2008 ERNWACA RESEARCH GRANTS PROJECT SKILL DEVELOPMENT AND VIOLENCE REDUCTION IN NIGER DELTA REGION IN NIGERIA. Researchers

Transcription

1 ERNWACA RESEARCH GRANTS PROJECT SKILL DEVELOPMENT AND VIOLENCE REDUCTION IN NIGER DELTA REGION IN NIGERIA Researchers Dr. Usen, Francisca Sunday Dr. Nkang, Iniobong Ekong Dr. Edem, Patrick Efiong Dr. Umoren, Roseline Richard Mentor: Dayo Odukoya, ERNWACA, University of Lagos, pastor Country of residence: Nigeria Research financed by Education Research Network for West and Central Africa (ERNWACA) With project support from UEMOA regional Centre of Excellence and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands ROCARE/ERNWACA Tel: (223) , Fax: (223) BPE 1854, Bamako, MALI Benin Burkina Faso Cameroun Centrafrique Cote d Ivoire Gambia Ghana Guinée Mali Mauritanie Nigeria Niger Sénégal Sierra Leone Togo

2 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the study Violence in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria has taken an alarming dimension. Cases of violence, kidnaps, killings, destruction of property and youth restiveness in the region have become daily occurrences and prominent headlines both in the print and electronic media in recent times. Kidnaps of all classes of people, hostage taking, violent demonstrations, and wanton destruction of lives and property in the Niger Delta region are reported almost on daily basis. For instance, the Punch Newspapers of Sunday March 2, 2008 and Wednesday, March 5, 2008 carried cover stories of Gunmen destroying police stations, shooting soldiers and kidnapping children. Militant activities are on the increase in the Niger Delta region. It is no longer restricted to the oil workers, as even the clerics have become targets in recent times. The Punch Newspaper of Tuesday, January 27, 2009 reported of gunmen kidnapping a cleric in Port Harcourt and demanding a ransom of N20m. Whether it is politically motivated or not, as claimed in some quarters, it is believed that the youths wouldn't have resorted to violence if they were gainfully employed. Some of the youths, though educated, lack employable skills. This explains why some organizations and companies embark on retraining programmes for the few they employ. Lack of skills development in the youths diminishes their chances of being gainfully employed. They otherwise resort to violence, coupled with the understanding that the oil-rich Niger Delta region is seriously exploited and marginalized. Employable skills development in the youth can be a remedy to this problem, hence bringing peace to the boiling Niger Delta region. This justifies the need for this study on skill development and violence reduction in the Niger Delta Region. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Violence and youth restiveness are serious issues threatening lives, property and investment in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria now. The youths seem to take more delight in hostage taking, violent demonstrations, and wanton destruction of lives and property, making life insecure and uncomfortable in the region. It is a threat to investment and development of the region and the country generally. Continuing conflicts in Niger Delta, characterized by inter-ethnic clashes, seizure, and vandalization of oil facilities as well as kidnap of oil workers and all forms of crime, is mounting a

3 2 heavy pressure on the nation s oil output and its short-term plans for the industry which is the bedrock of the nation. Classic and observable cases are those of Warri and Port Harcourt in Delta and Rivers States respectively. The oil companies are counting their losses resulting from shut-downs, and the government in forgone revenue. The Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC) arrogates that over 60% of spills and leakages affecting its installations is caused by acts of sabotage by aggrieved communities of the Niger Delta. Besides rendering the on-shore oil field dormant, the conflict in ND has also endangered further investment in the region, with the oil companies losing interest in the high risk operations. Their focus has now moved to the deep off-shore fields that seem safer. Unfortunately for the government, the financial arrangement for the deep off-shore is less favourable under the production sharing contract than the joint venture arrangement of the on-shore fields. Politicians in Abuja offer plans for peace without corresponding actions, doing little to alter the status quo. The establishment of the Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs, headed by a seasoned administrator and former Secretary to Federal Government, Chief Ufot Ekaette, seems the major hope for now, if properly managed. Employable skills development in the youth, it is believed, can provide remedy to this situation. With such skills the youth can easily gain employment or be self-employed, reducing the rate of poverty, idleness which often leads to restiveness and violence. The problem of this study therefore is how violence in the Niger Delta region can be reduced through employable skills development and employment of the youth. 1.3 Purpose of the Study The study was carried out to determine the relationship between skill development and violence reduction in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Specifically, the study sought to: 1. assess the effectiveness of the vocational training programme in computer application, bricklaying, barbing and packaging of agricultural produce. 2. examine the percentage of youths who were self-employed after the training session. 3. examine the percentage of youths who were paid employed after the training session. 4. determine the relationship between skill development in computer-application and violence reduction in the Niger Delta region.

