Chapter 3 Transition From Monarchy to Democracy: Glimpses of the Political Journey

Transcription

1 Chapter 3 Transition From Monarchy to Democracy: Glimpses of the Political Journey

2 CHAPTER - 3 TRANSITION FROM MONARCHY TO DEMOCRACY: GLIMPSES OF THE POLITICAL JOURNEY The nature of conflict and political transition varies from one context to another. The political struggle for development and democracy has a long history in Nepal with some significant milestones. The Delhi Compromise of 1951, paved the way to the first democratic government in Nepal (Karki & Seddon, 2003). After a few years, political parties were banned and a Party-less Panchayat System was instituted, and this continued till This system came to an end with the fruition of the successful democracy movement. Multi-Party Democracy was restored after a gap of three decades and general elections took place in 1991(Whelpton, 1993). An intense political struggle which came to be called the People s War was initiated by the CPN (Maoist) in 1996 to end monarchy and make Nepal a democratic republic. This lasted 10 years, and ended in The study takes into account the significant political developments and its implications for education and how education in turn determines the course of a society in transition. A brief history of modern Nepal and the significant political milestones on way to democracy are being recalled here in this chapter. The purpose is to review the manner in which education and political developments move together during this period. Nepal, now a federal democratic republic, is located in the Himalayas bordered to the north by the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by India. It covers an area of 147,181 square kilometers and an average length of 885 kilometres. According to the preliminary results of the National Population Census, 2011, the population of Nepal reached 26,620,809 in the year

3 which shows an increase at the rate of 1.4 percent, per annum. According to the National Population Census 2001, the population growth rate of Nepal was 2.25 percent per annum. Furthermore, the results also revealed that the size of the household in Nepal has decreased from 5.44 in 2001 to 4.7 in Kathmandu district has the lowest household size of 3.71 whereas in some of the Terai districts such as Rautahat, Bara, Kapilbastu, the household size still remains more than 6 (National Population Census, 2011). Nepal is 22 times smaller than India and 75 times smaller than China (Bhattarai, 2003). The country has three geographical regions: the Terai, Hills and Mountains. Nepal is divided into five developmental regions and 75 districts. It is considered a less developed country, in which 42 percent of the population lives below the poverty line (Carney, Bista & Agergaard, 2007). Life expectancy in Nepal is 68 years for men and 70 years for women. Gross National Income (GNI) of the country is 480 US $ (BBC, 2012). Figure 3.1: Nepal, Political map (adapted from 38

4 3.1 A Brief History of Modern Nepal Prior to 1768, the Licchivis, Newars and Malls Dynasties ruled the Nepal valley along with some 32 princely states. This year is seen as a watershed in the history of Nepal (Whelpton, 2005). The Gorakha kingdom was established in 1559 by Dravya Shah. Prithvi Narayan Shah ascended its throne in It was until then a small state that had only 2000 warriors but in a courageous and visionary move, Prithvi Narayan Shah mobilized outside support and took control over Kathmandu, Patan and Bhadgaon kingdoms which were until then part of the Mall kingdom. Along with some other small states, he established the Nepal kingdom as a unified state in Indeed, Prithvi Narayan Shah expanded the Nepal kingdom up to the Tibet border but died in 1775 as the first king of unified Nepal. The Kingdom s expansion was brought to a halt by China in The Anglo-Nepalese war of resulted in the Sugauli treaty which fixed the boundary of Nepal with India (Whelpton, 2005) Rana Regime In 1846, Jung Bahadur Rana took over as Prime Minister after eliminating his competitors (Pande, Thapa and Basnet) and established the tradition of heredity Prime Minster for the Ranas. The heredity king of the Shah Dynasty became ceremonial as all the powers were exercised by Ranas (Joshi & Rose, 1966). They made Nepal isolated and development work was skewed towards Kathmandu. Several attempts took place to overthrow the Ranas and establish democracy with a constitutional monarchy. Nepal Praja Parishad the first political party of Nepal, started opposing the Rana s rule in 1936, but was harshly suppressed (Hutt, 2004). Nepali Congress Party came into existence in 1948 at Banaras (Upreti, 2008). Communist Party of Nepal (CPN) was formed at Calcutta 39

