The Coping Strategies Adapted by Urban Poor to Food Insecurity in Eldoret Municipality, Kenya

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1 Journal of Emerging Trends in Economics and Management Sciences (JETEMS) 4(2): Scholarlink Research Institute Journals, 2013 (ISSN: ) jetems.scholarlinkresearch.org Journal of Emerging Trends Economics and Management Sciences (JETEMS) 4(2): (ISSN: ) The Coping Strategies Adapted by Urban Poor to Food Insecurity in Eldoret Municipality, Kenya James O. Owino, Grace J. Cheserek, Christopher K. Saina, Florence. A. Murgor Department of Applied Environmental Social Sciences, University of Eldoret. P.O. Box Eldoret. Correspondence Author: Grace J. Cheserek Abstract This study addressed the coping strategies to food insecurity among the urban poor in Eldoret Municipality, Kenya. Urbanization is increasing in Kenya at a rapid pace. According to the Government of Kenya statistics, urban centres which stood at 15.1% of the total population in 1979 rose to 34.8% in The specific objectives of the study were: to establish food insecurity status at household level; to determine causes of food insecurity and to evaluate coping strategies adopted to minimize stress and shocks emanating from food insecurity. A total of 303 households were targeted. The selection of the households was done using stratified random sampling. The study utilized both primary and secondary methods of data collection. Primary sources of data included participant and non-participant observation, structured questionnaires administered to household heads and key informant interviews. Statistical Package for Social Sciences was used to analyze the data. Results are presented in form of tables and graphs. The major cause of food insecurity is poverty, which was attributed to lack of a stable income and high food prices. The findings show food insecurity coping strategies are; skipping meals, school dropouts, purchase of street food, early marriages, eating less preferred food, engaging in prostitution and sending children on streets to beg. The study recommends educating the residents on the importance of household food security for improved education of their children and household livelihoods. As urban population increases there is need to provide a diversified form of livelihoods for the urban poor such as: kazi kwa vijana (work for the youth) and food for work programmes. The Kenya government should consider providing food rations for the poor; school feeding programmes and cash handouts to the most vulnerable groups within the Municipality. Keywords: food crisis, urban resilience, kitchen gardening, food for work INTRODUCTION Food insecurity is recognized as an increasing problem worldwide (Gopalan, 2001), and a critical factor for the economic growth and development of a nation (Akanji, 1999). Incidences of food insecurity and poverty are particularly devastating in the developing countries and a lot of resources are being channelled towards programmes aimed at eradicating food insecurity and poverty by various international organizations and governments of developing nations (Babatunde et al., 2007). In spite of the dramatic progress which has been made in some areas of nutrition in recent years, 790 million people in the Developing World and 34 million in Developed Countries are still under nourished and do not have enough to eat (Flores, 2001). Although new information confirms an improved average global nutrition situation, the effects of food shortage is concurrently deteriorating in several countries, especially in Africa (Pinstrup- Andersen et al., 2001). Commonly cited reasons for hunger in cities in the Developing World include high rates of population growth beyond productive capabilities, high rates of income inequality, land degradation and soil erosion, as well as a host of institutional and economic factors limiting developing societies from achieving food security (Allen, 1993). Food insecurity in Kenya has been attributed to a number of reasons including high prices of food, civil and political unrest including violence associated with the December 2007 election, recurrent seasons of failed or poor rains, sustained high food prices, environmental degradation and outbreak of diseases (UN Habitat, 2007). In Kenya there is increasing appreciation that not only the rural people are affected but also the urban poor who are not realizing their right to adequate food. Attention has been drawn to the vulnerable situation of the urban poor in the light of the impacts of the post election violence coupled with global rising food prices on the already precarious food security situation (Ayako and Katumanga, 1997). In January 2009, the Government of Kenya declared a national food security emergency and declared an estimated total of 10 million people at risk of whom the largest single group affected being 4.1 million urban dwellers (KFSSG SRA, 2009). 196