4 3 5. determine the relationship between skill development in brick laying and violence reduction in the Niger Delta region. 6. determine the relationship between skill development in barbing and violence reduction in the Niger Delta region. 7. determine the relationship between skill development in packaging of agricultural produce and violence reduction in the Niger Delta region. 1.4 Significance of the Study This study is hoped to be of immense significance to the Niger Delta region the newly established Niger Delta Ministry and the country generally. The Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC), higher institutions of learning in the region and country at large, and the Niger Delta youths themselves will benefit from the findings of this study. The findings of the study will reveal the relationship between employable skills development, employment and the rate of violence in the region. Institutions of learning will benefit from the study in the area of course restructuring to equip the youth with relevant employable skills. Besides, the Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC), the oil companies and governments at various levels will be guided on alternative ways of positively assisting in curbing violence and youth restiveness in the region. The study will make recommendations that will have far-reaching implications in curbing violence, youth restiveness, wanton destruction of lives and property, and unemployment in the Niger Delta region. 1.5 Research Questions The study sought to provide answers to the following questions. 1. What is the effectiveness of the Vocational Training Programme in computer application, bricklaying, barbing, and packaging of agricultural produce? 2. What percentage of youths was self-employed after the Vocational Training Programme? 3. What percentage of youths was paid employed after the Vocational Training Programme?

5 4 4. What is the relationship between skill development in Computer application and violence reduction in the Niger Delta Region? 5. What is the relationship between skill development in bricklaying and violence reduction in the Niger Delta Region? 6. What is the relationship between skill development in barbing and violence reduction in the Niger Delta Region? 7. What is the relationship between skill development in packaging of agricultural produce and violence reduction in the Niger Delta Region? 1.6 Research Hypotheses The following null hypotheses were formulated to direct the study. 1. There is no significant relationship between skill development in computer application and violence reduction in the Niger Delta Region. 2. There is no significant relationship between skill development in bricklaying and violence reduction in the Niger Delta Region. 3. There is no significant relationship between skill development in barbing and violence reduction in the Niger Delta Region. 4. There is no significant relationship between skill development in packaging of agricultural produce and violence reduction in the Niger Delta Region. 1.7 Scope of the Study The study covered Akwa Ibom, Rivers and Bayelsa States in Nigeria. Only youths living in the Niger Delta creeks of these states were involved in the study. Variables under study were skill development in computer application, skill development in bricklaying, skill development in barbing, and skill development in packaging of agricultural produce. These served as the independent variables, while violence reduction served as the dependent variables of the study

6 5 1.8 Operational Definitions of Terms Given below are the operational definitions of terms used in the study. 1. Skill Development: As used in this study, this refers to the equipping of the youths with relevant skills that can facilitate the gaining of paid or self employment. Examples include training in computer-application, bricklaying, barbing, packaging of agricultural produce, etc. 2. Violence: This refers to the act of Wanton destruction of lives and property by youths in the Niger Delta. It includes youth restiveness, hostage taking, assault, and all form of illegal activities by the Niger Delta youths.

7 6 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Theoretical Background This study is premised on theories of violence and utilitarian education Theories of Violence Violence, it is said, is part of our daily lives and always has been. Every day when we watch the TV, listen to the radio, or read the papers, we learn about acts of violence. Theories of aggression and violence are rooted in a long-standing debate about whether humans are innately brutal or benign. Two contrasting views of human nature are found in the classical writings of philosophers and scientific thinkers. On the one hand, Thomas Hobbes argued in Leviathan (1651) that humans are naturally brutal and that societal laws and their enforcement are consequently required to curb our natural aggressive instincts. Conversely, Jean-Jacques Rousseau in 1762 conceptualized the noble savage, who is naturally benign, happy, and good. According to Rousseau, the restrictions imposed by society lead to aggression and violent behaviour. In his psychoanalytic theory, Freud (1930) argued that each human is born with equally powerful instincts toward life (Eros) and death (Thanatos). When the death instinct is turned inward, it results in self-punishment (in the extreme, suicide). When directed outward, it results in hostility and anger, leading to destructive behaviour and violence. The frustration aggression theory of violence Although most psychologists accept the role of biological factors in aggression at some level, some have focused on the external factors that elicit such behaviours (Barak, 2003). The frustrationaggression hypothesis was the first systematic explanation of human aggression as a reaction to environmental factors. This theory was originally formulated, in 1939, by John Dollard et al, who proposed that frustration always leads to aggression and vice versa. Other research demonstrated, however, that frustration does not necessarily lead to aggression and instead may cause depression and lethargy (Elder, 2001). In his revised frustration-aggression hypothesis, Farringtom (1991) proposed that frustration leads to anger, which may in turn instigate aggression in the presence of certain external cues. This may explain the aggressive behaviour of the Niger Delta Youth.

