~---- Focus What were the main points of presidential Reconstruction

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1 BEFORE You READ MAIN IDEA U.s. leaders had differing views about how to reconstruct the United States and about what rights to extend to African Americans. READING Focus What were the main points of presidential Reconstruction under Lincoln? What were the main points of presidential Reconstruction under Johnson, and what conflicts arose between Johnson and Congress? What were the major policies and achievements of Congressional Reconstruction? KEY TERMS AND PEOPLE Ten Percent Plan Wade-Davis Bill John Wilkes Booth Andrew Johnson Black Codes Radical Republicans Charles Sumner Thaddeus Stevens Civil Rights Act of 1866 Fourteenth Amendment Reconstruction Acts Fifteenth Amendment frullding BACKGROUND I ;ftr the Civil War, the u.s. government began Reconstruction, the process of rebuilding the South and reuniting the nation. While the government helped former slaves begin the difficult task of building new lives, northern leaders debated how to treat the defeated Confederate states. Deep-seated animosity remained between the North and the South, and many northerners supported stiff penalties for the rebel southern states. President Abraham Lincoln, however, stated in 1865 that he hoped northerners would treat the South "with malice toward none, with charity for all." Reconstruction under Lincoln During the Civil War, President Lincoln had hoped to reunite the United States as quickly as possible. In 1863, well before the war ended, he had developed a plan for restoring rebel states to the Union. A quick restoration was not to be, though. Opposition from Congress and a great tragedy would soon derail Lincoln's hopes..,; e; Lincoln's Ten Percent Plan :!! Lincoln's Reconstruction plan included three main parts. First, southerners who. <t took an oath ofloyalty to the United States and agreed that slavery was illegal would receive amnesty and regain their citizenship. High-ranking Confederate officials c: were excluded, however. Second, at least 10 percent of a state's citizens who had voted e; in 1860 had to swear loyalty before they could form a new state government. Third, "' the state had to amend its constitution to ban slavery. Lincoln would then recognize 'ii: 15- the state and its new government as part of the Union. This plan became known :r: f as the ;fen Percent Plan. By the war's end, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Tennessee had rejoined the Union under the plan' and elected new members to Congress..3 ACADEMIC VOCABULARY 1. Use the context, or surrounding words in the sentence, to write a definition of amnesty. BLACKSIN THE RECONSTRUCTIONERA

2 .. President Abraham Lincoln died on April 15, 1865, after John Wilkes Booth assassinated him. INFO TO KNow To kill the Wade-Davis Bill, Lincoln used a pocket veto. This veto power is available only during the last 10 days that Congress is in session. During that time, the president can kill a bill simply by not signing it. Usually, if the president does not sign a bill while Congress is in session, the bill becomes law after 10 days. Congress cannot overturn a pocket veto. Reading Check 2. Find the Main Idea What was the Ten Percent Plan, and why did many Republicans in Congress oppose it? opposition to Lincoln's Plan Lincoln's Ten Percent Plan met with strong opposition from Congress. Many Republican members-particularly the more radical Republicans-thought the plan was too lenient. They wanted a more demanding Reconstruction plan that imposed stiffer pen-! alties against the South. A Republican senator from Michigan expressed this view. :;; HISTORY'S VOICES "The people of the North are not such fools asto..,turn around and say to the traitors, 'all you have to do [to return] is... take an oath that henceforth you will be true to the Government.'" -Senator Jacob Howard, 38th Congress, 1st Session, , quoted in Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, , by Eric Foner Another reason that some members of Congress opposed Lincoln's plan had to do with a question of government power. Who had the power to allow the seceded states to rejoin the Union-the president or Congress? President Lincoln thought he did, but many members of Congress disagreed. To show its opposition, Congress refused to seat the new members from the states admitted under Lincoln's Ten Percent Plan. Congress then proposed a stricter Reconstruction plan in the Wace-Davis Bffil. Under this plan, a state had to meet two conditions to rejoin the Union. First, a majority of the state's adult white male citizens had to take a loyalty oath before the state could form a new government. Second, the state constitution had to be amended to abolish slavery and prohibit secession. In addition to these two conditions, the bill prohibited anyone who had voluntarily supported the Confederacy from voting or holding office. This plan would make rejoining the Union much harder for southern states. At the time, the Civil War had not yet ended, and Lincoln thought the plan's tough con- Jditions would make southerners more committed to fighting. He therefore refused ilto sign the Wade-Davis Bill into law. Many Republicans harshly criticized Lincoln for this action. Such criticism from Lincoln's own political party proved to be a sign of the bitter struggle that Reconstruction was to become. The Assassination of Lincoln What new Reconstruction plan Lincoln might have proposed remains unknown. On the evening of April 14, 1865-less than a week after the war's end-lincoln and his wife attended a play at Ford's Theater in Washington. During the performance, a southerner named John Wilkes Booth sneaked into the president's theater box and shot him. The next morning, Lincoln died. Lincoln's tragic death produced one of the greatest outpourings of grief in American history. As a train carried the president's body to Illinois for burial, huge crowds gathered along the way to show their respect. In a letter, black poet Frances Ellen Watkins Harper expressed her sadness. "Sorrow treads on the footsteps of the nation's joy... To-day a nation sits down beneath the shadow of its mournful grief. Oh, what a terrible lesson does this event read to us!" In the former Confederacy, some white southerners reacted to Lincoln's death with concern. Reconstruction was now in the hands of Andrew Johnson, Lincoln's vice president. A southerner who had supported the Union, Johnson was a traitor in the eyes of many people in the South. Meanwhile, many members of Congress hoped to find an ally in Johnson. 140 CHAPTER 6

