A comparative study of policies on international relations in Olympic sports: The experiences of Greece and Australia

Transcription

1 A comparative study of policies on international relations in Olympic sports: The experiences of Greece and Australia S. Quick, T. Taylor, and D. Gargalianos* Introduction The phenomena of dynamic global expansion and its nexus with sport policy and international relations has been identified as a topic that is ambiguous and in need of further investigation (see MacAloon, 1991), Coakley (1994) and Cashmore (1996) suggest it is a consequential area for exploration as sport can both positively and negatively effect between-country relations depending upon the context and intent. The global expansion of the world economy, the liberalization of international sports boundaries perpetuated and fostered by media and technology coupled with the increasing diffusion of nation states and the rise of international integration of sports men and women into previously nation-focused competitions, has meant that we need to reconceptualize the sport/international relations nexus. As sporting boundaries become blurred and nationalism is viewed as increasingly irrelevant at best, or a dangerous ideal at worst, it may seem somewhat incongruous to investigate the use of sports policy to promote international relations between geographically defined countries and cultures. Conceptually, this is the paradox upon which this research is focussed. A review of the literature suggests that this area is prime for investigation. Sport has different modes of structural organization in different countries and this affects the way in which international relations policies can be employed. Similarly, the outcomes and relationships will depend on the formative stage of development of the sport, the country and the role of the state and its preference for formal or social modes of control. Significantly, the literature points to the need for sport managers to know the context of how sport is used in their own nations, how this situation varies from nation to nation, and the context for this variation between nations. An understanding of the multidirectional and multi-causal aspects of globalisation and the need to embrace rather than exclude theories on world relations are critical to embracing all of its aspects, and developing policy which incorporates both its positive and negative aspects. This research explores this nexus of sport policy and international relations via a two country survey of national and state level sporting organizations. Olympic sports are a perfect starting point for this research as they are common to both Australia and Greece. Both countries have demonstrated a strong commitment to the Olympics by being present at every Games of the modern era. Background The current global community is characterised by national economies that are inextricably linked to world monetary systems and multi-national corporations that are increasingly dominant in local markets. Sport has not escaped this worldwide globalisation process, although its effect has been felt more strongly in some sports than others and more directly in some countries than others. For example, McKay, Lawrence, Miller and Rowe (1993) discuss how Australian sport has been substantively altered by the integration of sport into global media industries, the global processes of commercialisation and industrialisation, and the ascendancy of corporate managerialism. However, the creation of expansive spheres of influence and domination is not a new phenomenon in sport. Although the World League of American Football in Europe is currently a prime example of cultural imperialism, the place of sports such as cricket in furthering the colonial perspective of England and its Empire has been well-documented (see Cashman 1988). While sport can contribute to national identity, and to a certain extent transcend other divisions within society by acting as a * S. Quick, T. Taylor, and D. Gargalianos are at the University of Technology, Australia. Bridging Three Centuries Fifth International Symposium for Olympic Research, pp

