Period 4: 1800-1848 ( Revolution of 1800 to the end of the Mexican/American War) In a Nutshell (Big Picture) The new republic struggled to define and extend democratic ideals in the face of rapid economic, territorial, and demographic changes. Key Concepts (Broad Essential Information) A. The United States began to develop a modern democracy and celebrated a new national culture, while Americans sought to define the nation s democratic ideals and change their society and institutions to match them. B. The nation s transition to a more participatory democracy was achieved by expanding suffrage from a system based on property ownership to one based on voting by all adult white men, and it was accompanied by the growth of political parties. C. While Americans embraced a new national culture, various groups developed distinctive cultures of their own. D. Increasing numbers of Americans, many inspired by new religious and intellectual movements, worked primarily outside of government institutions to advance their ideals. E. Innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce powerfully accelerated the American economy, precipitating profound changes to U.S. society and to national and regional identities. F. New transportation systems and technologies dramatically expanded manufacturing and agricultural production. G. The changes caused by the market revolution had significant effects on U.S. society, workers lives, and gender and family relations. H. Economic development shaped settlement and trade patterns, helping to unify the nation while also encouraging the growth of different regions. I. The U.S. interest in increasing foreign trade and expanding its national borders shaped the nation s foreign policy and spurred government and private initiatives. J. Struggling to create an independent global presence, the United States sought to claim territory throughout the North American continent and promote foreign trade. K. The United States s acquisition of lands in the West gave rise to contests over the extension of slavery into new territories. 1
Significant Topics (Must Know) 1. Changes in the Political Party System In the early 1800s, national political parties continued to debate issues such as the tariff, powers of the federal government, and relations with European powers. By the 1820s and 1830s, new political parties arose the Democrats, led, by Andrew Jackson, and the Whigs, led by Henry Clay that disagreed about the role and powers of the federal government and issues such as the national bank, tariffs, and federally funded internal improvements. Regional interests often trumped national concerns as the basis for many political leaders positions on slavery and economic policy. 2. The Supreme Court, 1801-1835 Supreme Court decisions established the primacy of the judiciary in determining the meaning of the Constitution and asserted that federal laws took precedence over state laws. 3. The Market Revolution Entrepreneurs helped to create a market revolution in production and commerce, in which market relationships between producers and consumers came to prevail as the manufacture of goods became more organized. Gender and family roles changed in response to the market revolution, particularly with the growth of definitions of domestic ideals that emphasized the separation of public and private spheres. 4. The American Economy, 1800-1848 Legislation and judicial systems supported the development of roads, canals, and railroads, which extended and enlarged markets and helped foster regional interdependence. Transportation networks linked the North and Midwest more closely than either was linked to the South. Increasing Southern cotton production and the related growth of Northern manufacturing, banking, and shipping industries promoted the development of national and international commercial ties. Plans to further unify the U.S. economy, such as the American System, generated debates over whether such policies would benefit agriculture or industry, potentially favoring different sections of the country. 5. Growth of American Industry Innovations including textile machinery, steam engines, interchangeable parts, the telegraph, and agricultural inventions increased the efficiency of production methods. Increasing numbers of Americans, especially women and men working in factories, no longer relied on semi-subsistence agriculture; instead they supported themselves producing goods for distant markets. The growth of manufacturing drove a significant increase in prosperity and standards of living for some; this led to the emergence of a larger middle class and a small but wealthy business elite but also to a large and growing population of laboring poor. 6. The Southern Economy Southern business leaders continued to rely on the production and export of traditional agricultural staples, contributing to the growth of a distinctive Southern regional identity. 