5 in 1947 (Gaige & Scholz, 1991). CPN and Nepali Congress agreed to support an armed struggle against the Rana rulers End of the Rana Regime The demand for democracy was on the agenda of the political leaders who fought against the Ranas, who were in favour of monarchy. In 1951, King Tribhuvan escaped from Kathmandu and reached Delhi. Jawaharlal Nehru s government played a decisive role in facilitating meetings between the Rana élites, King Tribhuvan and the political leaders, mainly of the Nepali Congress, to develop a consensus on making Nepal a democratic and stable country (Hutt, 2004). The agreement is popularly known as Delhi Compromise (Karki & Seddon, 2003). After the compromise, King Tribhuvan was restored to the throne and Padma Shamsher Rana was succeeded by Mohan Shamsher who led the new coalition cabinet for 10 months. Mohan Shamsher was succeeded by Nepali Congress Party leader M.P. Koirala as Prime Minister in The differences between King Tribhuvan and Prime Minister M.P. Koirala led to the resignation of M. P. Koirala from his post in However, he was again invited by the King to be Prime Minister in He accepted it and continued in office till King Mahendra s Regime King Tribhuvan died and was succeeded by his son, King Mahendra in Nepal became a member of United Nations under his leadership. Considering the new developments and the strategic location of Nepal, USSR and USA opened their embassies in Kathmandu in 1958 and 1959, respectively. In 1959, Nepal s first university, Tribhuvan University was founded in Kathmandu (Khaniya, 2007). 40

6 The first constitution of Nepal was promulgated in 1948 with the Nepal Government Act. The second Constitution with modifications was presented in 1951 and a new Constitution was introduced in 1959, making provisions for the first general elections under Multi-Party system in Nepal (Whelpton,2005) First General Elections in Nepal Elections were held in Nepal for the first time IN 1959 and the Nepali Congress won the election with an absolute majority. Nepali Congress won 74 out of 109 seats (Karki & Seddon, 2003). B. P. Koirala of Nepali Congress became the Prime Minister in 1960 and initiated new developmental policies, which faced huge resistance from the King. King Mahendra, with the support of the military took over the power, taking recourse to the provisions for emergency, stated in the Constitution of 1959 and unexpectedly dismissed the cabinet and dissolved the parliament (Karki & Seddon, 2003). The first elected government of Nepal was dismissed after only eighteen months (Burghart, 1993). King Mahendra banned all political parties and political activities in Party-less Panchayat System In 1961, King Mahendra set up a commission to draft a new constitution. The new constitution made provision for a party-less Panchayat System and made the royal dynasty sovereign. It was promulgated in 1962 by King Mahendra (Hutt, 2004). The King held all the powers during the Panchayat era and the political parties were constitutionally banned. Freedom of speech and expression was constitutionally guaranteed during the Panchayat period, but in practical terms it was restricted by laws such as the Treason Act of 1961 which prohibited people critiquing the King publicly. People who dared to criticize the Panchayat System were sent to jail and tortured (Hangen, 2010, p.22). 41