8 7 To social psychologists of the 1990s biological factors provided background conditions that moderate the effects of aversive stimuli in the individual s immediate situation, particularly those that involve conflict with other people (Raine, 1998). In this regard, aggression is viewed not simply as an innate drive but as a response to external stimuli. Extensive research in the last half of the twentieth century demonstrated that a variety of social situations may lead to aggression, including frustration. Frustration may indeed increase the chances of aggressive behaviour. Frustration may be exacerbated by the proximity of desired goals or objects, the attainment of which has been thwarted: the closer the goal when blocked, the greater the frustration and its aggressive outcome. However, while frustration may not always produce aggression, it may produce anger, annoyance, or readiness to aggression if the situation is conducive (for example, if the victim seems unlikely to reciprocate, due to small size or physical distance). Also, if the frustration is understandable, legitimate, or unintended, there may be less chance of aggression. Provocation, such as that arising from the need to reciprocate in reaction to another s aggressive behaviour, can also produce aggression, but not always. Reciprocation is more likely if the victim perceives the provocation as intentional. Objects of aggression, such as weapons, might also stimulate human aggression. In a classic experiment conducted by Gilligan (1997), college students were more aggressive (delivered more shocks to a victim) when made angry in the presence of a gun than in the presence of a badminton racket. Kempt-Leonard, Tracy and Howell (2001) have also shown a correlation between handgun availability and homicide rate across countries. Frustration, provocation and easy availability of weapons may as well explain the persistence of violence and youth restiveness in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Beyond considering the external stimuli that may invoke aggression, several lines of research have explored the psychological process and underlying mechanisms involved in aggression. The importance of cognitive processes, including perception, memory, and appraisal, in responding aggressively has been emphasized in social cognition. Examples of this focus include Ladicola and Shupe (1998) theory of cognitive neo-associationism, which posits that negative affective states (elicited by aversive conditions) become associated in long term memory with specific motor tendencies to fight or flee. Individual reactions to aggress or flee depend on genetic predispositions,

9 8 prior conditioning and learning, and recognition of situational factors that inhibit or promote aggression. These can also account for violence in the Niger Delta region. The acquisition and maintenance of aggressive response tendencies are also emphasized in Bandura s social-learning theory (1983), which considers the effects of learning via modeling and imitation. Through observation of role models at home, at school, and through the media, youths learn social-conduct rules and a repertoire of social behaviours, including aggression. Rewards and punishments then shape the child s behaviour, determining the chances of responding aggressively in future situations. In the presence of suitable incentives the probability of aggressive behaviour increases. For instance, payment of ransoms to kidnappers and proceed from oil bunkering. Psychologists have considered various methods for reducing violent behaviour in the society. Much of this research has focused on the effects of punishment. Mild threats of punishment appear to have a greater effect than sever threats in reducing the attractiveness of aggressive actions (Aronson and Carlsmith 1963). For instance, Olweus (1991) found out that teacher-training programmes that emphasize the use of swift and non-severe punishment have significantly reduced bullying behaviour in schoolchildren. In adults severe punishment does not seem to deter violent crimes, in part because it is not swift and not certain for most violent acts (for example, countries with the death penalty do not have lower violent-crime rates). An interesting study by the Minneapolis Police found that the immediate arrest of domestic abusers dramatically reduced the chances of repeat offense (Sherman and Berk 1984). Severe punishments and military presence may not be the needed remedy to violence and youth restiveness in the Niger Delta region Theory of Utilitarian Education Spencer ( ) developed a theory of education based on its utilitarian value. According to Spencer, education should enable human beings to live effectively, economically, scientifically. Curriculum should be based on practical, utilitarian, and scientific subjects that would enable the individual to be useful to himself and contribute positively to the development of the society. Education should equip the youths with employable skills that can link them easily with the world of work after schooling. Studies have indicated that the level of schooling strongly influences one's opportunities in the labour market (Bernnan, Kogan and Teichler, 1996). The extent to which the education system teaches the students the kind of skills that lead to productive employment in the labour market