7. Second Great Awakening and American Reform Movements The rise of democratic and individualistic beliefs, a response to rationalism, and changes to society caused by the market revolution, along with greater social and geographical mobility, contributed to a Second Great Awakening among Protestants that influenced moral and social reforms and inspired utopian and other religious movements. Americans formed new voluntary organizations that aimed to change individual behaviors and improve society through temperance and other reform efforts. 8. American Culture A new national culture emerged that combined American elements, European influences, and regional cultural sensibilities. Liberal social ideas from abroad and Romantic beliefs in human perfectibility influenced literature, art, philosophy, and architecture. 9. Women during the Antebellum Era A women s rights movement sought to create greater equality and opportunities for women, expressing its ideals at the Seneca Falls Convention. 2
10. Abolitionism and the Rights of African Americans Abolitionist and antislavery movements gradually achieved emancipation in the North, contributing to the growth of the free African American population, even as many state governments restricted African Americans rights. Antislavery efforts in the South were largely limited to unsuccessful slave rebellions. Enslaved blacks and free African Americans created communities and strategies to protect their dignity and family structures, and they joined political efforts aimed at changing their status. 11. Northern and Westward Migration Large numbers of international migrants moved to industrializing northern cities, while many Americans moved west of the Appalachians, developing thriving new communities along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. 12. American Expansionism and Internationalism Following the Louisiana Purchase, the United States government sought influence and control over North America and the Western Hemisphere through a variety of means, including exploration, military actions, American Indian removal, and diplomatic efforts such as the Monroe Doctrine. 13. Westward Expansion and American Indians Frontier settlers tended to champion expansion efforts, while American Indian resistance led to a sequence of wars and federal efforts to control and relocate American Indian populations. 14. Slavery in the Territories As over cultivation depleted arable land in the Southeast, slaveholders began relocating their plantations to more fertile lands west of the Appalachians, where the institution of slavery continued to grow. Antislavery efforts increased in the North, while in the South, although the majority of Southerners owned no slaves, most leaders argued that slavery was part of the Southern way of life. Congressional attempts at political compromise, such as the Missouri Compromise, only temporarily stemmed growing tensions between opponents and defenders of slavery. Period Four, Part One (Periodization, Contextualization, Misc.) space intentionally left blank 3
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Supporting Evidence for Significant Topics (Period 4, Part One) Jeffersonian Democracy Ideology (beliefs) of Jeffersonian Democracy - limited government, limited taxes, states rights, individual rights, agrarian economy (Yeoman Farmer the ideal citizen), push for egalitarianism (equality for all), strict construction - a response to the Federalist dominated 1790s and the perception that Federalists were centralizing power at the expense of democracy - great appeal to the common man especially those in the south and west The Supreme Court (1801-1835) Judiciary Act of 1789 - Law establishing the Supreme Court and the lower federal courts. President Washington appointed John Jay as the first chief justice of the United States. Midnight judges - Federalist judges appointed by John Adams between the time he lost the election of 1800 and the time he left office in March 1801. Essentially an attempt by Federalists to entrench themselves in the Judicial branch since they lost control of the Executive and Legislative branches in the election of 1800. John Marshall - Appointed to the Supreme Court by John Adams in 1801, he served as the longest serving Chief Justice in the history of the United States. The Marshall Court s legal decisions gave the Supreme Court more power, strengthened the power of the federal government over the states particularly in the economy, and established precedent for protecting private property. 1803: Marbury v. Madison - Supreme Court decision that declared a section of the Judiciary Act of 1789 unconstitutional and established the principle of judicial review. - the case broadly dealt with the midnight judge appointments of the outgoing Federalist President (John Adams) and the outgoing Federalist Congress after the Election of 1800 - the decision by the Court established the power of Judicial Review (actions of the executive and legislative branch are subject to review by the judicial branch) *prior to 1803, the role of the Judicial Branch and Supreme Court not entirely clear 1819: McCulloch v. Maryland - the case broadly dealt with an attempt by the state of Maryland to tax a branch of the 2 nd Bank of the United States (a national bank) located within its borders - the decision by the court not only ruled against the state of Maryland but also declared that the creation of the Bank of the United States was constitutional under the necessary and proper clause or elastic clause in the Constitution (an implied power). 