7 The Panchayat System created a pyramidal structure with villages at its base and the Rastriya Panchayat on the top. Through constitutional amendments, the King appropriated absolute power and became the Head of State. All governmental institutions, Cabinet/Council of Ministers and Parliament were made accountable to the King. Several political leaders were sent to jail and many went in exile during the Panchayat period. Every local meeting, publication and procession that was not sponsored by a state organization, required prior government approval (Burghart, 1993, p.8). The King wanted to project an image of a unified nation state, so in 1962 Nepali was made compulsory as the medium of instruction in all state schools, ignoring other languages. In 1965, Hindi and Newari news broadcasts were terminated on Radio Nepal (Burghart, 1993, p.4) Panchayat System in the Regime of King Birendra King Birendra ascended the throne after the death of King Mahendra in Nepal was divided into five developmental regions by the National Development Council. The exiled Nepali Congress leader B.P. Koirala came back to Nepal from India, but the political context was still unfavorable for Multi-Party Democracy. He was arrested in In 1977, at the end of the Emergency, the Indira Gandhi led Indian National Congress was defeated in India. Encouraged by the political developments in India, demonstrations intensified to clear the way for political parties and democracy in Nepal. Facing nationwide demonstrations mainly by students, King Birendra agreed to have a referendum on the Panchayat System. In 1980, the King supported forces managed to win with 10 percent margin in the referendum. Though the Panchayat System continued in Nepal after the referendum, the number of votes cast against the system gave an indication of 42

8 the eventual emergence of Multi-Party Democracy in the future (Whelpton, 2005). Party-less general elections for the Rastriya Panchayat were held in 1981 and Both the elections were boycotted by the Nepali Congress. The Nepali Congress staged a civil disobedience (Satyagrah) campaign to restore Multi-Party Democracy during 1985 (Whelpton, 2005). In 1986, the second Rashtriya Panchayat elections were held and Marich Man Singh Shrestha became the Prime Minister and managed the post till mid Hoftun (1993) observed that no personal attack had been made on King Birendra by mainstream political parties during the democracy movement as he was regarded as a symbol of national unity. 3.2 Political Movement for Democracy Intensive Struggle for Democracy Prime Minister, Marich Man Singh Shrestha was unable to re - negotiate the Trade and Transit Treaty with India in March In May 1989, India banned free trade borders with Nepal. This blockade (March 1989 to July 1990) resulted not only in an economic crisis and price hikes in consumable goods, but also prepared a base for political movements against the Panchayat System. The Nepali Congress, with the support of the United Left Front (ULF) once again launched nationwide demonstrations for restoration of democracy and human rights in 1990 (Hutt,2004). The movement began on the 18 th of February,1990 with demonstrations, protests, marches and confrontations with the police. The Jail Bharo (Fill the Prisons) movement which demanded election of the constituent assembly and making Nepal a republic, became a success as prisons of the country overflowed with political activists (Burghart,1993). Many people were killed in police firing, many more were injured and jails were packed with political activists during the movement (Haftun, 1993). All Primary 43

9 and Secondary Schools and Tribhuvan University were shut down. People were upset with the economic crisis on the one hand, and the reactionary attitude of the administration on the other. The well-coordinated team of the Nepali Congress and UML leaders channelized the people effectively. The protests intensified into a mass movement that became a turning point in the contemporary history of Nepal. On the 16 th of April, 1990, King Birendra announced his agreement to ensure participation of political parties and make changes in the constitution of 1962 to end the Panchyat System (Upreti, 2008). This movement of 1990 is known as Democracy Movement in Nepal (Raeper & Hoftun, 1992). This successful democracy movement created the foundation for the republic of Nepal and finally the departure of monarchy. With a successful movement, political parties succeeded in forming an interim government on the 7 th of May, After six months, an improved edition of the Constitution became effective on the 9 th of November, 1990 with provision for Multi-Party legislative elections. Multi-Party legislative elections were held in Nepal for the second time after a gap of 32 years in May 1991 (Whelpton, 1993) Multi-Party Legislative Elections, 1991 Both the lead parties of the 1990 movement performed well in the general elections of The Nepali Congress emerged as the single largest Party with 110 seats (Upreti, 2008). CPN-UML (United Marxist Leninist) got 69 seats. CPN (Unity Center) supported United People s Front of Nepal (UPFN) and won 09 seats (Whelpton, 1993). Babu Ram Bhattarai was the coordinator of UPFN and Prachanda was the leader of CPN (Unity Center). In this election, the Nepali Congress President and interim Prime Minister, K.P. Bhattarai was defeated by a CPN-UML leader Madan Bhandari. Girija Prasad Koirala of the Nepali Congress became the Prime Minister after the 1991 general elections. 44