10 9 determines the relevance of the educational system to the needs of its people. Violence in the Niger Delta region (the oil-rich South-South geographical zone of Nigeria) can be reduced greatly if the youths received a utilitarian education that is made relevant to the needs of the region through employable skills development while in school. 2.2 Conceptual Background Violence in the Niger Delta Region Coincidentally, Nigeria has become Africa's biggest producer of petroleum, including many oil wells in the Niger Delta. Some 2 million barrels a day are extracted in the Niger Delta. Since 1975, the region has accounted for more than 75% of Nigeria's export earnings. Much of the natural gas extracted in oil wells in the Delta is immediately burned, or flared, into the air at a rate of approximately 70 million m³ per day. This is equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption, and forms the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions on the planet (Agbase, 1993). The environmental devastation associated with the industry and the lack of equitable distribution of oil wealth have been the key aggravating factors of violence, youth restiveness, etc in the region, including guerilla activity by the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND). Oil revenue allocation has been the subject of much contention well before Nigeria gained its independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, owing to the First Republic's high degree of regional autonomy, and as low as 10% during the military dictatorships. Violence in the Niger Delta may not be unconnected with the poor oil revenue sharing formular and underdevelopment of the Niger Delta. It is a state of unrest and incessant wanton destruction of lives and property. This describes the state of affairs in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria today. Violence in the Niger Delta has metamorphosed into proliferation of arms and emergence of militias in recent times. The communities see protest as a major way of attracting the attention of the Oil companies, Government and the public to come to their aid. Most of the complaints relate to unemployment, environmental degradation, destruction of means of livelihood and health. The constant clashes of security agents with the militants has been responsible for the maiming, outright killing and other cases of human rights abuses in the affected oil communities (Falokun, 1999). The region is believed to contribute more than 90% wealth to the nation's economy and yet has little or nothing to show for it in terms of development. This gives rise to the rampant

11 10 cases of violence, kidnaps, hostage taking, wanton destruction of lives and property, maiming and killings that have become the permanent feature of the region in recent times. The Niger Delta, Nigeria s main oil producing region is strategic to the sustainability of Nigeria s democracy, as well as regional and global security. Accounting for over 90% of Nigeria s daily oil production (estimated at 2.4 million barrels), the last two years have witnessed escalating violence by ethnic minority militia whose attacks on transnational oil corporations, oil infrastructure and the kidnapping of foreign oil workers have resulted in a reduction of Nigeria s oil exports by 30% since mid Nigeria s oil has been increasingly important to global energy security in the face of the volatile situation in the Middle East, the domination of Nigeria s oil industry by Western Oil Transnational Corporations, increased global demand and the dependence of the US on oil from West Africa. Global and international media, multilateral agencies as well as policy think-tanks and security analysts have grappled with the escalating conflict in the oil region, particularly as it relates to its energy security implications for the United States and other Western countries that depend on Nigeria s oil. It should also be borne in mind that the entry of Chinese oil companies along with other oil corporations from Asia (India, Korea and Malaysia), South America, and Europe also has implications for the dynamics of conflict and the corporate competition for oil in Nigeria. These concerns have also been heightened by the linkage between the violence and political grievances in the impoverished oil producing ethnic minority communities of the Niger Delta. Thus, the violence in the Niger Delta poses some threat not only to the people in the area, but also to Nigeria s fragile democracy, and national and regional security in West Africa. Also, given the already tight situation in the international oil market, a full-blown crisis in the Niger Delta could further destabilize the volatile global oil market with far reaching consequences for the industrialized world. As such the violence in the Niger Delta in a highly globalized world is of critical relevance to policy makers, researchers, corporate actors, and donors, who all have a stake in promoting peace and development in Africa s most populous country and regional power, Nigeria. The conflict in the Niger Delta has posed a fundamental domestic challenge to Nigerian security for more than a decade. Despite pledges to address continued instability in the Niger Delta, the administration of Nigerian President Umaru Yar Adua has not yet initiated a process to resolve the political, economic and security problems in the region. Oil production continues to diminish as a result of militant attacks, and is estimated at 20 to 25 percent below capacity. Meanwhile, militia

12 11 members in the Niger Delta continue to engage in criminal activities such as kidnapping and oil bunkering to maximize profits for themselves and their political patrons (Onduku, 2001). The conflict in the Niger Delta has its roots in the increasing protests of the region s communities against their political, economic and environmental disenfranchisement. The Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP), launched in 1990, was the first group to gain international attention for their grievances against the Nigerian government and regional oil companies. MOSOP s goals included increased local control over resources and more equitable development. MOSOP also sought the resolution of fishing and farming issues that arose from the environmental effects of oil extraction, such as oil spills, acid rain and soil degradation. Protection of human rights became another demand after peaceful protests by the Ogoni people were met with arrests, repression, and violence from the military regime of General Sani Abacha. The Ogoni movement inspired a host of similar organizing efforts in the region, particularly among the Ijaws. The center of protests and political activism then shifted to western states in the Niger Delta, particularly Bayelsa and Delta States, where the Itsekiri, Urhobo, Ilaje and Ijaw communities began mobilizing over boundary and resource issues. The Ijaw in particular demanded accountability from regional political officials and a greater voice in the region s affairs. Their demands were outlined in the Kaiama Declaration, released in December 1998, which called for the immediate withdrawal of the military from Ijaw areas and the cessation of oil production if equitable control over these resources was not returned to the oil-producing communities. Clashes between Ijaw groups and the Nigerian government led to the imposition of emergency rule in late 1998 and early Tensions culminated in the Odi massacre in November 1999, in which the Nigerian military killed dozens of citizens. It is generally believed that the recurring crisis in the Niger Delta region is the product of the deep-seated sense of neglect and marginalization by the government and oil companies in supporting critical human development, infrastructure, provision of basic social amenities. The Niger Delta region which harbours the oil that has made Nigeria and oil companies rich is grossly under-developed relatively to the rest of the country. Indeed, it is a paradox of poverty in the midst of plenty. According to Geseksechaff for Techeiche zussame-narbeit, (GTZ), 70% of the people in Niger Delta region live below poverty line and that rate was far worse than African standard. Also, that there are high rate of unemployment among the youth, with over 2 million youth being unemployed, while