1824: Gibbons v. Ogden - the case broadly dealt with steamboat business between New York and New Jersey (specifically dealt with a monopoly that had formed) - the Supreme Court ruled that the states had no jurisdiction since Congress regulates interstate commerce (implied powers of Congress strengthened) 1832: Worcester v. Georgia - the case broadly dealt with Cherokee reservations in the state of Georgia and whether the state had jurisdiction over these reservations - the Supreme Court ruled that reservations were created by an Act of Congress therefore the federal government has the ultimate power over the reservations 5
The War of 1812 (1812-1815) War Hawks - Democratic-Republican members of Congress from the South and West who were elected to the House of Representatives in large numbers in 1810 - they wanted war with Britain and used propaganda to exaggerate British actions on the high seas (impressment) and on the frontier with Native Americans (arming and inciting). - they supported war with Britain primarily in the hopes of annexing new territory (Canada) and ending British trade with the Indians of the Northwest territory. War of 1812 (defined) - the end to the French/British Issue that had plagued the United States from the early 1790s to 1815 (Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Madison) - War between the U.S. and Great Britain caused primarily by the British violation of American neutral rights on the high seas ( Freedom of the Seas ). The war ended with an agreement of status quo ante (a return to how things were before the war). - the war is also considered by many historians to be the 2nd War of Independence (see supporting document and overview reading for further details) Tecumseh - Shawnee Indian leader who established a confederacy that he hoped would be a barrier to white expansion. Tecumseh s Confederacy was allied with the British before and during the War of 1812. Tecumseh s Confederacy was defeated at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811 and the Battle of Thames in 1813 by U.S. forces led by General William Henry Harrison. Hartford Convention (1814) - Meeting of Federalists during the War of 1812 in which anti-war Federalists threatened to secede from the Union. The convention was generally viewed by some as treasonous and the Federalist Party began to die out after the war. Era of Good Feelings Era of Good Feelings (defined) - The period from roughly 1816-1824 characterized by nationalism and one political party control of the United States. The decline of the Federalist Party and the end of the War of 1812 gave rise to a time of political cooperation especially in the economic realm.the Era of Good Feelings is often associated with the two terms of President James Monroe. On the Surface and in Reality - see supporting document for further details Westward Expansion Louisiana Purchase (1803) - The U.S. purchased the Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million, doubling the size of the U.S. and giving the U.S. full control of the Mississippi River. Jefferson struggled with the purchase due to his strict interpretation of the Constitution. Lewis and Clark expedition (1804-1806) - Expedition to explore the Louisiana Territory led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Jefferson handpicked Lewis and Clark and took a deep interest in the discoveries made during their exploration. 6
Economic Expansion and Development (1st Industrial Revolution) Market economy - Economic system based on the unregulated buying and selling of goods and services. Prices are ultimately determined by the forces of supply and demand (refer back to the introduction to economics in Period Three, Part Two) Albert Gallatin - Treasury secretary under Thomas Jefferson who favored limited government and reduced the federal debt by cutting government spending. To a certain extent, this approach was in opposition to Hamilton s Financial Plan. Embargo Act (1807) - In order to pressure Britain and France to accept neutral trading rights and cease interfering with U.S. trade on the high seas, Jefferson issued a government-ordered ban on international trade. The Embargo went into effect in 1808 and closed down virtually all U.S. trade with foreign nations. This act devastated the U.S. economy but in the long term helped facilitate the growth of a manufacturing sector in the economy. American System (1815) - Henry Clay s proposal to make the U.S. economically self-sufficient. The American System called for protective tariffs, internal transportation improvements at federal expense, and the creation of a Second Bank of the United States. (see document for further detail) Erie Canal (1817-1825) - A 350-mile canal built by the state of New York that stretched from Buffalo to Albany. The canal revolutionized shipping in New York. Arguably, the most important of the internal improvements in the country at that time. Turnpikes - a road in which tolls were collected at gates set up along the road (think Beltway 8) - a major part of Clay s American System (internal improvements) National Road aka Cumberland Road (1811) - First significant road built in the U.S. at the expense of the federal government. The road stretched from the Potomac River to the Ohio River. