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1 NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL MONTEREY, CALIFORNIA THESIS MILITARY AUTHORITARIAN REGIMES AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: THE ROK S ECONOMIC TAKE-OFF UNDER PARK CHUNG HEE by Kisung Park December 2008 Thesis Advisor: Second Reader: Robert Looney Alice Miller Approved for public release, distribution is unlimited

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3 REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE Form Approved OMB No Public reporting burden for this collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instruction, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington, VA , and to the Office of Management and Budget, Paperwork Reduction Project ( ) Washington DC AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) 2. REPORT DATE December TITLE AND SUBTITLE Military Authoritarian Regimes and Economic Development: The ROK s Economic Take-off under Park Chung Hee 6. AUTHOR(S) Park, Kisung 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, CA SPONSORING /MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) N/A 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED Master s Thesis 5. FUNDING NUMBERS 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER 10. SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY REPORT NUMBER 11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES The views expressed in this thesis are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government. 12a. DISTRIBUTION / AVAILABILITY STATEMENT Approved for public release, distribution is unlimited 13. ABSTRACT (maximum 200 words) 12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE A After WWII a lot of countries were born, many of which came to have authoritarian regimes. The authoritarian regimes depressed civil liberties among their peoples, but in some cases they contributed to their own democratization, ironically, by pursuing economic development. ROK President Park Chung Hee seized control of political power by coup in Until he was assassinated in 1979, he acted both as dictator of South Korea s political order and as the founder of South Korean economic take-off. This thesis first looks into how Park s administration accomplished economic development unlike the preceding Rhee Syngman regime. This paper finds the intrinsic difference from the military bureaucracy and exportoriented industrialization. Also, as an extrinsic difference, special demands from the Vietnam War are discussed. The United States fully participated in the Vietnam War during the period of Park s regime. The economic effect gained from South Korea s participation in the Vietnam War absolutely influenced on the export-oriented economic growth policy implemented by the Park s administration. Then, this thesis assesses differences of both countries by comparing Park s regime to Pinochet s regime in Chile. Both regimes were military governments, but South Korea implemented economic development with powerful intervention, and Chile fulfilled economic reform with free markets. I examine what brought these two countries to take different ways of national economic policy. 14. SUBJECT TERMS Authoritarian regimes, Developmental state, South Korea, Park Chung Hee, Chile, Pinochet, economic development, Vietnam war, Rhee Syngman, export-oriented industrialization, state-intervention, Market-oriented economic development, liberalism, military bureaucracy, Military regimes 17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF REPORT Unclassified 18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE Unclassified 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF ABSTRACT Unclassified 15. NUMBER OF PAGES PRICE CODE 20. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT NSN Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2-89) Prescribed by ANSI Std UU i

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5 Approved for public release; distribution unlimited MILITARY AUTHORITARIAN REGIMES AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: THE ROK S ECONOMIC TAKE-OFF UNDER PARK CHUNG HEE Kisung Park Major, Republic of Korea Army B.A., Hankook University of Foreign Studies, 2005 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS SECURITY STUDIES (FAR EAST, SOUTHEAST ASIA, PACIFIC) from the NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL December 2008 Author: Kisung Park Approved by: Robert Looney Thesis Advisor Alice Miller Second Reader Harold Trinkunas, Ph.D. Chairman, Department of National Security Affairs iii

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7 ABSTRACT After WWII, several new countries were born, many of which came to have authoritarian regimes. The authoritarian regimes depressed civil liberties among their peoples, but in some cases, they contributed to their own democratization, ironically, by pursuing economic development. ROK President Park Chung Hee seized control of political power by coup in Until he was assassinated in 1979, he acted both as dictator of South Korea s political order and as the founder of South Korean economic take-off. This thesis first looks into how Park s administration accomplished economic development, unlike the preceding Rhee Syngman regime. This paper finds the intrinsic difference from the military bureaucracy and export-oriented industrialization. Also, as an extrinsic difference, special demands from the Vietnam War are discussed. The United States fully participated in the Vietnam War during the period of Park s regime. The economic effect gained from South Korea s participation in the Vietnam War absolutely influenced on the export-oriented economic growth policy implemented by the Park s administration. Then, this thesis assesses differences of both countries by comparing Park s regime to Pinochet s regime in Chile. Both regimes were military governments, but South Korea implemented economic development with powerful intervention, and Chile fulfilled economic reform with free markets. I examine what brought these two countries to take different ways of national economic policy. v