10 In 1993, Madan Bhandari was killed in a mysterious car accident and CPN-UML staged countrywide demonstrations to bring down the G.P.Koirala s government. Differences emerged among the leaders of the Nepali Congress and the Party split. During the vote of no-confidence motion, 36 members of the Nepali Congress were absent from the Parliament, G.P. Koirala resigned and Nepal went for midterm elections after three years in November Mid-term Elections in 1994: Formation of First Communist Government In 1994 elections, Nepali Congress stood second and CPN-UML emerged as the single largest Party in a hung parliament. The first communist government was formed in Nepal, but it faced a crisis in 1995 and was dissolved. Its fall gave an opportunity to the Nepal Communist Party (Maoist) which was established in the end of 1994 with the support of Prachanda and Babu Ram Bhattarai. The formal announcement of the party was done in March 2005 and party adopted a strategy of protected war to establish a new democracy in the country (Upreti, 2008). The Nepal Communist Party (Maoist) started opposing mainstream political parties, advocating for the exit of the monarchy and working towards establishing a People s Republic in Nepal. In 1995, CPN (Maoist) started consolidating their base in the far western region to set up People s Government in some districts (Manchanda, 2006) Third General Election in 1999 With the rise and fall of many coalitions during , the Nepali Congress and RPP coalition managed the government till The third general elections (after the abolition of Panchayat System) were held in 1999 and Nepali Congress became the single largest party with absolute majority in parliament. Once again, K. P. Bhattarai became the Prime Minister of Nepal who was replaced by Girija 45

11 Prasad Koirala in 2000 to lead the Ninth Government in the 10 years span of Multi-Party Democracy. The governments that were formed post the 1990s, could not become stable and failed to implement radical socio-economic programmes. With frequent changes of leadership, short lived governments lost their credibility which resulted in resentment against the political parties and the elected government (Karki, 2003) Emergence of the Ultra-left in Nepal Jhapa guerrilla movement of 1971 was the first organized attempt of Nepali radical communists to implement the ideology of Mao. This guerrilla movement was influenced by the Naxalbari movement of India (Upreti, 2008). Jhapa uprising got some support from youth activists of other parts of the country but insurgency was encountered by the police forces which led to the death of many cadres (Karki & Seddon, 2003). In 1994, Prachanda became the leader of CPN (Maoist) and Babu Ram Bhattarai led United People s Front of Nepal boycotted the midterm election of 1994 and started developing support base in Rolpa and Rukum districts for armed struggle to ensure revolutionary changes (Karki & Seddon, 2003). These areas were underdeveloped and not well connected by communication channels, making it difficult for the administration to reach out Beginning of the People s War A forty point charter of demands was presented before Sher Bhadur Deuba led government by UPFN/CPN (Maoist) in January They gave one month s time to the government to respond to the charter of demands by 17 th February, It was communicated by the Maoist leaders that if the government would 46

12 not respond to their demands positively, UPFN/CPN (Maoist) would initiate an armed struggle against the state. CPN (Maoists) announced the People s War against the State on 13 th February, 1996 with the objective of establishing a People s Republic and abolition of monarchy (Muni, 2004; Karki & Seddon, 2003). The People s Liberation Army was formed and a parallel government was established by the Maoists in some districts. Schools, banks and government offices were attacked and looted (Varma, 2005). Many innocent people died in cross firing between the police and the Maoists (Basnet,2005) The Decade of Insurgency (1996 to 2006) The Maoists propagated the uselessness of parliamentary politics and suggested a revolutionary path to make Nepal a democratic and developed nation. The People s War expanded into six districts -Rukum, Rolpa, Jajarkot, Salyan, Gorkha and Sindhuli. CPN (Maoist) commandos captured some police stations, government offices and looted money from a bank in February They destroyed the loan documents of the farmers kept in the bank (Varma, 2005). The support base of CPN (Maoist) extended further into other areas and parallel local governments were established in nine autonomous areas (Manchanda, 2006). The Police tried to encounter the Maoists by randomly picking up people of these areas. Random arrests and torture by the police lead to enhanced support for the Maoists. Police moved in the cities leaving neutral people and employees at the mercy of the Maoists State of Emergency and Initiatives for Ceasefire In February 1999, the Maoists announced the setting up of a Central Military Commission and established their support base in more than 45 districts (Karki & 47