2 Urbanization is increasing in Kenya at a rapid pace. According to the Government of Kenya statistics, urban centres which stood at 15.1% of the total population in 1979 rose to 34.8% in According to the UN Habitat report urban growth rate in Kenya is 1.2%. More than 70% of the urban population lives in slums with limited access to water and sanitation, housing social services and adequate food (UN Habitat, Recent surveys have shown that between 70% and 75% of slum dwellers in Kenya are poor (World Bank, 2006; Taylor and Mathaiya, 2007). About 4.1 million urban dwellers in Kenya are estimated to be at risk of food insecurity, (KFSSG SRA, 2009). The urban crisis has intensified, with people now earning less but having to pay more to survive. Household incomes have fallen due to the global economic crisis, with casual and long-term working harder to find something to survive on as companies scale down. Meanwhile, the price of staple foods such as maize has more than doubled in Kenya since 2009, with 90% of poor families forced to reduce the amount of food they eat as a result (UNICEF, 2009). A report by Oxfam stated that the Kenya government has repeatedly ignored the growing magnitude of the urban crisis, and urged it to invest more funds and resources in improving life for the most vulnerable residents of Nairobi s slums (Oxfam International, 2009). The struggle to survive has forced some of the most vulnerable people into crime and high-risk occupations such as prostitution. Frustrated youth are increasingly turning to violence (UNICEF, 2009). In Nairobi 1.6 million out of an estimated population of 3.5 million live in the slums and most live below the poverty line earning less than US $ 7 per week. A study by the Oxfam, 2009 indicates that urban dwellers, especially those living in slums, are being adversely affected by the food price inflation in Kenya. Insufficient research had been done in relation to the situation of informal settlement dwellers in urban areas such as Kamukunji slum. Most of the research has tended to concentrate on key issues of the environment without much due consideration on how the common citizen in an informal settlement ekes out a living and how they are affected by food insecurity. In Kenya food insecurity has been on the increase in cities such as Kisumu, Mombasa, Nakuru, Nairobi and Eldoret. These were the epicentres of postelection violence in This has resulted in escalation of poverty and lack of food among the slum dwellers. With Urban dwellers deriving virtually all their food from the market they are therefore fully exposed to the dramatic rise in food prices making them unable to afford three meals in a day and end up feeding on substituted food. This study will inform educationist, environmentalists and policy makers to consider establishing clear strategies to resolve the food security issues in urban areas and Eldoret in particular. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was carried out in four phases. The first phase involved a reconnaissance survey of the study area, covering identification of households, testing of the questionnaires and modifying it where necessary. The second phase of the study involved administering the questionnaire to sampled respondents. The third phase involved interviews with key informants: Eldoret municipality council Director of Social Services, district statistics officer, public health officer and local administration (village elders and the chief). The last stage involved reviewing secondary data. The study targeted the urban poor households in Kamukunji slums in Eldoret town. The area has a population of 18,690 where 9,949 are male and 8,670 are females according to the 2009 census. A total of 310 households were targeted which was 10 percent of the number of households within the area. This ratio is considered appropriate in social sciences (Kertinger, 1973). The respondent in every house was the head of the household and in his/her absence the spouse was able to respond. The research targeted respondents who were between the ages of 19 to 64 years; this is because within this age bracket the respondents are old enough to give all information required in the study. Secondary data was collected from books, published materials, internet, census reports, journals and research reports. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyse data. The Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), which is an adaptation of the approach used to estimate the prevalence of food insecurity in the United States (U.S). The presentation of data is in form of frequencies and percentages tables; pie charts and bar graphs. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Demographic and Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents Age Characteristics The youngest respondent was 19 years old while the oldest was 67 years. The mean age of respondents was 33 years. Over 61.7 % of the respondents were in the age group years. This category constituted the majority of respondents. Those over 55 years were the least with a mere 2.2 %. Most of these were landlords as shown in figure 1.0. Male headed households constituted 73.3 % while female headed households made up of 26.7 %. Most of the women who headed households were single, widowed or divorced. In the study it was established that majority of women lack access to productive resources such as 197