2 82 Bridging Three Centuries Fifth International Symposium for Olympic Research unifying model for its nation in the international arena, it can also reflect and accentuate internal/domestic differences that may be at odds with national politics and undermine international relations. Therefore, it is important to distinguish between sport policy having an indirect impact on national identity and the explicit use of sport to build a national identity or portray a particular national image to other nation states. Bairner (1996) and Houlihan (1994) suggest that the position of a nation-state in the world context influences how sport is used in international relations. In concert, Rowe and Lawrence (1998) state that within and between nation-states cultural data are decoded differently, not according to fixed principles of meaning but in a manner contingent upon local histories and ways of seeing and doing (p. 161). The particular context shapes how sport is used or can be used by a particular nation-state (Maguire, 1999; Giddens, 1999). This notion of context is important for it illustrates the necessity to avoid unidirectional and monocausal explanations of nation-state relationships. Maguire (1999) expresses the view that sport possesses significant power in the era of globalisation, where local emotions are put on the world stage via the sport processes. Government representatives, private organizations, and multinational corporations, demonstrate this by showing a significant interest and playing an important part in this global cultural interchange. Maguire (1999) contends that sport has a major political impact in terms of national prestige. Through education, health and the voluntary sector, it plays a crucial part in the internal socialisation and external migration of citizens and is viewed as having the potential to develop and promote international fellowship. Chalip s (1995) framework of interpretive and critical methods for policy analyses attempts to clarify the parameters of policy problems and thereby improve policy formulation and implementation. In examining the national sports policies of several countries Chalip, Johnson and Stachura (1996) found that cross-national studies provide the contrasts and comparisons in assumptions, values, attributions and expectations about sport. In the research at hand it is acknowledged that the way in which Greece values its sport is more likely than not, different to Australia. The research problem This research was designed to investigate and analyse existing international relations policies of selected sport organizations in Australia and Greece. To this end, the attitudes and opinions of personnel attached to national sport agencies were sought regarding the extent to which their respective sport contributes to international relations. Methodology The research framework and validated data collection instruments were first designed and implemented in Greece in The survey was then translated and adapted from the Greek study (Gargalianos, 1996) for the Australian component of the research. Some questions from the original survey were removed or changed after piloting questionnaire; this related to the differences in the way in which sport is constructed between the two countries and geographical relevance. Questions about policies of international relations, views of respondents on relations between sport and politics, the contribution of sports to the international relations of the country, the organization of international sports relations within the country, the financial dimension of international sports relations, and demographical information were included in both surveys. In the Australian study 33 summer sports, eight winter sports, eight Associated bodies and 13 Recognised sports were surveyed. The Sydney Organizing Committee (SOCOG) managers in 22 sports were also surveyed. Respondents were requested to complete their questionnaire within ten days of receipt and either return it by mail in the enclosed reply paid envelope, fax or . Reminder letters and reminder s were posted at 14 days and 21 days. A total of 214 surveys were distributed to identified personnel within each sport organization. Of these 65 valid responses were received, a response rate of 30.3 per cent. While this number is rather low, it should be noted that each sport received multiple questionnaires and of the 84 sports surveyed 47 replied, for a response rate of 55.9 percent. In the Greek study the sports surveyed included 25 summer sports, 2 winter sports, the Hellenic Olympic Committee, the General Secretariat of Sport, and the Sports Department of the Ministry of Education. Also, the members of the sports committees of the two major political parties (government and opposition) were supplied with a questionnaire. A similar set of procedures to the Australian study was followed for the distribution and collection of the questionnaires. A total of 504 surveys were distributed with a response rate of 47.2 per cent. Results: Profile of respondents In the Australian study 73 per cent of survey respondents were male, while in the Greek study the proportion of male respondents was even higher (90.8%). These findings are anticipated; research conducted by McKay (1992) for the Australian Sports Commission found that there were very few female executives in sporting organizations. The gender issue has been a point of debate within the Australian sport system for several years, and these figures support the contention that little progress has been made in this domain. Harahousou (1996) outlines a similar situation in Greece where there is under-representation and inequality of Greek women in sport and physical recreation domains.