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9 TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION...1 A. PURPOSE...1 B. CONCEPTUAL SIGNIFICANCE...1 C. LITERATURE REVIEW Approaches to Authoritarianism Perspectives on Developmental States and Authoritarian Regimes...3 D. THE SOUTH KOREAN CASE Chile as a Case Study...9 E. METHODOLOGY AND SOURCES...9 F. THESIS SYNOPSIS...9 II. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT UNDER PRESIDENT PARK AND LEE...11 A. INTRODUCTION...11 B. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PARK S ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND LEE S...12 C. THE MILITARY BUREAUCRACY Political Side Economic Side...17 D. EXPORT-ORIENTED INDUSTRIALIZATION...18 III. IV. VIETNAM WAR AS AN ECONOMIC CATALYST...23 A. INTRODUCTION...23 B. THE NORMALIZATION BETWEEN SOUTH KOREAN AND JAPAN...24 C. SOUTH KOREA S PARTICIPATION IN THE VIETNAM WAR...27 D. THE IMPACT OF THE VIETNAM WAR ON SOUTH KOREA S ECONOMY Inflow of Foreign Capital Increased Exporting...33 E. CONCLUSION...35 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT UNDER PRESIDENTS PARK AND PINOCHET...37 A. INTRODUCTION...37 B. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PARK S ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PINOCHET S The Relationships Between the Bureaucrats and Capitalists Economic Development Policy: State Intervention vs. Market- Oriented Export-oriented Policy: Manufacturing Industry vs. Extractive Industry...46 V. CONCLUSION...49 vii

10 BIBLIOGRAPHY...53 INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST...59 viii

11 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Probability that a regime is democratic, by per capita income....5 ix

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13 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Studies of Democracy, Autocracy, Bureaucracy and Growth....6 Table 2. Percent Distribution of SCNR members by Age Compared with Leadership during the Rhee and Chang Regimes...14 Table 3. Key Officials in Park s Military Government...15 Table 4. Principal Occupations of Founding Members of DRP...16 Table 5. GNP Growth between 1957 and Table 6. Weight of Import and Export for U.S. among Total Import and Export in Table 7. Japan s Economic Cooperation with South Korea, Table 8. Summary of Economic and Military Assistance to South Korea from the United States...30 Table 9. South Korea s Earnings from South Vietnam, Table 10. Korean Civilian Laborers in South Vietnam (as of May, 1968)...32 Table 11. Summary of Exports and Imports Table 12. Korean Construction Exports, xi

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15 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to acknowledge the invaluable advice, support and encouragement of Professors Robert Looney and Alice Miller in their respective capacities as my thesis advisor and second reader, as well as the considerable knowledge and insights they have imparted in serving as teaching professors at the Naval Postgraduate School. xiii

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17 I. INTRODUCTION A. PURPOSE President Park Chung Hee was the initiator of economic development in South Korea after seizing political power in a coup in Although his military regime suppressed civil liberty, it contributed to the rapid economic transformation of South Korea. This thesis examines the Park leadership s promotion of the take-off of South Korea s economy as a comparative case study of the role played by military authoritarian regimes in economic development. B. CONCEPTUAL SIGNIFICANCE After WWII, many countries were created, several of which came to have authoritarian regimes. These regimes depressed civil liberties among their peoples, but in some cases they contributed to their own democratization, ironically, by pursuing economic development. The Republic of Korea s President Park Chung Hee seized control of political power by a coup in Until he was assassinated in 1979, he acted both as dictator of South Korea s political order and as the founder of the South Korean economic take-off. According to recent surveys, Park remains the most respected former president among South Korea s people, but there are also those who denigrate his achievements in promoting ROK s economic development because of his dictatorship. Generally speaking, authoritarian regimes were widespread among countries of low economic development and per capita income. South Korea was the one of the poorest countries in the world at the beginning of the 1960s. Nevertheless, by 2007, its rank by GNP was thirteenth in the world. This and other considerations invite consideration of the main factors of the economic success under Park s authoritarian regime. If the main factors of these successful results can be located, it may help to illuminate understanding of how developing countries achieve economic development. 1

18 C. LITERATURE REVIEW 1. Approaches to Authoritarianism The role of authoritarian regimes in promoting development has not been studied as extensively as that of development under democratic regimes. As Dan Slater observed, Democratic institutions have long enjoyed pride of place in comparative politics. By comparison, authoritarian institutions remain inadequately conceptualized, theorized, and investigated. 1 Studying economic development under authoritarian regimes is not only useful in itself but also because it sheds light on contrasts with modernization in democratic orders. Many developing countries began modernization in the 1950s and 1960s under authoritarian regimes. What connection exists between modernization and authoritarian regimes? Talcott Parsons was the foremost advocate of social evolutionism. According to his theory, society evolves from barbarism to civilized levels. 2 He argued that the United States was the most developed of the Western cultures. In his theories, modernization requires that a society deny its traditions, which results in social problems. His theory was attacked as being ethnocentric and for equating modernization with Westernization. In Max Weber s view, modernization means transformation from feudal society to modern society. 3 This is an economic history viewpoint which sees modernization as Eurocentric westernization. Weber divided political domination into three types: charismatic domination, traditional domination, and legal domination. 4 He insisted that the relationship between rulers and subjects can be analyzed by these types of domination 1 Dan Slater, "Iron Cage in an Iron Fist: Authoritarian Institutions and the Personalization of Power in Malaysia," Comparative Politics 36, no. 1 (Oct. 2003), Talcott Parsons, Theories of Society; Foundations of Modern Sociological Theory (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1961). 3 Max Weber and Talcott Parsons, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (New York: Free Press, 1964). 4 Peter Wagner, A Sociology of Modernity: Liberty and Discipline (London; New York: Routledge, 1994). 2