13 12 40% of the people are illiterate. Furthermore, according to World Bank report (1995), GNP per capita in Niger Delta region is below the national average of US$280 despite the high population growth rate. Similarly, health indicators are low and they lag far behind the country average. As it was observed, pollution and continuous flaring of gas from oil prospecting and production have created health hazards and render fishing and other farming activities almost impossible. There are high fatality rate from water-borne diseases, malnutrition, and poor sanitation. The quantity and quality of housing infrastructure are less than expected in most of the region. Only about 20% to 24% of the rural communities and less than 60% of urban communities in the region have access to safe drinking water. Transportation is often difficult and expensive. The exploration and exploitation of oil companies in Niger Delta and its attendant abuse on the environment has been more conspicuous. It has been argued that the oil producing areas suffer from grave damages as a result of the activities of the oil companies. Thus, serious damage has been done to the aquatic and marine life of the communities. The corporate responsibility and the operating standards of the oil companies and other businesses in the region are below the international acceptable standards. A situation where oil companies and other businesses carried out oil exploration and exploitation for over four decades without a standard environmental impact assessment is detrimental to the people and the environment. This would be absolutely unacceptable in advanced nations. Niger Delta region seems the only oil zone in the world where the people are subjected to cope with oil spillage. It has been argued that the federal, state and local governments are the catalyst that are providing protection to the oil companies lack of social responsibility. A practical case of aforementioned is that of the Ogoni community in the Niger Delta of Rivers state whose case is being spearheaded by the movement for the survival of Ogoni people (MOSOP) and the then late human right activist Ken Saro-Wiwa. They pointed, like other communities in the Niger Delta region that their land have been devastated and degraded, their atmosphere has been polluted, water contaminated, trees being poisoned and that their flora and fauna have virtually disappeared, these as a result of the activities of oil companies in the area. To intensify this ugly issue, there are no infrastructural amenities in the locality such as electricity, portable water, and access roads. Thus, on August 26, 1990 the Ogoni people issued a bill of right which was sent to the federal government of Nigeria, demanding political freedom that will guarantee political control of

14 13 Ogoni affairs by Ogoni people, right to the control and use of Ogoni economic resources for Ogoni development, adequate and direct representation as a right in all Nigerian national institutions and the right to protect Ogoni environment and ecology from further degradations. However, their demand was turned down; thus, MOSOP was mandated by Ogoni people on August 26, 1991 to make representation to united nations commission on human and people rights and the European community, alleging that the Nigerian government has denied them their demand. MOSOP was also mandated to alert the organizations that federal republic of Nigeria has refused to pay them oil royalties and mining rents amounting to an estimated $20billion for petroleum mined from Ogoni land over three decades ago. On January 4, 1993, they followed this up. This eventually led to the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa on the 10th of November, The Ogonis are not alone for the pursuit of change of status quo. The Ogbia communities of Rivers state had complained of lack of amenities in their area, reflecting unfulfilled promises, the Odi direct action of Others include, the Ikot Abasi communities which had earlier demonstrated publicly in 1987 where 38 houses were destroyed due to instruments of the state (police intervention), also they had demanded for compensation of N38million from federal government for oil exploration and exploitation activities that have devastated the area. The Itshekiris, Ijaws and Urhobos riots and killing arising from oil issues. The Kaiama Declaration of 1998, which geared towards the control of the lives of the Ijaws and Niger Delta in general. The governors of the region such as, Rivers, Delta, Abia, Imo and Akwa-Ibom had met and presented a case for increased allocation, to at least 10% for the development of Niger Delta region but they only got 3% as against what they demanded on June, This fueled their agitation for resource control of the Niger Delta region. After a brief lull in violence, the conflict in the Niger Delta escalated in 2002 and 2003, particularly during and after the election process in Since then violence in the region has been on the increase day by day. Some of the problems that contribute to continued instability in the region have been observed to be: lack of good governance; lack of social and economic development; and increased militarization. Lack of Good Governance The Nigerian state lack seems to political legitimacy at all levels of government because of chronically flawed elections, the most blatant of which were the elections of The lack of