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (1828) - First steam railroad commissioned in the U.S. - railroads ultimately became the primary mode of transportation fueling the U.S. economy but not until the late 1800s. Samuel Slater - Known as the Father of the American Industrial Revolution, Slater brought British textile technology to the United States and established the first fully functioning factory system. - also known as the Father of the American Factory System Cyrus McCormick - Developed the mechanical reaper in 1831, a machine that revolutionized farming by increasing crop yields and decreasing the number of field hands needed for the harvest (workers are greatest expense) John Deere - Invented the steel plow in 1837, which revolutionized farming, The steel plow broke up soil without the soil getting stuck to the plow (as happened with older wooden plows). - the steel plow will be critical to agricultural production as the country continued to expand west. 7
Lowell system - A method of factory management that evolved in the textile mills of Lowell, Massachusetts, which were owned by the Boston Manufacturing Company and named in honor of the company s founder, Francis Lowell. The Lowell system was the first example of a planned automated factory. Lowell s mills set precedent for future textile mills. (see reading for further details) Eli Whitney Other Notable Items Cotton Gin (1793) - a machine that increased the speed at which seeds could be separated from cotton thus increasing the demand for cotton grown in the field thus increasing the need for slaves to work the cotton fields - contributes to the development of King Cotton in the American south prior to the Civil War Interchangeable parts - Parts that were identical to one another and which could be substituted in the event of malfunction. Developed initially for the manufacturing of muskets. - contributes to the development of the mass production of goods Elections of 1800 and 1824 - the only two elections in U.S. History to be decided by the House of Representatives when no candidate received the simple majority of Electoral votes - (see notes and readings for further details) Election of 1828 ( Revolution of 1828 ) - Andrew Jackson s election to the Presidency was symbolic of the Rise of the Common Man and a shift of the political center in the country from the Northeast to the West - (see notes and readings for further details) Antebellum - literally translated, the term Antebellum means before war but in U.S. history it means before the Civil War - a term used to describe an era in United States history from roughly 1815-1860 - the word Antebellum must serve as context to this time period regardless of what it is used to describe (Antebellum south, Antebellum economy, Antebellum women, and so on.) Period Four, Part Two (Periodization, Contextualization, Misc.) space intentionally left blank 8
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Supporting Evidence for Significant Topics (Period 4, Part Two) Significant Individuals Elections John Quincy Adams - Minister/Ambassador to multiple foreign countries - U.S. Senator from Massachusetts - Secretary of State under President Monroe (formulated the policy that became known as the Monroe Doctrine) - President (1825-1829) - served in the House of Representatives (1830-1848) John C. Calhoun - one of the original War Hawks elected to the House of Representatives in 1810 - served as Secretary of War, Secretary of State, U.S. Senator, and Vice President - South Carolina political leader who defended slavery and advocated the doctrine of nullification, a policy in which a state could nullify a federal law. - a Democrat and eventually a member of the Whig Party from the south Daniel Webster - served in the House of Representatives, the U.S. Senate, and as Secretary of State - Massachusetts political leader who advocated a strong Union of states and thought the doctrine of nullification was a threat to the preservation of the Union. - a Federalist and eventually a member of the Whig Party from the northeast Henry Clay - one of the original War Hawks elected to the House of Representatives in 1810 - served as Secretary of State and U.S. Senator - established an economic system known as the American System in the years following the War of 1812 - Political leader from Kentucky and leading member of the Whig Party who worked to keep the Union together through a series of compromises. - earned the nickname The Great Compromiser Andrew Jackson - served in the U.S. House of Representatives (1796-1797) - served as a U.S. Senator (1797-1798, 1823-1825) - Justice on Tennessee Supreme Court (1798-1804) - gained national fame for his defeat of the British at the Battle of New Orleans at the end of the War of 1812 - led U.S. forces during the First Seminole War in Florida (1817-1818) - President (1829-1837) Nicholas Biddle - served as President of the 2nd Bank of the United States - he and Andrew Jackson had both a personal and professional conflict that, in part, led to The Bank War Election of 1824 aka the Corrupt Bargain - see readings and in class election activity for Period 4, Part One Election of 1828 aka the Revolution of 1828 - see readings and in class election activity for Period 4, Part One 10