3 Reconstruction under Johnson Many Republicans in Congress hoped that Johnson, as the new president, would support more demanding Reconstruction policies. During the Civil War, Johnson had taken a tough stand against the Confederacy. "Treason is a crime;' he had declared, "and crime must be punished:' Conflict, however, would soon erupt between Johnson and Congress over Reconstruction. Johnson's Reconstruction Plan Johnson issued his Reconstruction plan in May 1865, less than a month after becoming president. In some ways, Johnson's plan was similar to Lincoln's. Almost all white southerners who took a loyalty oath to the United States would receive amnesty. They would then regain their U.S. citizenship and property, with the exception of their former slaves. However, high-ranking Confederate officials as well as southerners who owned property worth $20,000 or more had to obtain presidential pardons to receive amnesty. Unlike Lincoln's plan, Johnson's plan did not require a certain percentage of state voters to pledge loyalty. Instead, delegates at a state convention had to repeal secession, amend the state constitution to abolish slavery, and nullify all Confederate debts. Once these steps were taken, state voters could form a new state government and elect representatives to Congress. Johnson's Reconstruction plan moved forward during the summer of 1865-with surprising results. Despite his strong words against treason, Johnson pardoned nearly every planter and former Confederate official who applied. He eventually pardoned several thousand southerners. These pardons enabled many prewar leaders and former Confederates to gain political office. In fact, southern voters elected to the u.s. Congress 10 former Confederate generals, two former Confederate cabinet members, and the former vice president of the Confederacy. Many Republicans in Congress, which was in recess during this period, were far from satisfied with this turn of events. When Congress met for its session in December 1865, the members refused to seat the newly elected southern representatives. 3. List the main requirements of President Johnson's Reconstruction plan. Black Codes In the meantime, Johnson had approved most of the new southern state governments. The state's legislatures had then quickly begun passing discriminatory laws against African Americans. Called 'Black Codes, the laws resembled the slave codes -e that had controlled African Americans under slavery. Although slavery had ended, deep-rooted prejudice against African Americans remained in the South. Most white southerners hoped to restore the white power structure they had enjoyed before the <i war. The Black Codes were designed to control African Americans and to put them c:: back into an inferior and slavelike condition. At the same time, the laws were meant to r:: ensure white planters of a dependent black labor force. r:: i The Black Codes, which varied by state, did ensure freedpeople of some rights. 1 For example, in most states, blacks could marry and testify in court against other.g blacks. Most Black Codes, however, denied rights. Some states enforced segregation, I f or racial separation, in public areas. Some did not allow freedpeople to own guns. Many states banned interracial marriage and prohibited African Americans from s, 8" testifying in court against white citizens. "" BLACKS IN THE RECONSTRUCTION ERA 141