3 A Comparative Study of Policies on International Relations in Olympic Sports 83 Australian respondents were primarily middle aged (57.4% at years), followed by older managers aged over 50 years (32.8%) complemented by smaller proportions of younger managers years (9.8%). This compares with the Greek study where most of the sport managers were between years of age, a slightly older cohort. In the Australian study 26 percent had competed in sport at the club level, 26 percent at the national level and 31 percent at international levels, which indicates a strong participative involvement in sport. In the Greek study 83.3 percent of the respondents said that they had participated in sports, 57.1 per cent at club, 23.2 percent at national, and 19.7 percent at international level. Most Australian sports managers (79%) do not speak a foreign language, compared to Greek managers where most do speak a foreign language (78.2%). Of the Australians who do have another language the most frequently reported language was French (53%), followed by German (18%). In the context of understanding the complexities and importance of the sport and international relations relationship, inability of many to speak a foreign language may be problematic. However, since English is one of the three official Olympic languages this is not a substantive obstacle to communication. International Relations: the Sport Organization perspective For the following section the data reported relates to each sport responding to the survey. Where there were multiple responses from any sport the individual responses have been grouped into their respective sports. In response to the core question of this study, only 16 percent of Australian organizations surveyed stated that they had a formal policy on international relations, compared with the Greek response of 20 percent. Given this response it is not surprising that just 23 percent of the Australian sports and 25 percent of the Greek sports responding to the survey stated they had any formal policies in place relating to the education of visiting teams about Australia. Just eighteen of the Australian sports and sixteen of the Greek sports surveyed had policies for athletes and officials travelling overseas related to education about the country that they would visit. There were a range of perspectives expressed about the set of questions related to national identity. These suggest an enigmatic negotiation of the nexus of sport, politics and national identity. As one respondent noted: I believe the use of sport has almost been inadvertent. Historically, it has been extremely valuable in providing Australia with an international identity but this has been through circumstances rather than design. It has been used in an opportunistic manner by governments rather than in a planned manner in which sport and Australia can benefit. In the Australian study we asked a series of questions about techniques, other than policies, that were used to promote international relations, Table 1 outlines the findings. Does your sport endeavour to foster totally international relations through: disagree disagree Overseas coaching 5 8 Overseas athlete scholarships Cultural education about overseas countries Cultural education on Australia for visiting teams International competitions 5 3 neither agree totally agree/ agree disagree Table 1: Sport organization informal International Relations practices As one respondent elaborated: On the whole, our international athletes take this role very seriously, but sometimes they (and the staff who accompany them) need to be reminded about their role as ambassadors. With all of the pressures and time commitments of training, and other workshops including media skills, nutrition, sports psychology, recovery, etc. etc. international relations are not broached as much as they could be in our sport. An Australian sports administrator commented, There is great public relations benefit in promotion of successful Australians

4 84 Bridging Three Centuries Fifth International Symposium for Olympic Research within country of competition. I believe great promotion also exists in genuine coaching exchange and long term project/relationships. In relation to the countries seen as critical with which to have sports agreements, understandably the responses between Australian and Greek respondents varied greatly. Australians had a more globally focused view, and while some nearby countries such as New Zealand and others in the South Pacific were rated most important, there was a significant degree of importance attached to all the countries listed. In contrast, the Greek responses were polarised with relations between countries in the European Union, the Mediterranean and the Balkans seen to be of paramount importance. Other areas such as the Pacific and Asian region were deemed of relatively little importance. Table 2: Inter country co-operation How important do you believe it is for your country to sign sport agreements with each of the following countries? Australia Greece % indicating % indicating very important very important New Zealand Other South Pacific countries Indonesia Malaysia Other Asian countries USA European Union Other European Scandinavian countries African Balkan Mediterranean Middle East Other Commonwealth Countries N/A International Relations: the Sport Manager s perspective In both countries the majority of sports managers surveyed indicated that they have been involved in the international relations arena for between 1-10 years. Most of the Australian sports managers (76 percent) indicated that they are in some way actively, yet informally, involved in the international relations of their sporting body compared with 43.7 percent of the Greeks. As this involvement is not formally sanctioned, it serves to highlight how international relations can be left to the prerogative of the individual. Four major issues related to the respondent s individual perspective about international relations were investigated. Respondents were asked to indicate the strength of their feelings on a range of statements using a five point scale where 1=totally disagree, 2=somewhat disagree, 3=neither disagree/agree, 4=somewhat agree and 5=totally agree. The following data report the salient findings. The first issue, examined by a range of questions, was whether sports managers hold idealistic or realistic expectations for international relations. Responses were clustered and the data indicate that there is a strong tendency to support an idealistic view of international relations between states. For example, both Australian and Greek respondents expressed a highly positive view that sport is able to function as a means of effective communication between people. The second issue examined the view of respondents on the strength of the relationship between (i) sport and politics, and (ii) sport and political parties. Both Australian and Greek respondents were highly ambiguous in their views on the nexus. While much of the literature suggests that sport administrator hold polarised views on these two questions, there was little evidence in this study to support this notion. The Australian respondents indicated that they were more likely (mean 2.92) than Greek managers (mean 4.5) to see a link between sport and politics. In perceiving a link between sport and political parties the Australian mean 3.21 and the Greek mean 2.70 are not significantly different.