3 credit and income thus pushing them further to being food insecure as compared to their male counterparts. Figure 1.0: Respondents Age The women sampled argued that even at family levels girls are not given equal opportunities in education with boys. Over 25 % of the sampled female headed households blame gender discrimination on their present poverty levels. They argue that these circumstances have pushed them for the periphery of the business environment and discrimination in job opportunities for example Kazi kwa Vijana. Thisexplains why majority of them are in the lowincome businesses such as: green grocery, street food vendors and engaging in prostitution. From these results it can be inferred that female headed households are more vulnerable to food insecurity than male headed households. Respondents Education Levels Data shows 58.1 % of the respondents had attained primary education, while 32.7 % had secondary school education. The number of those who had further training in tertiary institutions which include certificate, Diploma and University was pathetically low, standing at only 7.9 % (figure 1.1). This can be attributed to the fact that majority of the residents are poor thus unable to afford fees for secondary education, tertiary institutions and university. Low levels of education were found to account for food insecurity at the household since majority of the respondents had only primary education. This implies they cannot get well paying jobs that can guarantee a good income, which would contribute to productivity and economic growth. These results agree with UN Habitat (2007), who indicates that lack of basic education partly contributes to the poverty levels among the urban poor households. Similar studies in Ethiopia established that education has a significant and positive relationship with household food security. The study adds that households with relatively better educated household heads are more likely to be food secure. A study by UNICEF (2007) argues that when heads of households have higher educational levels, nutritional knowledge is increased and the meals in the home become more rational and diversified. A study by Oxfam, 2009 confirms that literacy level is of paramount importance to the development of mankind. Good employment is associated with high level of education, which translates to high incomes and consequently high standard of living. On the contrary low levels of education will lead to high levels of poverty in the economy. Level of Dependency at Households The number of children who usually live in the household comprised of 26% between 0-2 children, 52% between 3-5 children, 17% between 6-8 children and 5% above nine (figure 1.2). Majority of the respondents had 3-5 people living under their care. The mean rate was five people per household; this high number of children per family can be explained by a number of factors: harsh economic times resulting to early marriages; women have more reproductive years, low levels of education, low understanding of their reproductive health and family planning practice. Most of these dependants were respondents own children although there were a few cases of relatives children and siblings. Figure 1.1: Respondents Education Level Figure 1.2: Number of children in a household 198

4 From these results it can be implied that most of the household s heads live with their children. Further analysis showed most of these dependants were aged between two months and 14 years old, implying that when dependants became of age, they move out of their parents home in search for employment or start their own households. Household size was found to have a negative and significant relationship with the probability of food security. The probability of being food secure decreases with an increase in family size, and with each additional member the household decreases the probability of food security by 5%. Occupation of Respondents The occupation of respondents comprised of 19.1% unskilled labour, mainly casual labourers working on regular basis. Skilled labourers comprised only 10% includes: tailors, carpenters, drivers and machine operators. Those engaged in business constituted 27.5% mainly: green grocers, shop owners, fish mongers, street food vendors, charcoal sellers and hawkers. Self employed respondents constitute 36% includes; matatu touts, boda boda cyclist, brewers of illicit liquor and prostitutes. The socio-economic status of the respondents indicated poverty. This was demonstrated by the fact that only 7.3 % of the respondents were employed on permanent basis as summarized in table 1.0. Table 1.0: Occupation of respondents Occupations Frequency Percent Business Professional Skilled labour Self employed Unskilled labour Total Source: Field data 2009 Majority of the respondents indicate that they relied on casual employment, thus have to wake up every morning and walk to town in search of these jobs. The nature of their business indicates a high concentration of low capital base type of business. These included green grocery, second hand clothes, hawking small wares and cooked food. Water and Sanitation Facilities Found in Kamukunji Area Kamukunji is an urban semi- slum estate located within Eldoret municipality and lacking in water and sanitation services. The sources of water used by respondents are 76.9% vendors and 23.1% piped water. Water is bought at designated areas for between four and five shillings per twenty litres. Majority of the landlords have failed to construct waste pipes to connect their waste disposal to the municipal sewerage system for fear of high rates charged. The findings indicate 76.2% used pit latrine whereas 23.8% had flash toilet. The study found that most households were sharing a pit latrine and a bathroom with at least one other household. The problems had been considerably worsened by heavy rains that filled up latrines thus expose the household members to diseases like cholera. Food Security Status of Households Food insecurity and hunger cannot be captured by any single