SITUATING A NEW VOICE IN PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE APPLICATION OF POSITIONING THEORY TO RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

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1 Melanie James SITUATING A NEW VOICE IN PUBLIC RELATIONS: THE APPLICATION OF POSITIONING THEORY TO RESEARCH AND PRACTICE Media International Australia 34 Abstract The role of speech acts in public relations practice, and how they are used by entities to intentionally position themselves and others, are examined through the application of positioning theory. Studies have found that successful positioning is achieved when there is congruence between the position taken or assigned, the speech acts used to enact it, and the storylines used as support. This triad is central to positioning theory, which is a social constructionist approach that defines a position as a cluster of rights and duties that limits the repertoire of possible social acts available to a person or person-like entity (such as an organisation). Examining public relations using positioning theory articulates practices relating to the power to position self and others, and can inform decisionmaking in communication program design. It moves away from organisation/ management-centric theory that has dominated the field, and situates public relations firmly in the communication discipline. New voices in public relations scholarship are examining how speech acts are being used by various entities to intentionally position themselves and others through the application of positioning theory (Harré and van Langenhove, 1999). Positioning theory is about how people use words (and discourse of all types) to locate themselves and others (Moghaddam and Harré, 2010: 2). It is based on the central idea of a triad of positioning speech act storyline within a social episode that must maintain a dynamic stability in order for effective positioning to be achieved (1999: 10). This article reports on how positioning theory has been applied to public relations, and on research that has been undertaken using this approach. This is a distinct change of theoretical focus from what has become known as the excellence theory of public relations, which is based around the concept of two-way symmetrical communication (Grunig, 1992). From an academic standpoint, public relations is primarily about the relations between publics and organisations. Organisation is a broad term used to refer to for-profit and not-for-profit organisations, corporations, clients of public relations agencies, activist groups, non-government organisations, social change organisations, political entities, and government organisations and agencies (Hallahan et al., 2007). The concept of publics is based on the 1920s scholarship of Dewey and Lippmann, and is centred on how a public will form (or be constructed) to position itself on an issue (Marres, 2007). A public often consists of strangers who are jointly concerned about an issue but who

2 do not belong to the same social world. This then requires them to get organised into a political community of sorts if they are to address the issue at hand. According to Harré and Moghaddam (2003), positioning is what we call the actions taken to achieve a position a point from which the possibilities for action are established, or in some cases denied. A position itself is seen in the broadest terms as being a cluster of rights and duties that limits the repertoire of possible social acts available to a person or person-like entity (such as a corporation) as so positioned (Moghaddam et al., 2008: 294). This idea resonates with public relations practice in that not all organisations are able to position themselves or others in particular ways, or at particular times; a position defines what is socially possible without incurring reprobation or punishment (Louis, 2008: 22). James (2014: 207) drew on such definitions in stating that a public relations position is a point of intentional representation discursively constructed for the purposes of achieving an intended outcome, and from where possibilities for action are established, or in some cases denied, in terms of the local moral order/s wherein the public relations activity is taking place. Positioning [comprises] those actions taken to achieve the position. Positioning theory Since the emergence in the 1990s of social psychology s positioning theory (Harré and van Langenhove, 1999) for the analysis of positioning in conversations, there has been a very natural expansion of scale, from the analysis of person-to-person encounters to the unfolding of interactions between nation states (Harré et al., 2009: 6). Positioning theory has had widespread application over the last decade (Moghaddam and Harré, 2010), including research in areas as varied as anthropology (e.g. Handelman, 2008) and journalism (e.g. Miller, 2013; Weizman, 2008). At a basic level, positioning refers to a process by which certain characteristics are attributed to an individual, group or some other entity (Baert, 2012). However, positioning theory moves beyond this assignment of attributes, and is instead based on the principle that not everyone involved in a social episode has equal access to rights and duties to perform particular kinds of meaningful actions at that moment and with those people (Harré, 2012: 193) that is, there are clusters of rights and duties that are taken up or assigned as positioning takes place. What makes up the nature of positioning theory s rights and duties depends on the local moral order within which the positioning efforts are taking place that is, what is considered to be right to do and say at a given time in a given place (Moghaddam & Harré, 2010). Such local moral orders are socio culturally specific, and relate to Tracy and Haspel s (2004: 793) assertion that speech communities possess distinctive speech acts and events, and that rights and duties exist as part of the systems of beliefs with which people interpret and manage their lives (Moghaddam and Harré, 2010: 17). The concept of habitus (Bourdieu, 1990: 54) was viewed by Moghaddam and Harré (2010: 17) as helpful in conceptualising local moral order, but they do not go on to expand this thinking. Bourdieu supports such an assertion, but Bourdieu s concept of field (1984) should also be considered alongside habitus in positioning theory generally, but especially in a public relations context. According to Parmentier, Fischer and Reuber (2013: 375), Bourdieu s fields can be considered structured networks of social positions within which actors strive to gain access to greater power and control over more resources. Having possession of certain rights to position in certain ways according to the local moral order would be part of an organisation s symbolic capital (Bourdieu, 1991), and more research is needed to explore this concept from the public relations perspective. No. 154 February