13 Seddon, 2003). By May 1999, several hundred people had died in confrontation between the police force and the Maoists. By the last quarter of 1999, the Maoists reached almost two third districts of Nepal. A succession of leaders were appointed as Prime Ministers to resolve the crisis, but they could not survive for long and failed in the mission (Whelpton, 2005). Sher Bahadur Deuba took charge as the Prime Minister and announced a ceasefire to initiate talks between the government and the Maoists in On 21 st November, 1999 discussions were broken off by the Maoists as they did not see their demand for the creation of a republican state being fulfilled. The Maoists started their military activities again from 23 rd November, King Gyanendra s Regime In a mysterious incident, it was alleged that Crown Prince Deependra went on a shooting spree and shot his father King Birendra, mother queen Aishwarya, brother Niranjan and some close relatives and finally shot himself on the night of the 1 st of June 2001 (Whelpton, 2005). All the immediate family members died on the spot and Deependra survived for three more days and died on 4 th June, After the death of Crown Prince Deependra, Prince Gyanendra became the crowned king of Nepal on the 4 th of June Challenges before King Gyanendra People of Nepal went into shock over the death of King Birendra and his family members. Violence peaked across the country. Police found it difficult to handle the challenge posed by the Maoists. King Gyanendra and his son Paras credibility were also under question in the case of the royal palace massacre (Hachhethu, 2007). The Maoists continued their attack on the police and army posts and random arrests did not stop either. In the absence of state machinery in the Maoists dominated areas, People s Courts and jails were established by 48

14 the Maoists (Kattel, 2003). Many cases of torture, forced donation and abduction of children by the Maoists were reported in the media (Manchanda, 2006). As violence intensified and hundreds of people were killed within a week, a state of emergency was imposed. The Royal Nepal Army launched an operation against the Maoist rebels in 2001, causing deaths of several hundred people in attacks by rebel and police forces. Attacks continued in 2002 from both sides. Parliament was dissolved and Sher Bhadur Deuba continued as Head of the interim government. Emergency which was imposed could not stop the violence Local Body without Election The tenure of village and district level elected representatives got over in July Due to the state of law and order and emergency imposed by the government, the tenure of the local District Development Committees (DDCs) and Village Development Committees (VDCs) were neither extended, nor could elections take place. In some places CPN (Maoists) appointed their own committees. In the absence of an elected government at the village, district and national levels, government officials, the police and the Royal Nepal Army (RNA) became power centers (Karki & Seddon, 2003) King Gyanendra s Siege of Powers (2005) Sharp differences between the King and the prominent political leaders of the Nepali Congress and CPN (UML) emerged in February King Gyanendra took all executive powers in his hands and tried to resolve the Maoist issue himself, as political leaders could not do much on this front. This action of the king was not perceived by the people and political parties as a serious attempt to work out a solution for the crisis, it was rather seen as an attempt to snatch power (Pandey, 2010). 49