15 14 legitimacy is more pronounced in the Niger Delta, which suffers from what one speaker called a "striking lack of democracy." The region seems not to have had credible elections since the military returned to the barracks in In both the 2003 and 2007 elections, voter turnout in the Niger Delta was extremely low. Gang members on the payroll of politicians and party officials intimidated the few voters who showed up at polling stations, and in many areas no elections were held at all yet the official election results reported more than 90 percent turnout in some states. During the 2007 elections, Nigerian officials reported results for polling stations that were never even opened in some of the states. The federal government has also failed to provide goods and services to the people of the Niger Delta, who experience terrible poverty despite living in the region that produces the vast majority of Nigeria s wealth. Widespread corruption and lack of transparency in detailing how oil money is allocated and spent at the state level further erode the people s trust in the government. Equally important, neither the government nor the oil companies have adequately addressed environmental problems such as gas flaring and oil spills. Finally, the Nigerian government has not provided adequate security to communities in the Niger Delta. With few exceptions, the government has allowed gangs and militias, some of which are funded by local politicians and party officials, to run rampant. Violence between rival gangs particularly in the aftermath of the 2003 and 2007 elections has resulted in the deaths of dozens of innocent civilians. Even when security forces have been deployed to the Niger Delta, they have also committed atrocities against civilians, and some officers have been engaged in corruption and the illegal oil trade. Lack of Social and Economic Development Little substantive progress has been made in addressing development issues in the Niger Delta. The region continues to lack adequate social services, viable employment opportunities, or economic growth and development. Although in 2006 two-thirds of the militia members and leaders surveyed by Academic Associates Peace Works said they would take advantage of training or jobs if they were available, the dearth of such opportunities contributes to the decision of youths to join militias for economic gain. Profiteering from oil bunkering and the kidnapping of oil workers presents a lucrative and increasingly popular alternative, especially since the youth lack any sense of ownership of, participation in or benefit from the oil industry. This virtual exclusion of local individuals or companies from employment opportunities in the oil and gas sectors has led to anger, alienation,

16 15 and aggression. It has also contributed to the steady supply of youth who are willing to join gangs and militias. Militarization of the Niger Delta Militia groups in the region have proliferated, often sustained by government and party officials who use the militias for their own political and economic purposes. Groups such as the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND), which was organized in 2006, function as a loose network of gangs rather than a coherent organization. They lack a common political agenda or political wings that could participate in a negotiation process. While some groups possess legitimate grievances and goals, they also engage in criminal activities that lead to the continuation of the conflict by doing the bidding of the politicians and others who pay them, the militia members perpetuate the governance system that contributes to the region s problems. The militias have become increasingly violent, both toward one another and toward civilians. Kidnapping victims now include not just oil workers, but also children and other people who are not associated with the oil industry. Cases of this abound in Akwa Ibom, Rivers and Bayelsa States. An influx of small arms and more sophisticated weapons into the Niger Delta from regional and international markets has led to the increased arming of the militias. They are now nearly evenly matched with the Nigerian military, which was dispatched to the region in 2003 and maintains a significant presence there. The result has been a stalemate. Politicians in the Niger Delta who fund the militias retain the lion s share of illegally sourced wealth and are able to sustain their activities with minimal losses, raising enough revenue to pay off their patronage networks and militias Skill Development and Violence Skills are abilities, usually learned, to perform actions. Skills are generally interchangeable with Competencies, although skills occasionally refer to only (acquired) vocational skills, while competencies are sometimes understood in a broader sense to include innate abilities. Skill is different from Knowledge, which is information of which someone is aware. Types of skills include: Thinking skills, such as critical and creative thinking; Life skills also called behavioral and soft skills, which include perseverance, self-discipline, teamwork, the ability to negotiate conflict, and manage risks. Basic skills denote the set of minimal abilities needed for further learning, work, and life, including numeracy and literacy and basic levels of behavioral skills such as perseverance, self-