Democrats - evolution of Jefferson s Democratic-Republican party - Political party that brought Andrew Jackson into office in 1829 - Democrats supported Jeffersonian ideas of limited government, drawing its support from the common man. Whig Party - Political Party created in 1834 as a coalition of anti-jackson political leaders - members were very diverse with support coming from the north, south, and west - the glue that held the Whig Party together was their hatred of Andrew Jackson - many internal divisions existed within the party and eventually the party disintegrated over the issue of slavery in 1852 Election of 1840 - considered the first modern election in the history of the country - see supporting document for further details Nullification Crisis Bank War Tariff of 1828 aka Tariff of Abominations - A tariff with such high rates that it created tension between northerners and southerners - the tariff issue was one of many contentious issues that created divisions between the north and south culminating in a Civil War South Carolina Exposition - secretly written by Vice President John C. Calhoun - argued that South Carolina should nullify the Tariff of 1828 (essentially a defense of states rights) - the theory of nullification was originally based upon Jefferson and Madison s Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions which were originally based upon Locke s Compact Theory South Carolina Nullification Crisis - After South Carolina declared a federal tariff null and void, President Jackson obtained a Force Bill to use military action against South Carolina to collect the delinquent taxes - The crisis ended with a compromise to lower tariffs over an extended period of time. Second Bank of the United States (1816) - Privately owned bank that operated as both a commercial bank and fiscal agent for the U.S. government. - The Second Bank of the U.S was established in 1816 under a charter that was supposed to last twenty years. Destruction of the Second Bank of the United States (1833) - President Jackson, who thought the Bank of the U.S. represented special interests at the expense of the common man, ordered federal deposits placed in state banks ( pet banks) to deplete the funds of the national bank. Nicholas Biddle - served as President of the 2nd Bank of the United States - he and Andrew Jackson had both a personal and professional conflict that, in part, led to The Bank War 11
Native Americans Indian Removal Act (1830) - Law that provided for the removal of all Indian tribes east of the Mississippi and the purchase of Indian lands for resettlement in the West. Worcester v. Georgia (1832) - A Supreme Court ruling that declared a state did not have the power to enforce laws on lands that were not under state jurisdiction - Chief Justice John Marshall wrote that the state of Georgia did not have the power to remove Indians. Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma) - location of land for the resettlement of Native Americans Trail of Tears - Forced march of the Cherokee people from Georgia to Indian Territory in the winter of 1838. Thousands of Cherokees died. Seminole War (1814-1819) (1835-1842) - The Seminole of Florida opposed removal and resisted U.S. troops in two separate wars 2 nd Great Awakening and Reform Movements Second Great Awakening - An upsurge in religious activity that began around 1800 and was characterized by emotional revival meetings. - The Second Great Awakening led to several reform movements (education, prison/asylum, temperance, abolition, women s rights, etc.) designed to make life better in this world. Charles Finney - Presbyterian minister who is credited with starting the Second Great Awakening and is known as the Father of Modern Revivalism. - Finney advocated the abolition of slavery and equal education for women and African Americans. Prison/Asylum Reform (Dorothea Dix) - Pioneer in the movement for special treatment of the mentally ill. Education Reform (Horace Mann) - Massachusetts educator who called for publicly funded education for all children. Utopian communities - Idealistic reform movement based on the belief that a perfect society could be created on Earth. - Significant Utopian experiments were established at New Harmony, Indiana, Brook Farm, Massachusetts, and Oneida Community in New York. Temperance/Prohibition - the push for the regulation and in some instances the outlawing of alcohol - Neal Dow of Maine is considered to be the Father of Prohibition Abolition - the struggle for the emancipation of slaves and the outlawing of the institution altogether 12