19 and that they constitute a progression in a historical process from charismatic domination to traditional domination and finally to legal domination. In charismatic domination, the ruler governs the people by extraordinary qualities and exceptional powers. In the traditional domination, leaders possess acquired or inherited qualities, and, in legal domination, they rule by rational regulations. Most military regimes during 1950s-1960s acquired political power using force and only then established their legitimacy. W. W. Rostow developed a major economic growth model. He divided economic growth into five stages. 5 The first stage is that of a traditional society whose structure is developed within limits. The second stage is society in the process of transition. The third stage marks a watershed in the life of modern societies. During this time, new industries expand rapidly. The fourth stage sees a long interval in the drive to maturity. Finally, societies achieve maturity and come into an age of high mass-consumption. Following this scheme, authoritarian regimes contribute to the second and third stages. According to the social theorist Peter Wagner, modernization is a process. 6 In his view, structural change progresses in all fields such as politics, economy, society, and culture. Structural change begins from undeveloped conditions to more developed conditions. Authoritarian regimes were mostly born in underdeveloped conditions and provided more developed conditions through economic development. 2. Perspectives on Developmental States and Authoritarian Regimes Seymour Martin Lipset measured modernization of European and Latin-American countries during the 1960s by means of several indicators: industrialization, urbanization, education, and wealth. 7 He observed that more industrialized countries were found in more democratic countries in Europe and less dictatorial countries in Latin America. These data indicate that there are more possibilities to find authoritarian regimes in 5 W. W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth, a Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge [Eng.: University Press, 1960). 6 Wagner, A Sociology of Modernity: Liberty and Discipline. 7 Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man (London: Heinemann, 1969). 3

20 developing countries than in developed countries. On that basis, he argued that the more well-to-do a nation, the greater the chances that it will sustain democracy. 8 Samuel Huntington supported Lipset in his book The Third Wave, noting that an overall correlation exists between the level of economic development and democracy, yet no level or pattern of economic development is in itself either necessary or sufficient to bring about democratization. 9 He also stressed the stability of regimes, whether democratic or not, and argued that rapid economic development caused instability in the authoritarian regimes and compelled the country to liberalize. He stressed that the primary problem is not liberty but the creation of a legitimate public order. 10 Authoritarian regimes might seek their legitimacy from the achievements of economic development. Adam Przeworski also argued that economic development is related to a regime s political type, as shown in Figure However, he did not agree with Huntington s argument that rapid growth is not destabilizing in democracies (or in dictatorships). He summarized 18 studies about regime type and economic growth, as in Table 1. He explained that among them, eight found in favor of democracy, eight in favor of authoritarianism, and five discovered no difference. What is even more puzzling is that among the 11 results published before 1988, eight found that authoritarian regimes grew faster, while none of the nine results published after 1987 supported this finding Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," The American Political Science Review 53, no. 1 (Mar. 1959), Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991). 10 Samuel P. Huntington and Harvard University. Center for International Affairs, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968). 11 Adam Przeworski and Fernando Papaterra Limongi Neto, "Modernization: Theories and Facts," World Politics 49, no. 2 (Jan. 1997). 12 Adam Przeworski, "What Makes Democracies Endure?" Journal of Democracy. 71, no (1996),

21 Figure 1. Probability that a regime is democratic, by per capita income. 5

22 Table 1. Studies of Democracy, Autocracy, Bureaucracy and Growth. Author Sample Time frame Finding Przeworski (1966) 57 countries Dictatorships at medium development Adelman (1967) 74 underdeveloped Authoritarianism helped less and medium developed Dick (1974) 59 underdeveloped Democracies develop slightly faster Huntington (1975) 35 poor nations The 1950s Authoritarian grew faster Marsh (1979) 98 countries Authoritarian grew faster Weede (1983) 124 countries Authoritarian grew faster Kormendi (1985) 47 countries Democracies grew faster Kohli (1986) 10 underdeveloped No difference in 1960s; authoritarian slightly better in 1970s Landau (1986) 65 countries Authoritarian grew faster Sloan (1987) 20 Latin American Bureaucratic-authoritarian regimes do better than democracies Marsh (1988) 47 countries No difference between regimes Pourgerami (1988) 92 countries Democracies grew faster Scully (1988,1992) 115 countries Democracies grew faster Barro (1989) 72 countries Democracies grew faster Grier (1989) 59 countries Democracy better in Africa and Latin America Remmer (1990) 11 Latin American Democracy faster, but result statistically insignificant Pourgerami (1991) 106 less developed 1986 Democracies grew faster Helliwell (1992) 90 countries Democracy has a negative, but statistical effect on growth D. THE SOUTH KOREAN CASE The military regime under Park Chung Hee launched an export-led growth policy from early in his presidency. Haggard, Kim and Moon explained that the neoclassical position traces South Korea s take-off to a set of policy reforms in 1964 and They continued by noting that policy was far from laissez-faire, but on the whole, the reforms moved Korea in a more market-oriented direction that sought to exploit Korea s comparative advantage. The five-year plan was critical to the economic policy of Park. With these plans, the statists, by contrast, detail the pervasive intervention of the 6