3 Positioning theory and public relations Applying positioning theory, public relations can be conceptualised as a process whereby discursive positions are actively negotiated and achieved, rather than as a prescriptive technique where a pre-existing position is merely occupied. The application of positioning theory to public relations originated from attempts to theorise public relations positioning, an area that is frequently referred to in practice (James, 2011) but one that has generally been under-researched (James, 2010, 2011). In the first edition of The Encyclopedia of Public Relations, positioning was defined as something that depends on how a consumer compares a product to the competitor s product (Pompper, 2004: 629). In the most recent edition, Pompper (2013: 663) acknowledges that the position-positioning process is a deeply complex one that depends on context and orientation and that while public relations practitioners and academics may not offer formal operationalizations for position and positioning, they nonetheless imply its significance in relationship building. It has only been in critical scholarship that discursive public relations positioning has been examined (e.g. Berger, 1999; Moffitt, 1994; Motion, 1997, 2000; Motion and Doolin, 2007; Motion and Leitch, 1996, 2009; Roper, 2012; Weaver and Motion, 2002) but this has not been taken up by the wider field, which has in the main stayed focused on the organisation-centred models. There has also been some examination of positioning in relation to strategic planning or framing (e.g. Hallahan, 1999; Tilley, 2009; Wang, 2007; Waymer and Heath, 2007), but this has not focused specifically on defining or articulating practices within positioning. In most other public relations literature, positioning has primarily been equated with marketing concepts or the 4Ps of product, price, place and promotion (Egan, 2007). Using positioning theory can increase transparency in researching positioning efforts, and may demystify aspects of practice that previously could have been seen to operate from a practitioner s gut feelings, or simply been seen as creative. Through the examination of storylines, one can determine how organisations construct, through discourse, their narratives that aim to support their desired positioning. Through examining speech acts, one can examine how an entity s desired positioning of self or others is enacted in specific public relations episodes. As Slocum-Bradley (2007: 637) states, words, phrases and concepts do not have rigid meanings intrinsic to them, but rather people use them to do things. This is the major tenet of speech act theory, with speech acts seen not as simply conveying information but being created for the purposes of action (Neff, 2008). Speech act theory has only had intermittent attention from public relations scholars over the last four decades (e.g. Burkart, 2009; Ehling, 1975; Neff, 1998, 2008; Pearson, 1989; Radford, 2012; Smudde and Courtright, 2012; Xifra and Girona, 2012). It has not gained traction as a mainstream theoretical approach to conceptualising practice or research. Work to connect speech act theory and positioning theory in public relations has only appeared in recent years (e.g. James, 2010, 2011; Wise and James, 2013). Of course, speech act theory (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1979) is not without its critics. One of the most polarised debates was between Searle and Derrida in the 1970s. Hartelius (2013: 25) summarised their stances, stating that a systematic and stable relationship between intentions, expression, and meaning [was] central to Searle s philosophy, whereas Derrida, as a deconstructionist, asserted that language breaks with the intentions of a speaker. Interestingly, public relations examined through the lens of positioning theory can be conceptualised more along the lines of Searle s view in that its communication activities aim, in most cases, not to break the intentions Media International Australia 36