Women s Rights (Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony) Republican motherhood - A view of womanhood after the American Revolution that stressed the importance of women in raising children with republican virtues such as patriotism and honor Cult of Domesticity (contrast with Republican Motherhood) - a belief that emerged post War of 1812 that a woman s proper role in life was found in domestic pursuits (raising children, taking care of a home, etc.) Seneca Falls Convention (1848) - The first convention in America for women s rights held in Seneca Falls, NY. - leaders at the convention issued a Declaration of Sentiments that called for equality for women Elizabeth Cady Stanton - Advocate of women s rights, including the right to vote, who organized (with Lucretia Mott) the first women s rights convention at Seneca Falls, NY Frances (Franny) Wright - Scottish-born woman who became a vocal advocate as a U.S. citizen for racial equality, equality for women, birth control, and open sexuality Lydia Maria Child - American writer who created novels and domestic manuals that attacked male dominance and white supremacy. She was also an abolitionist, Indian rights activist, and opponent of American expansionism American Culture Neoclassicism - Revival in architecture and art in the late 1700s and early 1800s that was inspired by Greek and Roman models Hudson River School (1825-1875) - The first school of painting in the U.S. that attracted artists who were rebelling against neoclassicism - Hudson River artists painted primarily American landscapes Transcendentalism - Philosophical and literary movement that believed God existed within human beings and nature - Transcendentalists believed intuition was the highest source of knowledge Ralph Waldo Emerson - Philosopher, writer, and poet who became a central figure and leader in the American transcendentalist movement Henry David Thoreau - Writer and naturalist who became America s best known transcendentalist John James Audubon - Naturalist and painter who became well-known for his attempt to document all types of American birds. 13
Westward Expansion Talmadge Amendment (1819) - An amendment to a statehood bill for Missouri that would have banned slavery from Missouri - The amendment created a deadlock in Congress that led to the passage of the Missouri Compromise Missouri Compromise (1820) - Law proposed by Henry Clay admitting Missouri to the U.S. as a slave state and Maine as a free state - The law also banned slavery in the Louisiana Territory north of latitude 36º30 Manifest Destiny - a Belief that the U.S. was destined and ordained by God to expand across the North American continent from coast to coast Annexation of Texas (1845) - Through a joint resolution of Congress, the U.S. annexed and granted statehood to the Republic of Texas, an independent nation that had won its independence from Mexico in 1836 Oregon Treaty (1846) - After years of conflict over ownership of the Pacific Northwest, the U.S. and England established the boundary at the 49º latitude - the treaty caused protests from those that believed that the boundary should be at the 54º latitude Mexican-American War (1846-1848) - War caused by a territorial dispute between the U.S. and Mexico that led to Mexico ceding large amounts of territory to the U.S. Mexican Cession (1848) - The region of the present-day southwestern United States that Mexico ceded to the U.S. in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Economic Crises Panic of 1819 - Financial panic that began when the Second Bank of the U.S. tightened credit and recalled government loans - see supporting document for further details Panic of 1837 - Economic collapse caused primarily by President Jackson s destruction of the Second Bank of the United States. - see supporting document for further details Debates over the tariff and internal improvements - Northerners generally favored higher tariffs and internal improvement at federal expense - Southerners generally opposed higher tariffs and internal improvements at federal expense 14
Other Notable Items Monroe Doctrine - President Monroe s unilateral declaration that the Americas would be closed to any further European colonization - The doctrine also stated that the U.S. would not allow European interference in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. Sectionalism (definition) - the excessive devotion to ones state or region over the country as a whole - one of the leading causes of the Civil War Independent Treasury Bill - passed by Congress in 1840, the government would hold its revenues rather than deposit them in banks, thus keeping the funds away from private corporations such as the Bank of the United States - primarily a result of the Bank War and the Panic of 1837 - the Independent Treasury existed in some fashion from roughly 1840-1920 Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842) - Treaty between the U.S. and Great Britain that established the border between Canada and northeastern Maine 15