in recent years, has been a central force in providing assistance to women affected by disasters. This has included providing advice to women on matters ranging from how to file insurance claims for property loss, to how to access welfare after a disaster. The Council has also been involved in organizing disaster prevention activities such as community-based workshops to promote proper waste disposal. This reduces the risk of waterways and roads being blocked by garbage, and is therefore seen as important to preventing flooding which may occur as a result of blocked drains

20 4. Gender and disaster risk configuration in Dominica As a result of their social and economic status, women and men in Dominica are affected differently in disasters, particularly with respect to loss of housing, transportation, and employment. Consideration should therefore be given to their physical and mental health, as well as their need to access health care and resources to recover from disasters. In Dominica, women are more economically vulnerable to the effects of disaster than men because they have traditionally had a higher rate of unemployment than men. In general, poverty rates are higher for women, and among the poorest there is a high incidence of female-headed households. These realities require a gender analysis of policies and programmes, and the adoption of a gendersensitive approach to disaster risk management and planning. Because of financial constraints, the vulnerable groups (including women) are often unable to rebuild, repair or relocate when threatened by imminent disasters. This creates many challenging situations when they try to recover from disasters. The older population, disabled persons and others who are unable to work usually rely on government assistance for support. During a disaster, access to these agencies is severely limited and this makes these dependent persons particularly vulnerable. The Government of Dominica, with the help of several NGOs and community-based organisations (CBOs), provides personal care, and offers security, preventative and remedial assistance for the most vulnerable groups: children, youth, women, the elderly and the physically and mentally challenged. 12

21 5. Conclusions and recommendations 5.1. Conclusions The effect of climate change and the increase in frequency of natural hazards is one of the most urgent issues currently impacting Dominica s social and economic development. Women in Dominica constitute the majority of the country s poorest persons. In spite of the many advances that they have made over the last century, they still have unequal economic and social status which makes them particularly vulnerable to the impact of natural hazards. Their unequal position in the labour market also makes their recovery from disasters more difficult. These and other factors need to be addressed in disaster risk management and planning. The relevant institutions have not integrated gender into disaster risk management, and this will have a negative impact on national development Recommendations In order to ensure that gender is integrated in disaster risk management, the Government of Dominica and civil society agencies should consider the following recommendations: Revise the disaster policies and mission statement to make them gender sensitive. This is likely to have a positive effect on disaster risk reduction in the population as well as creating strong support for targeted recovery measures for vulnerable population groups; Request the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency (CDERA) to provide training to build the capacity of the Office of Disaster Management, the Bureau of Gender Affairs and NGOs to incorporate disaster management in their programme of work, as well as to conduct trainer-of-trainers workshops on gender mainstreaming in disaster risk management in the public and private sectors; Conduct gender training for Disaster Managers and Technical Staff in the key public sector offices, including the Disaster Management agencies, NEPO, Ministry of Local Government as well as CBOs, to raise their awareness of gender differences and vulnerabilities, and to equip them with skills for incorporating a gender sensitive approach in planning and managing disaster preparation and response. Such training will sharpen their sensitivity and skills to assess and appropriately address the differential impact of disasters on women and men and assist them in the recovery process; Establish gender-sensitive Management Information Systems that support gender-sensitive risk assessment. This would ensure the collection of sex-disaggregated data on persons affected by disasters. Training is also needed to conduct gender analysis of the data collected to assess the differential impact of disasters on men and women separately, rather than collectively as is currently done; 13

22 Provide training in gender sensitive risk assessment using the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) methodology for vulnerability assessments. This would ensure collection of sex-disaggregated data on vulnerable groups such as those in rural and poor communities, those living in slums, and persons living in vulnerable areas such as low-lying communities and areas prone to landslides. This can be done by using community personnel who have intimate knowledge of the areas and households; Adopt gender-sensitive Early Warning Systems. Ensure that the agencies responsible for early warning are proactive in their dissemination of regular, accurate and comprehensive information on hazards and disasters. This information should be disseminated utilising communication channels (including radio and television) that are most appropriate for women and men in urban and rural areas, and in the indigenous population; Expand public education programmes to promote awareness, sensitivity and timely response to the warning signs of imminent disasters, particularly among the vulnerable population - women, children, the elderly, the disabled and poor persons in inner city and indigenous communities; Encourage communities to practise better waste disposal procedures to reduce waste that can increase the risk of flooding; Enact legislation for better building practices, and ensure that there are stricter penalties for non-adherence. 14

23 References 1. Benson, C., E. Clay, F. V. Michael and A. W. Robertson. Dominica: Natural Disasters and Economic Development in a Small Island State. Disaster Risk Management Working Paper Series No. The World Bank Retrieved 6 May Enarson, E. and B. Hearn-Morrow, (ed.) The Gendered Terrain of Disaster: Through Women s Eyes. International Hurricane Center, Florida International University, USA Environmental Coordinating Unit, Ministry of Agriculture, Planning and Environment (2000). The Commonwealth of Dominica s First National Report on the Implementation of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). Roseau, Dominica Halcrow Group Limited (2003). Caribbean Development Bank Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica Country Poverty Assessment Final Report. 4C811F2ED83B66F D0006EF2A7/$File/cpa.dom_app.pdf

24 15. International Landslide Research Group (ILRG) Newsletter Vol. 12, No. 1, International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (2005). Hyogo Framework for Action : Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. World Conference on Disaster Reduction, Japan Ishmael, L. (2008). Opening remarks for the Regional Workshop and launch of the Vulnerability Benchmarking Tool (BTOOL) Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States. Environment and Sustainable Development Unit, St. Lucia. 16