23 Korean government in the economy, even after the shift toward an outward-oriented strategy. Moreover, the neoclassical position argues that such intervention promoted rapid economic growth. 13 Several studies supported by the World Bank found the relevant factors responsible for the rapid growth under President Park s presidency. R.R. Krishnan explained that among the factors that have been identified are the commitments of the political leadership (for 18 years Park Chung Hee and Chun Doo Hwan since 1980) to growth through an all out promotion of exports. 14 In addition, the chaebol (South Korean business groups) were important actors as exporters. Park encouraged chaebols to accumulate capital. Although this approach generated side effects such as wealth inequality, corruption between business groups and government, its role was critical in the export-led policy. The military regime was a strong supporter of the policy. Muthiah Alagappa concludes that in many cases, state coercion played a dominant role in most if not all these processes and resulted in military role expansion and a dramatic increase in the coercive, organizational, economic, and political power and influence of the military. 15 Park established social overhead capital (SOC) to develop the economy under his power. For example, when he planned to construct the Kyung-bu Highway, it was widely resisted for the financial reason that South Korea was at that time one of the poorest countries. Park nevertheless was himself convinced of the importance of SOC. POSCO, now one of the largest steel companies in the world, is a similar case. Park ordered General Park Tae-jun to build it. According to Jun Jinsok, the military in South Korea has played an important role in the process of modernization through manpower 13 Stephan Haggard, Byung-kook Kim and Chung-in Moon, "The Transition to Export-Led Growth in South Korea: ," The Journal of Asian Studies 50, no. 4 (Nov. 1991), R. R. Krishnan, "South Korean Export Oriented Regime: Context and Characteristics," Social Scientist 13, no. 7/8 (Jul. - Aug. 1985), Muthiah Alagappa, Coercion and Governance: The Declining Political Role of the Military in Asia (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001). 7

24 training, dissemination of modern methods of organization and management, and active participation in the construction of physical infrastructure. 16 Not all of the policies of the military regime under President Park were successful. However, Kim Gwang-sik noted, the military has made an enormous contribution to South Korea s modernization and socioeconomic development. From the late 1950s to the late 1970s, the military played an important role in resocializing and training. 17 Han Yong-won agrees, stating that the military has also made a profound contribution to the country s physical infrastructure in the form of roads, highways, bridges, and cultivation of farmland and woods. 18 Developed countries in the West were important models of modernization in developing countries. But developing countries modernization had many problems. Developing countries had to solve not only the process of modernization but also problems resulted from adopting modernization. They also had to deal with democracy, which is difficult in the beginning phase of modernization. Authoritarian regimes typically use force to achieve internal consolidation. By doing so, political stability could be accomplished, providing the ground for economic development. Muthiah Alagappa explained: 19 Coercion plays a central role as well in the structure and process of political domination. Rulers in a number of Asian countries rely on coercion to maintain their position and secure compliance from their citizens and subjects. State coercion was a crucial pillar of the Syngman Rhee, Park Chung-hee, and Chun Doo-hwan governments in South Korea; Mao Zedong s rule in China; the Kuomintang-led governments in Taiwan until 1987; the Marcos dictatorship in the Philippines; and the military governments in Thailand, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia. 16 Muthiah Alagappa, Coercion and Governance: The Declining Political Role of the Military in Asia (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001): Gwang-sik Kim, "Goon-Sahoi Gwangye 5onyeon: Hoigowa Jeonmang" (Seoul, Hangookgookbangyeongoowon, 1998). 18 Yong-won Han, "Gookgabaljeongwa Gooneui Yeokhal" (Seoul, Hangookgookbangyeongoowon, 1998). 19 Alagappa, Coercion and Governance: The Declining Political Role of the Military in Asia. 8