4 of the speaker, but rather to have the intended meaning co-constructed by the target public or audience in essence, to have a position crystallise (Henriksen, 2008: 54). This finding was very evident in the first studies of public relations practice using positioning theory (James, 2010, 2011). In 2010, Leitch and Motion (2010: 106) suggested that positioning theory could explicate discursive positioning, which they view as being of central importance to public relations work. Since this time, public relations research using positioning theory has used qualitative methods such as thematic analysis (James, 2010; Tsetsura, 2012), textual analysis (James, 2011), autoethnography (James, 2012), narrative analysis (James, 2014) and positioning discourse analysis (Wise and James, 2013). The following section provides a brief overview of studies undertaken in public relations since Positioning theory in public relations: Studies since 2011 An analysis of positioning in national award winning PR campaigns (James, 2011). The study demonstrated that public relations practitioners used language, symbols, knowledge and discourse to create or influence the construction of meaning in order to position in particular ways. It was found that the use of speech acts and the construction of storylines to intentionally position products, services, ideas and so on aimed to make it as easy as possible for targeted publics and audiences to co-construct the meaning intended by the organisation that commissioned the public relations. Positioning tactics, especially in the construction of storylines, were undertaken in ways that were interpretable by audiences in terms of narratives that were operating in the communities into which the messages were being sent. All organisations in the study took the right to position themselves or others without question, and it was suggested that future research examine this aspect in detail. Applying positioning theory to how Russian female public relations professionals negotiated positions and manifested their identities (Tsetsura, 2012). Tsetsura (2012: 1) sought to understand processes that were used by female public relations practitioners in negotiating their identities in the workplace in transitional hypersexualized societies, such as Russia, where public relations is a relatively young field. Positioning theory was used to demonstrate how it can contribute to studying identity negotiation in the workplace (2012: 15). The findings showed that the practitioners engaged in a constant process of securing their professional identities, specifically disciplining their bodies and controlling their physical presence (2012: 1). Tsetsura (2012) recommended that further studies, including comparative studies, be undertaken to further explore this phenomenon. Her research provides more insights into public relations practice but also about the further possibilities for the application of positioning theory in the public relations field. The design of a positioning strategy for an environmental organization (James, 2012). This auto-ethnography reported on the design of a positioning strategy for a small university-affiliated environmental organisation. It was concluded that positioning theory could aid in designing a communication strategy, but also demonstrated that public relations positioning had two distinct parts. The first related to planning and setting strategic direction, which encompassed the determining of the positioning goal, purpose and type. The second related to the development of tactics and program implementation, which encompassed the positioning triad of position speech act/ action storyline. This had not been evident in previous research. An examination of the positioning framework as a public relations discourse analytical tool (Wise and James, 2013). The researchers developed a hybrid approach No. 154 February

5 tentatively termed positioning discourse analysis, and examined the speeches of Prime Minister Julia Gillard, and opposition leader Tony Abbott, with the aim of elucidating the positioning intentions and supporting discourses about the introduction of a carbon tax in Australia. The study showed that no matter how Gillard enacted her government s position and no matter what storylines and key messages were promulgated to support this position, the position taken by Gillard was in itself untenable. Gillard had not earned or constructed the right to introduce and position a price on carbon pollution. Further research was recommended to explore how tenable positions were constructed by entities seeking to progress a policy debate, a project or other program or issue in a public relations sense. An examination of the public relations positioning strategies of the Indonesian and Australian governments in the post-2013 Australian election period (James, 2014). This research was conducted over a one-week period in 2013 when the two countries politicians, officials and commentators were speaking publicly about the implications of the newly elected Australian government s Operation Sovereign Borders policy. This policy proposed that Australia unilaterally turn back Indonesian fishing boats carrying asylum seekers from countries including Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan. The research found that Australia was less than wholehearted in taking up the position assigned by Indonesia: that of collaborative partner as part of the good friend meta-storyline. Indonesia was found to have had the right to issue statements that had the social force of rebuke, chastisement or warning. However, such statements were issued only in the context of a friend warning another friend that it was potentially approaching the territory of jeopardising the friendship. Australia was seen to appear as somewhat morally defective for example, as arrogant or even a potential bully. The findings provided insight into the nature of communication power being wielded between the parties, and furthered understanding of strategy and tactics in public relations positioning efforts. It also provided more insight into how such episodes unfold, and this could be applied in wider public relations program design especially in terms of scenario-planning stages and issues management. The design of a public relations campaign to aid in the achievement of ending global extreme poverty (James, 2014). This research reports on the development of a campaign to position the ongoing existence of extreme poverty as both socially unjust and immoral. The strategy uses speech acts and storylines to position audience members as personally involved and causing harm by not doing the right thing to eradicate extreme poverty. Research supports this emphasis, which is more likely to activate people to be motivated to take action and to condemn extreme poverty (e.g. Calatayud and Nos Aldos, 2013). Many current storylines in campaigns just encourage clicktivism, and Wilkins and Enghel (2013) suggest that this serves to inhibit rather than strengthen audiences moral sensitivity. This strategy encourages condemnation emotions (Calatayud and Nos Aldos, 2013) so that people will judge injustice and immorality more severely. Such a strategy, based on positioning theory s triad of position speech act/action storyline brings the extreme poverty problem closer to target audience members and is predicted to trigger their motivation to act. Conclusion When an organisation takes an active role in public relations positioning that is, it attempts to intentionally position itself or other entities in a certain way for a particular purpose it is deliberately attempting to engage in a process of meaning-making. When organisations participate in intentional strategic positioning activities, they are working Media International Australia 38