indicator, instead, a household s level of food insecurity or hunger must be determined by obtaining information on a variety of specific conditions, experiences, and behaviours that serve as indicators of the varying degrees of severity of the condition. Household surveys are usually conducted in person, to get this information. The Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), which is an adaptation of the approach used to estimate the prevalence of food insecurity in the United States (U.S.) annually was used in the study. The method is based on the idea that the experience of food insecurity causes predictable reactions and responses that can be captured and quantified through a survey and summarized in a scale. Qualitative research with low-income households in the U.S. provided insight into the following ways that households experience food insecurity. Worries of Not Having Enough Food Study findings revealed that (65.4%) of the respondents were worried of not having enough food (table 1.1). Table 1.1: Respondents worry of not having enough food in the last four weeks If worried of having not enough Frequency Percent food No Yes No response Total When asked about the frequency of their worry in the last four weeks 26.1% stated that they sometimes worry. The no responses were mainly due to house heads who felt embarrassed for not being able to provide food for their families. Coping Strategies of Urban Poor to Food Insecurity Respondents Inability to Eat Preferred Food The study further sought to find out if the people are capable of accessing preferred food. The findings show 88.1% agreed that they are not able to eat the kinds of food they preferred due to lack of resources. This implies that the respondents lack balanced diet needed for good health. Lack of balanced diet could mean that they are unhealthy and lack nutrients required for a normal body growth. 199

5 Eating Limited Variety Of Food For households to access a variety of food they need to have the resources. This study sought to find out whether households ate different varieties of food. The findings indicate 71.3% of the respondents reported they do not take a variety of food due to limited funds thus cannot afford. Eating Unwanted Foods When people lack food they resort to eating what is readily available and affordable. The study findings show majority of the respondents (83.2%) ate unwanted food due to lack of resources. Some 30.4% and (29.7%) sometimes and often eat unwanted food respectively. Eating Few Meals When there is lack of resources to buy enough food it results to food rationing. Findings show 60.4% respondents were taking few meals per day. The study further sought to find out the frequency of taking fewer meals; 21.1% respondents rarely take fewer meals but 20.8% indicate they sometimes take fewer meals per day. The study concludes that eating fewer meals is common among the residents of Kamukunji estate. Lack of Any Kind of Food in the Household According to the study results, 41.6% of respondents indicated that for a recall period of four weeks they had not had any food to eat table 1.2. Table 1.2: Food insecurity Lack of any kind of food Frequency Percent No Yes No response Total When asked how often they don t get food; 18.5% rarely miss food but some 5.9% often lacked food. It was interpreted to mean that although people in the area lack food completely it is not very common. The study sought to find out if respondents have ever slept overnight without any food for the four week recall period. Results show 57.1% of respondents had stayed all night without food. This means that majority of the respondents often had to do without supper this points to the severity of food insecurity in the study area. Lack of Food for the Whole Day and Night The study established households go without food all day and night. (17.5%) reported having had to go all day and night. These findings it is evident that the residents of Kamukunji slums of Eldoret are food insecure. With 41.6% of the urban poor lacking any kind of food to cook and 38.9% going the whole day without food and 17.5% going the whole day and night without food, it shows an acute problem that needs government and stakeholders intervention. Table 1.3: Food items consumed in the sampled households Consumed Not consumed Food groups Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Cereals Root tubers Legumes Milk and milk products Eggs Meat Lipids Sugar Fruits Vegetables Source: Field data 2009 It can also be implied from the table that majority of the urban poor miss on essential nutrients which leads to poor health and malnutrition. Most consume vegetables and cereals and miss out on proteins and vitamins found in fruits. Residents in the study area purchase almost all their food as well as other goods and services including housing, transportation, healthcare and education. With majority of the households in the study area eating less; it implies that they are vulnerable to food insecurity. This finding concurs with Oxfam (2009); which found that price spikes of essential non food items such as energy fuels, water and health care have been exacerbating food insecurity by tightening disposable income from the urban poor at a time of widespread, significant food price spikes. The collapse of industries in Eldoret town such as; Rivatex and Raymond textiles in the early nineties in Eldoret town resulted in many people being retrenched and jobless. This created