25 To develop a country s economy in a short time, authoritarian regimes can be efficient even though there may be side effects. An authoritarian government has to overcome the resistance of citizens who want to introduce a more intensive democracy or maintain the traditional values. If developing countries can reform their economic structures successfully, they can change their political structures with relatively little conflict between the demands of the citizens and the fulfillment of the government. This thesis will suggest favorable solutions for economic development under authoritarian regimes. 1. Chile as a Case Study In the Chilean case, President Pinochet s military regime had an important role in developing the economy. While Park Chung-hee pursued economic development by powerful state intervention, Pinochet implemented economic reform by means of a free market. The rapid free market economic reform of Chile by Pinochet spread to other South American countries. In this thesis, the author assesses why Korea intended economic development through government intervention and Chile selected a free market although both countries were lead by military governments. E. METHODOLOGY AND SOURCES This thesis draws on the literature on modernization in authoritarian regimes. In researching the comparative case studies of South Korea and Chile, important main sources include South Korean and Chilean government documents, scholarly books, economic journals and periodicals published not only in English but also in Korean. Economic data or reports from the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, and the World Trade Organization have also been drawn upon. F. THESIS SYNOPSIS This thesis first looks into how Park s administration accomplished economic development, unlike Rhee Syngman s regime. This thesis focuses on the intrinsic differences between the military bureaucracy and export-oriented industrialization. Also, 9

26 as an extrinsic difference, special demands from the Vietnam War will be discussed. The United States participated fully in the Vietnam War during the period of Park s regime. The economic effect gained from South Korea participation in the Vietnam War absolutely influenced its export-oriented economic growth policy implemented by the Park administration. Finally, this thesis analyses the political differences between both countries by comparing Park s regime to Pinochet s regime. Both regimes were military governments, but South Korea implemented economic development with powerful intervention by the government, and Chile fulfilled economic reform with a free market. The thesis assesses what brought these two countries to take different directions in their national economic policies. 10

27 II. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT UNDER PRESIDENT PARK AND LEE A. INTRODUCTION South Korea declared independence after World War II and has accomplished dramatic economic development through export-oriented growth policy since the 1960s. The economic development of South Korea has been called as an East Asian Miracle, NICs (Newly Industrializing Country), a NIEs (Newly Industrializing Economy), or a HPAEs (High Performing Asian Economy). 20 Also, after the mid-1960s, particularly, in the 1970s, South Korea was called a BAIR (bureaucratic-authoritarian industrializing regime). 21 The annual growth rate of HPAEs eight countries (Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand) has been 5.5 percent for 30 years since This is two times higher than OECD countries, which is a group of advanced countries, three times higher than Latin America and South Asia, and 25 times higher than African countries below the Sahara. 23 In particular, South Korea s average growth rate of GNP in the 1960s was 10 percent. It was the most amazing speed among other HPAEs countries. 24 It was impossible to see this growth rate in the 1950s when South Korea was one of the poorest countries in the world, after liberation in In the 1950s, the first President of Korea, Rhee Syng-man, ran the country, and President Park s military regime governed Korea in 20 Mark T. Berger, The Battle for Asia: From Decolonization to Globalization (New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004): Bruce Cumings, "The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy: Industrial Sectors, Product Cycles, and Political Consequences," International Organization 38, no. 1 (Winter 1984), 1-40: Berger, The Battle for Asia: From Decolonization to Globalization: Jong Suh Koo, "Developmental Model of East-Asia and Korea," The Korean Political Science Association 30, no. 2 (Aug. 1996), Cumings, The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy: Industrial Sectors, Product Cycles, and Political Consequences, 1-40: 1. 11

28 the 1960s. How could President Park s administration achieve such high growth? This paper will compare Rhee s government and Park s military government in terms of economic development. B. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PARK S ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND LEE S After its independence in 1945, Korea was divided into North and South Korea and they have confronted each other. Although South Korea held an election separately and elected Rhee Syng-man as the first President, social unrest continued and communist guerrillas connected to North Korea frequently appeared. 25 Moreover, the Korean War in 1950 devastated the Korean peninsula. Rhee administration, which had to depend on U.S. aid, implemented import-substituting development, but political stability was a more urgent matter than economic development for the newly independent nation. Although there was economic growth, it was mainly because of the restoration of damages from the Korean War, and reconstruction of the basic infrastructure including power, basic industries. 26 On the contrary, Park s military government, which came into power by a coup in 1961, drove export-oriented industrialization (EOI) and accomplished dramatic economic development compared to Rhee administration. Thanks to the cold war system in the world, a powerful military regime was able to remain, and the Vietnam War in the 1960s helped Korea to begin EOI. Furthermore, the military was the only powerful and systematic organization in Korea following the Korean War. With support of the military, Park s government could drive a powerful export-oriented policy. Particularly, the policy of the cultivation of heavy and chemical industries in 1970s upgraded Korea s EOI with conglomerates full-fledged growth. This chapter examines two factors that enabled Park s regime to accomplish economic growth than Rhee s administration. 25 Cumings, The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy: Industrial Sectors, Product Cycles, and Political Consequences, 1-40: Edward Reynolds Wright and Suk-choon Cho, Korean Politics in Transition (Seattle: Published for the Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch, by the University of Washington Press, 1975):