17 16 discipline, and self-confidence. Post-basic skills include thinking skills and higher order behavioral skills (decision-making skills, the ability to negotiate, and specific knowledge applied to real life situations). Vocational skills are a mix of specific knowledge and skills to perform jobs that rely on clearly defined tasks. Vocational skills are often obtained via training. Professional skills are a mix of specific knowledge and skills to perform a profession that involves non-routine, context-specific, and complex tasks. Professional skills often require use of post-basic skills and are normally imparted in post-secondary education (World Bank, 2006) and (Webster's, 2000). Skill development could be referred to as the inculcation in the individual the ability to perform actions. There seems to be a general mismatch between education and the world of work in some developing countries, including Nigeria. "There has never been a strong nexus between the two bodies [education and business]. The relationship between education and business is disjointed" (CKLN, 2006). A workgroup under the Caribbean Forum for Development, consisting of representatives from the labor unions, private sector, education system, and government, analyzed the connections between the labor market and the education and training systems. The group concluded that a review of secondary and post-secondary training activities was urgently needed, particularly in respect of technical and vocational education, as the training did not seem to be synchronized with labor market trends. The situation is not different in Nigeria and the Niger Delta region in particular. According to Salling-Olesen (2006), formal education in the developing countries is seen more as a way to gain social elevation, which in particular seems to be the case for higher education. Education in Nigeria is used as a screening device for white collar positions in civil service and trading without regard for the effectiveness of the screening for actual jobs in the productive sector. The over-emphasis on academia leads to an education system that does not necessarily impart skills related to the labor market (CDB, 2006; OAS, 2006). This results in a paradoxical situation where educated youth in the Niger Delta are trained for careers weakly related to the productive industries of the region. As a result, most of the educated youths are not employable, for instance, in the dominant oil companies of the Niger Delta. Any initiatives to improve the mismatch or reduce the disconnect between education and labor demand will require profound changes in the education policies and practice. All stakeholders must be involved and educational programmes restructured and streamlined to meet the needs of the labour market. This justifies the training programmes of this study to develop in the Niger Delta Youths employable skills that would enhance

18 17 their employment opportunities or make them self-reliant with a view to addressing the issue of restiveness and violence in the region. There seems to be a consensus on the definition of unemployment. The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines the unemployed as members of the economically active population who are without work but are available for and seeking work, including people who have lost their job and those who have voluntarily left work (World Bank, 1998). According to a 1995 World Bank Report, despite its vast oil reserves, the Niger Delta region remains poor. GNP per capita is below the national average of US$280. Unemployment in Port Harcourt, is 30 percent and is believed to be equally high in the rural areas. The rural population commonly fish or practice subsistence agriculture, and supplement their diet and income with a wide variety of forest products. Education levels are below national average and are particularly low for women. While 70 percent of Nigerian Children attend primary school, this level drops to percent in some parts of the Niger Delta. The poverty level in the Niger Delta is exacerbated by the high cost of living. In the urban areas of Rivers State, the cost of living index is the highest in Nigeria. Concern about graduate unemployment is growing daily and at an accelerated rate in Nigeria, especially in Niger Delta region, yet the strength of student enrollment and graduate output in the region is growing rapidly. There is serious suspicion that the cause of violence and youth restiveness in the region is due to high youth unemployment especially among the educated youths. Constantly, calls have been made from different arms of the society for a look at the problem of youth unemployment and marginalization in the Niger Delta region. Nigerian universities have been urged to make deliberate and concrete efforts towards the problem of education and employment after school. Observation suggests that employment opportunities for graduates are not mainly a function of the employment system and its requirement but also of the quantitative structural skill linkages. It has been noted as well that the views and reputation of certain institutions and departments influence the employability of their students. Hence, some institutions of higher learning try to maintain higher competitive edge for their graduates by including different professional experiences during the course of study, (Brennan, Kogan & Teichler 1996). Education in Nigeria needs serious research attention to quite understand the existing relationship between schooling and work. Three major linkages have been identified by scholars, and these are:

19 18 (i) the dimensions of higher education relevant to work such as the quantitative, and structural, curriculum and training as well as socialization, education provision and student option; (ii) the linkage between education and work, for example, the labour market and life long education and; (iii) the dimensions of work relevant to education such as employment career, work task and requirement and quality of work (Brennan, Lyan, Schomburg & Teichler, 1996) Often, employers' priority determines the importance of certain educational skills to job. Manpower projection has been used by some of the developed countries to determine corresponding educational needs of the labour force and the worker before employment (Levin 1995). In other words, the quality of education may determine the quality of the worker's performance. Hence, skills acquired during course of study are expected to match labour market skills demand; to encourage equity between education and work (World Bank, 1991). Besides, UNESCO (1990) observed that some African countries which, of course, include Nigeria have unemployment situations which may have been caused by over-production of graduates compared to the labour force needs. There is, thus, the need to study education and work in these countries, (UNESCO, 1990). The unemployment and sufferings among the youths of the Niger Delta, even among those with university degrees should be addressed spontaneously, as the increase in armed robbery, hostility to company's staff and properties, prostitution among the female youth, ritual killing is becoming too alarming. These activities are carried out by youths, many of them university graduates, who being bored of roaming the streets and staying with their parents, resort to these vices for vengeance and quick money making. The rate of violence can be reduced in the Niger Delta region if the youths were given functional education through productive skills development.