a crisis with many of the slum dwellers becoming vulnerable to being food insecure. Factors associated with low incomes such as lack of employment opportunities, lack of capital as well as access to credit facilities means that the resident s purchasing power is reduced. This is further worsened by rising cost of food, house rent and cost of fuel. These findings agree with Pryer and Crook (1988); which asserts that for the poor, labour, is their most important asset. Consequently work capacity, performance, and productivity of workers are important. Malnourished workers perform poorly because of decreased working capacity, and do not get access to betterpaying jobs. Majority of the residents do skip meals, ration food, eat less food and buy street foods. Apart from the Open Arms International which has a lunch feeding programme for school going children in a local primary school within the study are Kamukunji, the government has done little to address the food situation of the urban poor within the study area. 200

6 Table 1.4: Social effects of food insecurity in Kamukunji Yes No Social effects Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Prostitution Poor health Skip whole day without eating Dispose of assets within the house Sending children on the street to beg Early marriages Have school going children drop out of school Engage in criminal activity Family disputes Source: Field data ,4 Skipping whole day without eating was reported by 30% of the respondents with 70% who did not skip food a whole day. Skipping meals for the whole day made children to seek food from neighbours or beg for money from strangers thus expose them child abuse. Women, even the married engaged in illicit sex in exchange for food and money to buy food, this often leads to broken marriages. Psychological manifestations related to a lack of access to food leads to a clear feeling of being constrained to go against held norms and values; as well as creating enormous stress in the home. Splitting members of the household by sending others to rural areas comprised of 22.4% of the respondents. Splitting of households by sending family members to rural areas is part of a cost cutting measure since these members can engage in agriculture for crop production back in the rural areas. This sometimes results into family breakups when the man who is the sole bread winner decides to take on a mistress forgetting his wife and children in the rural area. CONCLUSIONS It is evident from the study that the residents of Kamukunji are food insecure. Most of them missed out on essential food requirements as they could not afford. These have an overall effect on work productivity resulting into reduced income translating to less food for the family. Performance of school going children is also affected; others drop out of school and do not get access to better paying jobs thus worsen their food security situation. rent. The other cause of food insecurity was the poor conditions under which the residents live and unhygienic conditions under which food is prepared a recipe for food contamination. Most of the household heads in the study area are small business men and women and casual labourers. The main socio-economic effects highlighted by the study were: prostitution, engaging in criminal activity, early marriages and family disputes. Prostitution and criminal activity are on the rise as those involved seek alternative means of providing food to their families. Food insecurity can quickly deteriorate into food riots, increased crime and even political instability. While the government of Kenya is already pursuing a number of interventions under its Vision 2030 strategic plan and more recently in response to the food price inflation, there is need for coordinated approach to handling the current situation especially among there the urban poor residents. The coping strategies adopted by the residents to cushion against food insecurity depend on whether the household is female headed or male headed. In female headed households the main coping strategies include: scavenging for food, sending children on the streets to beg, prostitution and relying on assistance from friends. For male headed households the main coping strategies are: reduced number of meals eaten per day, relying on less preferred food, purchasing street food and reducing food intake by adults. RECOMMENDATIONS Urban agriculture is a viable option to supplement nutrition from purchased supplies. Those susceptible to food insecurity should be targets for the government community economic and human development initiatives and perhaps the future of urban food security lies in a pluralist approach combining benefits gained from many projects with a wide array of goals servicing a wide array of demographics. Social networking is an essential element of development among the poor. The interactive groups should work together towards getting solutions to food insecurity. Education is important in improving food security since the residents will have an understanding of balanced diet, food nutrition and health. The target group should mainly be women because they are involved in the day to day preparation of food. This can be done through public barazas within Kamukunji estate with a view of enlightening the residents. The main causes of food insecurity highlighted by the study were: high food prices, high fuel cost and house 201

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