29 - Military bureaucracy: Although technocrats of Rhee s government could not play a proper bureaucracy role due to the political situation, Park s government was able to form a powerful bureaucracy dominated by the government. - Export-oriented industrialization: Although Rhee s regime implemented an import-substitution program, it was insufficient to maintain consistent economic growth. The GDP growth rate of Rhee s government continuously decreased. On the contrary, Park s government accomplished high-speed economic growth through export-oriented industrialization. Since South Korea was a lack of natural resources, increasing export through industrialization was the best option for economic development. C. THE MILITARY BUREAUCRACY 1. Political Side Park Chung-hee had promised to hand over his government to a civilian government after the coup, but he ran for President as a representative of the Democratic Republican Party (DRP). The DRP had been organized by Kim Jong-pil, who was a core member of the coup. Park s military government greatly strengthened the power of President through constitutional reform. The President then could appoint cabinet members including the prime minister, and limit the freedom of the press, assembly and speech. In addition, he limited political activities of political parties through a political party law. 27 President Park s peers in the military supported him. The leading powers in the Park regime were military leaders. Many of them had crossed the border into Manchuria in the colonial era and entered the Manchurian Military Academy. And, some of them who had achieved excellent grades entered the Japanese Military Academy. Park Chung Hee also graduated from the Manchurian and Japanese Military Academies. Park Chung Hee appointed his subordinates to important positions in the government. For example, General Jung Il-Kwon became Foreign Minister, the Prime Minister and the Speaker. 27 Haggard, Kim and Moon, The Transition to Export-Led Growth in South Korea: , :

30 General Lee Han-Lim, Park s military academy colleague, became the Minister of Construction. General Baek Sun-Yon became the Minister of Transportation. Cho explained, In terms of social and political backgrounds, the Korean government bureaucracy contains three layers of higher civil servants. Those belonging to the third category are ex-military men who entered the higher civil service after the military coup d etat of Some percent of higher civil servants had been in the military immediately before joining the civil service. This percentage increases in the higher ranks; in 1965, percent of the age group of 36 to 40 were ex-military men. 28 And the then leaders were more likely to be in their 30s compared to the previous regime as seen in the table below. 29 Table 2. Percent Distribution of SCNR members by Age Compared with Leadership during the Rhee and Chang Regimes. Over Leadership, a Rhee regime (Age as of 1959) Leadership, a Chang regime (Age as of 1960) Members, SCNR, b June 61, Jan. 62, Dec. 62, or Dec. 63 (Age as of 1961) a. Adapted from Hahn Bae-ho and Kim Kyu-taik, Korean Political Leaders ( ): Their Social Origins and Skills, Asian Survey, Vol. 3 (July 1963), p Composition of the leadership groups is described in the text of the present study and in the study cited. b. Percentages computed with N: 40. Data on date of birth were unavailable for 8 SCNR members. Kim said, Aside from such quantitative advancement to positions of influence, there is a qualitative influx of former generals and colonels into key governmental offices-from the head of state down to the bureau chiefs in the more sensitive positions. Like this, South Korea could establish powerful military bureaucracy for the economic development under government guidance. 30 The following list of key officials and their 28 Wright and Cho, Korean Politics in Transition: Ibid., Haggard, Kim and Moon, The Transition to Export-Led Growth in South Korea: , :

31 former military ranks shows the extent of military entrenchment in the governmental process as of the winter of (See Table 3) 31 Table 3. Key Officials in Park s Military Government Department Name Rank * The President of the Republic Park Chung-hee General, Army Presidential Secretariat Senior Secretaries (Political Affairs) Kim Sang-bok Lt. General, Army Civil Affairs Yu Song-won Brig. General, Army Public Information Kang Sang-uk Brig. General, Army Protocol Cho Sang-ho Colonel, Army General Affairs Kim Won-hui Brig. General, Army Central Intelligence Agency Director Kim Kye-won Lt. General, Army The Prime Minister Chung Il-gwon General, Army The Minister of Defense Chung Nae-hyok Lt. General, Army The Minister of Home Affairs Park Kyong-won Lt. General, Army The Minister of Construction Yi Han-rim Lt. General, Army The Minister of Transportation Paik Son-yop General, Army The Minister of Agriculture and Forestry Cho Si-hyong Maj. General, Army The Chairman, Committee of Agriculture and Forestry, the National Assembly The Chairman, Committee on Commerce and Industry, the National Assembly The Chairman, Committee of Foreign Affairs, the National Assembly The Chairman, Committee on Home Affairs, the National Assembly The Chairman, Judiciary Committee, the National Assembly The Chairman, Committee on National Defense, the National Assembly The Chairman, Committee on Steering and Planning, the National Assembly Yi Chong-gun Kil Chong-sik Cha Chi-chol Yi Sang-mu No Chee-pil Min Pyong-hwon Yi Pyong-whi * All ranks are those held at the time of retirement from active duty. Brig. General, Army Colonel, Army Army Colonel, Army Brig. General, Army Lt. General, Army Colonel, Army 31 Se-Jin Kim, The Politics of Military Revolution in Korea (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971):