6 to actively construct the social world most often a social world that facilitates the achievement of their organisational goals. This conceptualisation of public relations differs significantly from that offered by dominant academic conceptualisations in the field. Like so much public relations practice, much depends on the intent of the public relations activity; many of the same positioning techniques can be used whether one is positioning the benefits of immunisation to new parents, or the cool factor of smoking to teens in developing countries. The techniques of public relations are not inherently good or bad; it depends on how they are applied. Public relations positioning techniques are, in this sense, no different from other communication techniques. Positioning theory has not been explored deeply in terms of its application to public relations or indeed to any aspect of media and communication. Positioning theorists have been actively working in social psychology for almost a quarter of a century and, as each volume of work emerges, more questions and avenues of inquiry are opened up. Increasing numbers of disciplines are examining positioning theory and considering what new insights it can offer to researchers. For public relations, analysis of practice using positioning theory has indicated that, through its social constructionist epistemology and focus on the use of speech acts and narrative (storylines), there can be little doubt that the field sits firmly in the communication discipline. References Austin, J. 1962, How to Do Things with Words, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Baert, P. 2012, Positioning Theory and Intellectual Interventions, Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, vol. 42, no. 3, pp Berger, B. 1999, The Halcion Affair: Public Relations and the Construction of Ideological World View, Journal of Public Relations Research, vol. 11, no. 3, pp Bourdieu, P. 1984, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Bourdieu, P. 1990, The Logic of Practice, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA. 1991, Language and Symbolic Power, Polity Press, Cambridge. Burkart, R. 2009, On Habermas: Understanding and Public Relations, in O. Ihlen, B. van Ruler and M. Fredriksson (eds), Public Relations and Social Theory, Routledge, London, pp Calatayud, D. and Nos Aldas, E. 2013, Developing Moral Sensitivity Through Protest Scenarios in International NGDOs Communication, Communication Research, 18 June, pp. 1 24, doi: / Egan, J. 2007, Marketing Communications, Cengage, London. Ehling, W. 1975, PR Administration, Management Science, and Purposive Systems, Public Relations Review, vol. 1, no. 2, pp Grunig, J. 1992, Communication, Public Relations, and Effective Organizations: An Overview of the Book, in J. Grunig, D. Dozier, W. Ehling, L. Grunig, F. Repper and J. White (eds), Excellence in Public Relations and Communication and Management, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. Hallahan, K. 1999, Seven Models of Framing: Implications for Public Relations, Journal of Public Relations Research, vol. 11, no. 3, pp Hallahan, K., Holtzhausen, D., van Ruler, B., Verčič, D., and Sriramesh, K. 2007, Defining Strategic Communication, International Journal of Strategic Communication, vol. 1, no. 1, pp Handelman, D. 2008, Afterword: Returning to Cosmology Thoughts on the Positioning of Belief, Social Analysis, vol. 52, no. 1, pp Harré, R. 2006, Positioning theory, in V. Jupp (ed.), The Sage Dictionary of Social Research Methods, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. No. 154 February

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