5 A Comparative Study of Policies on International Relations in Olympic Sports 85 The third topic considered was the opinion of the participants concerning the contribution of sport in the promotion of international relations of their country. This issue was addressed via a range of questions. First, respondents were asked if they felt that the participation of their nations sports persons in international competitive events substantially contributed to the promotion of their country s international relations. Both Australian (mean 4.13) and Greek (mean 3.98) sports managers expressed a highly positive view in this regard. In self-positioning for hosting the Olympics many of the Australian respondents noted that during the lead up to the Sydney Games they have been made much more aware of international relations dimensions, as evidenced in this comment: Our athletes have found they are receiving a lot more attention now in the lead up to Sydney 2000 when they are overseas, as p eople want to learn more about Australia, its culture and its people. Both survey populations also expressed positive views towards the suggestion that international sports relations should be coordinated to allow participation in the strategic planning of the country s international relations. Australian managers support the institution of a coordinating committee for international sporting relations in their country and consider it among their duties as sports managers to serve as ambassadors of their country. As one Australian manager wrote: The benefits to sport are: encourages international participation here and overseas, develops competition levels in Asia/Oceania to provide greater competition opportunities, helps Australia to create an image of sporting/education assistance in these regions, and develops greater understanding of cultures here and abroad. Also, the majority of respondents (59%) felt that international relations offered more than it cost the country. In the Greek study the respondents felt much more strongly about establishing a coordinating committee but similar about serving as ambassadors. Not all respondents indicated a preference for formal policies. Given the complexities of sport comments suggested that informal channels and mechanisms were more effective means of communicating about such matters, as evidenced in the comment: My field is technical official (judge). As such, we have built a network of international friendship and respect through behaviour of honesty, vigilance professionalism, and competence. The emergent paradox is that there is no demonstrated relationship between respondents personal preference for pursuing international relations strategies and their associated sport organization s policies. The fourth issue explored was the respondents attitude to the training of administrators in aspects of international sports relations. The current level of knowledge held by sports managers was viewed as inadequate by a majority of the Australian respondents (56.4%) and the Greek respondents (68.2%). Although, as one Australian respondent indicated: Being blunt, this appears to be a questionnaire designed to prove that consultants need to be employed to handle international relations, when in fact, sporting bodies have been more successful than governments or the corporate sector in forging strong international ties. In general, however, these responses appear to be in concert with concerns raised in the literature about the lack of knowledge sport administrators have about the context of sport and how it varies from nation to nation. Even so, only 30 percent of Australian respondents and 4.5 percent of Greek respondents felt that knowledge of the history of their country was important. This challenges academic treatises which submit that knowledge of sports history at a local level is required to operate in the global domain (Rowe and Lawrence, 1998). Sixty-six percent of the Australian sample agreed that sport could be used to alleviate tension between countries. Furthermore, sports managers in both Australia and Greece replied that they were open to constructive propositions that consider the use of sport in achieving foreign policy goals of their country. In the Greek study, the data indicate that the higher the level of formal education attained by the respondent, the more positive her/his attitude was in valuing sport as a means of international relations. The findings of the Greek study indicated that sports managers with no university degree tended to place higher significance on the importance of experience in sport in facilitating international relations through sport. This correlation was not present in the sampled Australian cohort. However, both Australian and Greek sports managers consider previous experience in sport as a factor which assists in the performance of duties. Conclusions and further research Personnel of sporting organizations espouse one set of ideals relating to the facilitation of positive international relations through sport but practice another set. While individuals within sporting bodies profess to see value in the furthering of international relations through their respective sport, most sports are silent in explicitly pursuing achievements in this domain. Most Olympic sports appear to be focussed on the small picture recruit and train athletes and win as many gold medals as you can. Associated and affiliated Olympic sports are intent on gaining entry to the Olympic Games. International relations is a distant consideration for most sports managers. This is clearly evident in the data collected for this research which found very few sports had formal strategies or identified outcomes in the realm of international relations. If sport is to play a role in improving international relations in the future, the development of international relations expertise