4 All the states' Black Codes limited former slaves' economic opportunities. Black Codes For example, some states taxed freedpeople who did not work on plantations Many white southerners were horrified and threatened by former slaves suddenly moving around freely. Tocontrol freedpeople, southern states passed laws known as BlackCodes. The following is an mer slaves from buying land or renting or as servants. Some states banned for- excerpt from Mississippi's BlackCode, passed in November property in certain areas. Most states required freedpeople to sign labor contracts, which bound workers to their Section 7. Be it further enacted [passed], that every civil officer shall, and every person may, arrest and carry back to his or her employers for a certain period, such legal employer any freedman, free Negro, or mulatto [person as a year. Workers who left before the of mixed race] who shall have quit the service of his or her period ended could be arrested or lose employer before the expiration [end] of his or her term of service their wages. Even more, in many states, without good cause, and said officer and person shall be entitled freedpeople without labor contracts or to receive for arresting and carrying back every deserting jobs could be arrested, fined, and then employee aforesaid [mentioned before], the sum of $5, and forced to work to payoff the fines, 10 cents per mile from the place of arrest to the place of delivery. The Freedmen's Bureau and the U.S. military were able to prevent some Black Codes from being enforced. In 4. Draw Conclusions Howdoes the excerpt addition, the Bureau tried to help freedpeople obtain fair labor contracts. Even above restrictthe freedom of AfricanAmericans and resemble actions taken under slavery? so, the Black Codes denied African Americans many rights and restored the South's white power structure. Southern blacks were subjected to curfews, arrest, and humiliating treatment. Local law officers invaded African Americans' homes and seized their property. Unable to obtain land or better jobs, many former slaves had to go back to the plantations to work under labor contracts. The Black Codes angered and alarmed African Americans. One black Civil War veteran asked, "If you call this Freedom, what do you call Slavery?" To oppose the V Reading Check Black Codes, some black leaders in the South held conventions to call for change. In 5. Identify Cause and South Carolina, for example, a black convention sent a petition to state officials. Effect Howdid Johnson's Reconstruction plan affect HISTORY'S VOICES AfricanAmericans inthe South? "We simply ask... that the same laws which govern white men shall govern black men... that, in short, we be dealt with as others are-in equity [equality] and justice." -Convention of the Colored People of South Carolina, 1865 A few African Americans took more direct action to oppose the Black Codes. In Louisville, Kentucky, horse-drawn streetcars were restricted to white passengers. Some young black men began boarding the streetcars and refusing to leave until arrested. Their efforts helped convince the streetcar company to change its policy and allow black riders. Similar events occurred elsewhere. Such gutsy stands foreshadowed the struggles of the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. 142 CHAPTER6

5 Congressional Reconstruction HISTORICAL DOCUMENT Opposition to President Johnson's Reconstruction plan increased as the months passed. Many northerners were disturbed by the events taking place in the South. "Public sentiment [there] is still as bitter and unloyal as in 1861;' the New York Times reported. These northerners thought that the nation's enormous wartime sacrifices would be wasted if the South returned to its prewar ways. A growing number of members in Congress agreed and soon moved to take control of Reconstruction. Congress Opposes Johnson In Congress, the members most fiercely opposed to Johnson's Reconstruction plan were the Radical.publicans. This small group was led by Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts and Representative Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania. The Radicals wanted to impose harsh terms on the defeated southern states and to force them to make dramatic changes before rejoining the Union. "The whole fabric of southern SOcietymust be changed;' proclaimed Stevens. In addition, the Radicals criticized Johnson for not providing African Americans with the right to vote or with any role in the new state governments. In contrast, Johnson thought that each state should decide what black civil rights to provide, such as the right to vote. When some black leaders met with him to discuss black voting rights, Johnson declared, "It is the people of the states that must for themselves determine this thing:' Black leader Frederick Douglass firmly responded, "You enfranchise [give the vote to] your enemies and disenfranchise your friends:' Most Republicans in Congress did not share the Radicals' views. These more moderate Republicans formed the largest group in Congress. Although they mainly disliked Johnson's Reconstruction plan, they hoped to work with him. At the same time, they opposed the Black Codes and saw the need to protect freedpeoples rights. To do so, Congress passed two bills in early The first bill was the Freedmen's Bureau Bill. It extended the life of the Freedmen's Bureau and enabled it to try some legal cases involving African Americans, thereby removing such cases from possibly unfair -ci southern courts. The second bill was the Civil Rights Act of OJ This bill provided African Americans with the same legal rights as white Americans. Anyone who denied freedpeople their equal :g, rights could be tried in a federal court. «Johnson vetoed both bills. He insisted they were unconstitu- tional and unnecessary. Freedpeople should not have equal rights, -g '" he declared, because they did not yet understand "our institutions:' 1:: He further declared that Congress could not pass laws until all of - the states were represented. Johnson's actions alienated many modo erate Republicans in Congress. They joined forces with the Radii cals and passed both bills over the president's vetoes. The battle for. control of Reconstruction had begun. u Go online to read a historical document from the Reconstruction era. BLACKS IN THE RECONSTRUCTION ERA 143