15 CPN (Maoist) Aligned with Mainstream Political Parties against the King Taking advantage of the terrible relationship between mainstream political parties and the King, the Maoists extended their support to the political parties. They saw it as an opportunity to get out of the armed struggle and occupy space through open and electoral politics. On the other side, the King had made up his mind to use heavy military power against the Maoist with support of external forces. Considering the gravity of fighting a war with the military forces, CPN (Maoist) reached a consensus with other mainstream political parties to initiate a joint agitation against the King s direct rule Restoration of the House In April 2006, Political Parties invited people from all over the country to Kathmandu to create pressure against the King and for restoration of Multi-Party Democracy. Political parties created huge pressure with the masses gathering on the streets of Kathmandu. Isolated in political war, King Gyanendra was left with no other option but to announce the restoration of the House that had been dissolved in 2002 (Pandey, 2010) Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) Almost people lost their lives (including 460 children), 8,000 children became orphaned and 40,000 were forced to leave their place during the ten years long armed conflict (CWIN, 2009). G. P. Koirala successfully managed the negotiation with the Maoists and they agreed to surrender their weapons in UN monitored camps and return to electoral politics. A Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) between the 50

16 government headed by G. P. Koirala and CPN (Maoists) was signed on the 21 st of November 2006 (Manchanda, 2006). Nepali Congress and CPN (UML) agreed to slip the old Constitution of 1990 and move ahead with a new election for a Constituent Assembly. A process of democratic restructuring of the State was also agreed to in order to achieve socio-economic and cultural transformation in the country. Another agreement was signed to eliminate the possibility of military takeover or restart of the People s War. The United Nations took the responsibility of monitoring arms and armed personnel of both People s Liberation Army (PLA) of the Maoists and the Royal Nepal Army (RNA). A joint monitoring coordination committee was established to monitor movements of armed groups Unrest in the Terai after the end of the People s War After the new Interim Constitution came into force on 16 th December, 2006, several groups of Madhesis started another agitation, bandh, strikes and burned government offices. Clashes with the Maoists took place in some towns as Madhesis were demanding a separate and independent state of the Terai. They said that new Constitution was drafted by the hill people and the genuine demands of the Terai had been once again neglected. In February 2007, Seven Party Alliance (SPA) agreed to design constituencies on the basis of geographical and population appropriateness and holding Constituent Assembly (CA) elections on the basis of proportional representations with increased number of constituencies in the Terai. A peace agreement was signed between the leader of Madhesi Janadhikar Forum, Upendra Yadav and the minister for Peace and Reconstruction in August 2007 to end the eight months long agitation, promising greater stake in the political and administration portfolios for the Madhesis, including more seats in the constituent assembly for the Terai region (Kantha, 2010). 51

17 Transition from His Majesty s Government to the Government of Nepal Girija Prasad Koirala became the Prime Minister of the interim government in April 2006 and an alliance of Seven Party Alliance (SPA) was formed to work out a new Constitution. King Gyanendra was not consulted by any of the three major political parties, the Congress, CPN(UML) and CPN( Maoists). Seven Party Alliance (SPA) decided to scrap the role of King in the Nepal s politics. Amendments were accordingly brought about in the Constitution. The name of the government was changed from His Majesty s Government to the Government of Nepal and the military was brought under the control of the Parliament, with the Prime Minster being made the head of the institution The Emergence of Nepal as a Federal Democratic Republic Constituent Assembly (CA) elections could eventually be held in April, CPN (Maoists) emerged as the single largest Party after the election of CA (Lawoti & Pahari,2010). On 28 th May 2008, the first meeting of CA endorsed a proposal to amend the Interim Constitution implementing the declaration of Nepal as a Federal Democratic Republic. Immediately after the announcement, the dethroned king Gyanendra called his staff to lower the dynastic flag and made an announcement to leave the ancestral palace without any confrontation (Pandey, 2010). Conclusion When the country was going through the transition from one political system to another, it was not possible for various institutions to remain unaffected. Schools and the school system were no exception. Understanding the changes in the 52

18 school system and role played by children and the teachers in Nepal thus becomes vital for the present study. The political journey from the Panchayat System to multiparty democracy and departure of monarchy has impacted children and education system in multiple ways. Teachers and students have emerged as lead contributors in transition with a long and eventful political drive. The subsequent chapters will be capturing a brief account of history of education and progress, experiences of children and teachers during the People s War and the challenges thats they faced with political transition. 53