32 His subordinates played a big role in the assembly as well as in the administration. The major members of the DRP were military people. As a result of his electoral victory, Park could strongly execute the government policy, placing his subordinates in the main policy departments of the government. Table 4. Principal Occupations of Founding Members of DRP 32 Occupation Number Occupation Number Military 20 Law 4 Education 13 Banking 2 Politics 8 Medicine 1 Press 7 Artist 1 Commerce 7 Total 70 Bureaucracy 7 Having suffered through the Korean War ( ), the military appeared as the only organization with structural power in South Korea. 33 The number of soldiers was 75,000 in 1950, but increased to 600,000 after the war, and 700,000 in It became one of the largest militaries in the world. 34 Cumings gave two meanings in respect to this big military. 35 First, the Korean military took a role of defense at the front line of the Cold War. The confrontation status between North Korea supported by the Soviet Union and China, and South Korea supported by U.S. provided an advantageous international environment where a powerful military government had to remain. Even though the Korean War was suspended, the threat from North Korea still remained, and the political role of the Korean military remained the same. 36 Second, many young Koreans were 32 David Chamberlin Cole and Princeton N. Lyman, Korean Development; the Interplay of Politics and Economics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971): Richard Stubbs, Rethinking Asia's Economic Miracle: The Political Economy of War, Prosperity, and Crisis (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005): Cumings, The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy: Industrial Sectors, Product Cycles, and Political Consequences, 1-40: Ibid., Nora Hamilton and Eun Mee Kim, "Economic and Political Liberalisation in South Korea and Mexico," Third World Quarterly 14, no. 1 (1993), :

33 educated by the military in technology and letters, and military officers had learned leadership in military. All young men in Korea had to provide mandatory service to the military, and the military taught them the technology and organizational culture necessary to work in the general society after discharge. This second factor minimized objections against Park s military regime about its lack of legitimacy. 2. Economic Side Unlike Rhee s government, Park s military regime concentrated its power on the administration to prepare an organization basis for economic growth. These organizations were blocked from political stakeholders, and implemented powerful economic growth policies. The power of Park s military government and political insulation were important factors for accomplishing market-conforming strategy. A small cadre of technocrats tried economic reform during Rhee s government but failed since they were not the main power. However, Park s government formed a powerful bureaucracy through restructuring and also appointed various specialists to government departments. 37 The role of bureaucracy is also pointed to as a factor common to high-speed economic growth in East Asia. 38 The economic policies of Park s government were mainly swayed by the Economic Planning Board (EPB) which had authority over economic and budget planning. Since the EPB had a powerful authority over the allocation of resources as well as economic development, their influence on the overall economy of South Korea was tremendous. 39 Furthermore, the Ministry of Commerce and Industry (MCI, later the Ministry of Trade and Industry, or MTI) and the Ministry of Finance (MOF) were established as financial supervisors to control companies financially. The government 37 Haggard, Kim and Moon, The Transition to Export-Led Growth in South Korea: , : Frank-Jurgen Richter, The East Asian Development Model: Economic Growth, Institutional Failure, and the Aftermath of the Crisis (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000). 39 Se-jin Chang, Financial Crisis and Transformation of Korean Business Groups: The Rise and Fall of Chaebols (Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003). 17

34 conducted instruction and provided supervision companies, and if a company accomplished its goal, the government provided attractive incentives. 40 D. EXPORT-ORIENTED INDUSTRIALIZATION The Korean economy greatly depended on aid from the U.S. in the 1950s. From , U.S. aid accounted for 70 percent of total imports. The main purpose of the aid was stabilization, but the U.S. was skeptical about Korea s economic growth. 41 Rhee s government had put priorities on political issues to confront communist North Korea rather than an economic development. 42 Rhee s regime implemented import-substituting programs as an economic policy. Major industries at that time were textiles, cement and flat glass. 43 The textile industry in particular, was an important axis of economic growth in the 1950s. 44 Cotton spinning had begun in the Japanese colonial era ( ) and had been a major part of Korean industry even after export-oriented industrialization in the 1960 s as well as importsubstituting industrialization in the 1950s. 45 Domestic industries were protected by tariffs and foreign currency policies, 46 and it was relatively easy for domestic companies to approach the U.S. market due to the U.S. government s aid policy. 47 However, the stabilization and import-substituting program did not guarantee consistent economic development. The GNP growth continuously dropped after peak of 40 Haggard, Kim and Moon, The Transition to Export-Led Growth in South Korea: , : Haggard, Kim and Moon, The Transition to Export-Led Growth in South Korea: , : Chang, Financial Crisis and Transformation of Korean Business Groups: The Rise and Fall of Chaebols. 43 Cumings, The Origins and Development of the Northeast Asian Political Economy: Industrial Sectors, Product Cycles, and Political Consequences, 1-40: Dennis L. McNamara, "State and Concentration in Korea's First Republic, ," Modern Asian Studies 26, no. 4 (Oct. 1992), : Ibid., Paul W. Kuznets, Economic Growth and Structure in the Republic of Korea (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977). 47 McNamara, State and Concentration in Korea's First Republic, , :