6 6. What U.S. Supreme Court case did the Fourteenth Amendment overturn, and how did overturning that case help African Americans? Go online to read a historical document from the Reconstruction era. The Fourteenth Amendment Republicans in Congress worried that the US. Supreme Court might later overturn the Civil Rights Act of To ensure the rights it protected, Congress passed the fiourteenth AmenCIment to the US. Constitution. This amendment, which was ratified in 1868, granted US. citizenship to all people born or naturalized in the United States. This guarantee overturned the Dred Scott decision of 1857, in which the US. Supreme Court had ruled that African Americans were not US. citizens. In addition, the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed all US. citizens equal protection under the law and prohibited any state from depriving a citizen's rights without due process of law. Last, the new amendment prohibited all prewar officials who had supported the Confederacy from holding state or national political office. The Fourteenth Amendment infuriated many white southerners, and every seceded state but Tennessee refused to ratify it. President Johnson and many northern Democrats strongly opposed the amendment as well. Because of this opposition, civil rights for African Americans became a key issue in the 1866 congressional elections. In preparation, Johnson began a tour of the nation to promote his policies and the candidates who supported them. However, during the tour he often argued with his audiences and lost some people's support. About the same time, race riots broke out in Louisiana and Tennessee when white mobs attacked African Americans. Dozens of people-most of them black-were killed. These events helped increase support for the Republicans, and northern voters elected them in large numbers. Radical Reconstruction After the 1866 elections, the Radical Republicans incongress had enough numbers and support to take control of Reconstruction. In 1867 and 1868 Congress passed several strong RecanstructioA Acts. These laws invalidated the state governments In the space provided, list what each amendment stated and whenit was ratified. 7. Thirteenth Amendment 8. Fourteenth Amendment 9. Fifteenth Amendment 144 CHAPTER 6

7 that Johnson had approved and divided the South into five military districts under U.S. Army control. Only Tennessee, readmitted to the Union in July 1866, was exempt. The other seceded states had to meet three conditions to rejoin the Union. First, they had to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment. Second, they had to give adult black male citizens the vote. Third, they had to let voters, including black men, elect new state government officials. Military commanders had the authority to register black voters and to remove southern officials who did not cooperate. Johnson hotly denounced the Reconstruction Acts, which he claimed used "powers not granted to the federal government or anyone of its branches:' He vetoed each act in turn, but Congress overrode every veto. Tensions further heightened when Congress passed a law requiring Senate approval for the president to remove Cabinet members. Johnson refused to obey the law, and in 1868 the U.S. House of Representatives impeached him. The Senate, however, lacked one vote to convict Johnson and remove him from office. Nonetheless, Johnson's power as president was broken. Later that year, Ulysses S. Grant was elected as the new president. The former general in chief of the Union forces, Grant was a popular war hero. He also supported Congressional Reconstruction. By the time he took office, Congress had admitted seven more southern states to the Union-Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina. The Fifteenth Amendment The Reconstruction Acts gave the vote to black men-but only in the South. In much of the rest of the nation, black men still could not vote. To give all black men the vote, Congress passed the Fifteentl1 enciment to the U.S. Constitution in This amendment, which was ratified in 1870, stated that no U.S. citizen could be denied the right to vote because of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison praised "this wonderful, quiet, sudden transformation of four millions of human beings from... the auction block to the ballot-box:' The Fifteenth Amendment gave all adult black men in the United States the right to vote. Reading Check 10. Identify What did the Reconstruction Acts do? Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People Qj 11. Recall What was Lincoln's plan for Reconstruction, and what was it called?.c:. «c'. 12. Compare How did the Black Codes resemble slavery? "0 <= '" 1::.s: '" '" c: i:c. 13. Evaluate Which element of the Reconstruction Acts do you think was the I E most important? o BLACKS IN THE RECONSTRUCTION ERA 145