6 86 Bridging Three Centuries Fifth International Symposium for Olympic Research within a sports organization must be addressed. The question is to what extent should sport to become involved in fundamental international relations development? Might it be better served staying at arms length from tier one diplomacy, playing a secondary international relations role, with its proponents skilled in understanding both levels of these interstate relations? Despite the claims of the Olympic charter, is it feasible that sport can be used to facilitate these quality of life issues, given its commercial orientation. On the other hand, sport may be an invaluable right of cultural citizenship which promotes apolitical relations with other nation-states. This could be in terms of an ethnic diaspora living in countries around the world but brought together in support of their home country s team, such as evidenced in the painted faces of Swedish tennis supporters at Davis Cup tournaments in Australia, the Americas, Europe and the United Kingdom. Or in the global unification of a team s supporters, as for example the Manchester United Football Club which, on its official club supporters website, reports having over 200 registered supporters clubs in 24 countries spread across the world. If it is deemed relevant that sport should mix with serious diplomacy at its secondary level, its managers need to be skilled in the relevant facets of international relations. This research has indicated that there is a willingness amongst both Australian and Greek sporting administrators to institute a coordinating committee for international for sporting relations but this needs to be realised as it is currently just an ideal. An ever-widening web of partnerships between governments, organisations and world markets has marked the latter part of the twentieth century. Distinctions between nation states are increasingly diffuse and multinational organisations have emerged as experts in managing the paradoxes of these new relationships. As international players in this global game, Olympic sports must reposition themselves and negotiate new boundaries. This involves constituting policies that incorporate the concept of thinking globally but acting locally. Olympic sports need to tap into resources from throughout the world yet be part of local clusters of sport activities. Within this framework, promotion of positive international relations through sport could be viewed as a long-term investment in the global enterprise. The changing role of national governments; the increasing role of sub-national and supra-national entities, including non-governmental organisations, has necessitated a reconstruction of values underpinning the sport institutions operating in this global market place. The emergent challenges are far reaching and it is incumbent on sports to reflect on their goals for international relations and shape their policies to reflect the shifting parameters in this global playing field. References Bairner, A. (1996). Sportive nationalism and nationalist politics: A comparative analysis of Scotland, the Republic of Ireland, and Sweden. Journal of Sport & Social Issues 20(3): Cashman R. (1988). Cricket and Colonialism: Colonial Hegemony and Indigenous Subversion? In Mangan, J A (Ed.), Pleasure, profit, proselytism: British culture and Sport at home and abroad (pp ). London: Frank Cass. Cashmore, E. (1996). Making Sense of Sport. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Chalip L. and Johnson A. (1996). Sports policy in the United States. In L. Chalip, A. Johnson & L. Stachura (Eds.), National sports policies: an international handbook, (p ). Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. Chalip L. Johnson A. Stachura L. (1996). National sports policies: an international handbook. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. Coakley, J. (1994). Sport and Society: Issues and Controversies. Boston: Irwin McGraw-Hill. Gargalianos D. (1996). National Sports Policy Parameters and Perspectives of the Administration of Sport in Greece, Thessalonki:Hellenic Association of Sport Management Conference. Giddens, A. (1999). Globalisation. The 1999 Reith Lectures, London: BBC. Harahousou, Y. (1996). Sociocultural influences on Greek women s involvement in physical recreation. International review of the sociology of sport 31(3), Houlihan, B. (1994). Sport and International Politics. Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire: Harvestor Wheatsheaf.

7 A Comparative Study of Policies on International Relations in Olympic Sports 87 MacAloon, J.J. (1991). The turn of two centuries: sport and the politics of intercultural relations. In F. Landry, (Ed.) Sport...The third millennium. (p.30-44). Proceedings of the International Symposium, Quebec City, Canada, Presses de l Universite Laval. McKay, J. (1991). No Pain, No Gain? Sport and the Aurstralian Culture. Sydney: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. McKay J. Lawrence G. Miller T. & Rowe D. (1993). Globalization and Australian sport. Sport Science Review 2(1), Maguire, J. (1999). Global Sport: Identities, Societies, Civilizations. Cambridge: Polity Press. Rowe, D. and G. Lawrence (1998). Framing a Critical Sports Sociology in the Age of Globalisation. In D. Rowe and G. Lawrence (Eds.), Tourism, Leisure, Sport: Critical Perspectives. Sydney: Hodder Education. Taylor, T., Quick, S. and Garglianos, D. (1999) International Relations and Sport An Australian Perspective. 14th Annual Conference North American Society for Sport Management. Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 2-5 June.

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