35 7.7 percent in 1957 (See Table 5). This policy only could not develop Korea's poor economic structure. Effective political structure had to support continuous economic growth. Unfortunately, Rhee s government had no ability to change its ineffective political structure. 48 Table 5. GNP Growth between 1957 and GNP growth (%) Korean War Haggard explained Rhee's import-substituting economic strategy as follows: 49 In the 1950s, the financial weakness of the ruling Liberal Party and its declining political fortunes made it rational for Syngman Rhee to maximize his dependence on aid, limit the domain of coherent planning, and maintain discretionary control over a variety of policy instruments in order to build political support. These political factors help explain the particular nature of South Korea s experience with a predominantly import-substituting economic strategy in the 1950s. McNamara argued: 50 But the wider picture of uneven growth and then stagnation in the local economy, blatant collusion with industry to gain funds for election campaigns, and inconsistent economic planning and implementation hardly suggests an effective role in the wider economy for the state of the First Republic. Intent on political survival, the administration failed to provide clear economic direction or even commit itself to a comprehensive development plan. Rhee s overriding priority on political rather than economic mobilization, and growing reliance on the business sector for funds to maintain his Liberal Party. 48 Haggard, Kim and Moon, The Transition to Export-Led Growth in South Korea: , : Ibid., McNamara, State and Concentration in Korea's First Republic, , :

36 Park s military regime effectively changed Rhee s import substituting industrialization (ISI) into export-oriented industrialization (EOI), and powerfully drove export-oriented policies. Park s policy re-established the relationship between the government and companies. Companies received incentives from the government and the government began to discipline companies. 51 The export-oriented policy, the most successful economic factor of South Korea since the 1960 s, was not planned by Park s regime at first. His first economic development plan was to inherit the previous regime s import substituting industrialization plan. 52 However, Park changed the development strategy to an exportoriented industrialization in He pursued the transition from a Domestic-oriented economic system which basically pursued restoration from war damage and stabilization, to an Export-oriented economic system. This was because Korea was not a large-scale domestic market and lacked natural resources. Since Korea had cheap and highly educated labor power, it was logical to manufacture products in the country with imported raw materials and export them to other countries. In this period, the geopolitical environment was also advantageous to South Korea. Due to the Cold War, the U.S. provided tremendous aid and a market for South Korea. 54 Table 6. Weight of Import and Export for U.S. among Total Import and Export in (Unit: %) Year Weight of export to U.S Weight of import from U.S *sources: the Korea Bank, ECOS DB 51 Haggard, Kim and Moon, The Transition to Export-Led Growth in South Korea: , : John Lie, Han Unbound: The Political Economy of South Korea (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1998). 53 Hyug Baeg Im, "The Rise of Bureaucratic Authoritarianism in South Korea," World Politics 39, no. 2 (Jan. 1987), : Chang, Financial Crisis and Transformation of Korean Business Groups: The Rise and Fall of Chaebols:

37 Im explained that: 55 Due to the success of the export platform, the South Korean economy grew 9.6 percent per annum and created 2.9 million new jobs between 1963 and The economic structure changed radically. While agriculture s share of total domestic production dropped from 45.2 percent to 29.5 percent, the industrial manufacturing sector s share increased from 17.1 percent to 35.2 percent between and The export platform led the GNP growth. Between 1963 and 1973, the export sector provided 39.9 percent of the total GNP growth compared to 4.5 percent between 1955 and South Korea entered into a take off stage in the mid-1960s through exportoriented industrialization. 56 After converting its industrialization policy for economic stabilization and import-substitution into an export-oriented strategy of labor-intensive light industries, it gradually expanded to heavy industries. In the early 1970 s, the government decided to intensively cultivate the heavy and chemical industry sector. In order to do so, the government established Promoting Committee for Heavy and Chemical Industry (March 1973) with the Chairman of the Minister of Economic Planning Board. This committee took the lead in industrialization. Its policy also considered the necessity to defense industry through its development of heavy and chemical industry because of the threat of North Korea and the possibility of withdrawal of U.S. forces. Moreover, the heavy industry economic development plans of Japan after WWII greatly influenced Park Chung-hee. 57 Thanks to the powerful cultivation policy of the government, the ratio of heavy and chemical industries to the production of manufacturing industries rapidly increased to 53.6 percent in 1980 from 39.2 percent in 1970, and the ratio out of total exporting increased to 41.5 percent from 12.8 percent. Since the economy of scale is essential to 55 Im, The Rise of Bureaucratic Authoritarianism in South Korea, : W. W. Rostow and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Center for International Studies., The Stages of Economic Growth and the Problems of Peaceful Co-Existence (Cambridge, Mass.: Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1960). Rostow classified economic growth stages into traditional society, transitional society, take-off stage, mature stage and high mass consumption stage. 57 Mark Clifford, Troubled Tiger: Businessmen, Bureaucrats, and Generals in South Korea (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1998). 21