20 19 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHOD The methodology for the research work is as follows: 3.1 The Area of Study The Niger Delta, the delta of the Niger River in Nigeria, is a densely populated region sometimes called the Oil Rivers because it was once a major producer of palm oil. The area was the British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, when it was expanded and became the Niger Coast Protectorate. Map of Nigeria numerically showing states typically considered part of the Niger Delta region 1. Abia, 2. Akwa Ibom, 3. Bayelsa, 4. Cross River, 5. Delta, 6. Edo, 7.Imo, 8. Ondo, 9. Rivers The Niger Delta, as now defined officially by the Nigerian Government, extends over about 70,000 km² and makes up 7.5% of Nigeria s land mass. Historically and cartographically, it consists of present day Bayelsa, Delta and Rivers States. In the year 2000, however, Obansanjo's regime expanded its definition to include Abia State, Akwa Ibom State, Cross River State, Edo State, Imo State and Ondo State. Some 31 million people of more than 40 ethnic groups including the Ijaw and Igbo people, speaking some 250 dialects live in the Niger Delta (CRS, 2008). 3.2 Research Design The Ethnographic study design combined with some elements of the survey design was adopted for the study.

21 Population of the Study The population for this study comprised youth living in the Niger Delta creeks of Akwa Ibom, Rivers, and Bayelsa States. This stood at 3398, and was reached through the umbrella youth organizations in the restive areas of the states. 3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique The sample of the study stood at 340 respondents. This was drawn from the population stated above using the stratified random sampling technique. The three states under study formed the strata justifying the use of this technique. Sample Distribution State Population Sample % Akwa Ibom Rivers Bayelsa Total Instrumentation The study involved the use of five instruments: Namely: 1. Observations (OB) 2. Structured Interview Questions (SIQ) 3. Focus Group Discussions (FGD) 4. Vocational Training Programmes (VTP) 5. Skill Development and Violence Reduction Questionnaire (SDVRQ) Observation The behaviour of the participants were observed by both the researchers and the research assistants. Five behavioural indicators were given to all the observers who observed the participants without their knowledge. The indicators centered around the participants physical appearance, mode

22 21 of dressing, manner of speech, habitation, and source of livelihood. These enhanced observation of the actual behaviour of the participants. Structured Interview Questions (SIQ) Ten structured interview questions were constructed and administered on all the participants by the researchers and research assistants. The information gathered was documented and used for data analysis. The interview questions are provided in the appendix. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Focus Group Discussions (FGD) were organized using 12 subjects at a time. The discussions, directed by the researchers, were tailored towards the theme of the research and its related variables. This instrument enabled the researchers to explore the beliefs, attitudes and behaviours of the subjects under study. Vocational Training Programmes (VTP) The training programmes were in four categories: i) computer application for 9 graduate youths ii) iii) iv) bricks making for 45 others. hair barbing for 30 Secondary school leavers; and packaging of agricultural produce for 27 youths with Diplomas; The trainees, drawn from Akwa Ibom, Rivers and Bayelsa States, totaled 111, representing 32.65% of study sample. The training programmes were arranged to last for three months in each case August to October, At the end of the training programmes, some of the trainees were empowered with tools, such as barbing clippers, moulds for bricks making, and accessories for packaging of agricultural produce. However, there was no sufficient fund to empower all the trainees. Those not empowered were encouraged to search out for employment opportunities based on their additional training. A monitoring programme was put in place as the beneficiaries were persuaded to report their progress to the team members.

23 22 Vocational Training Logbook A training logbook was used in keeping record of the trainees daily attendance throughout the duration of the training programme. Presented below is a sample of the vocational training logbook. Sample of Vocational Training Logbook Used Day / Date: S/N Name of Trainee Time-In Sign. Time-Out Sign. Structured Questionnaire The structured questionnaire used for the study was developed by the research team. The instrument had a total of 50 items, divided into 5 sections: skill development in computer application, skill development in bricklaying, skill development in barbing, skill development in packaging of agricultural produce, and violence reduction. The respondents were required to freely express their opinions on youth restiveness and expectations of the governments and oil companies operating in the Niger Delta. Determination of Training Needs Having carefully studied the composition of the youths, a questionnaire was used to assess the training needs of the unemployed youths. Although the assessment was not restricted to the unemployed youths, only the responses of the unemployed were analysed in order to determine their areas of need for subsequent training Reliability of the Instrument The instrument was subjected to a test retest. By this technique, the instrument was administered to forty-five youths, who did not participate in the main study, fifteen each from Akwa Ibom, Rivers, and Bayelsa State. The instrument was re-administered to the same group of respondents after an interval of two weeks. The scores of the two administrations were collated and subjected to Pearson s Product Moment correlation analysis. The result yielded an r-coefficient of The instrument was considered good enough, hence appropriate for the study. The statistical analysis was done using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 10.0) computer programme.